B.E.

Civil II/I
Building Construction II (BEG211AR)
Course Tutor: P.S. Marahatta
Chapter#2

2.0. Foundations and Basements

Foundation is the important most part of the building. It is commonly said
that a strong foundation makes strong building in Nepali language. This
perhaps is true in some aspects but people think that the foundation holds the
building. The understanding of holding the building by the foundation is
false as foundation only helps to transfer the superimposed load to the subsoil
without any sort of settlement. Therefore foundation could be defined as a
building element which safely transfers the superimposed load of the
building without any kind of displacement. Once there comes the word
safety, it should be understood that there could be several other problems
than load which make foundation weak. Eventually, foundation should be
made safe in order to reduce the vulnerability of building.
Basement is submerged structures which come in regular contact with the
ground similar like foundation. The wall of such basement is made water-
proof.

2.1. Some common problems with existing foundation

Foundations are in regular contact with the ground which usually is in
extreme conditions. Therefore the physical conditions of the surrounding
affect the foundation in a great extent. There are several such problems which
deteriorate the condition of foundation some of which are to be followed:

2.1.1. Unequal settlements of the underlying subsoil:

Settlement is a common phenomenon in building as the continuous load of
the building while transferred to the subsoil makes the subsoil to be settled
but it is expected to be equal in all respects. If the settlement of the underlying
subsoil is not uniform, the foundation fails and hence the building also settles
in an unequal manner; therefore cracks are seen in the building. This causes
the problem in the stability of building. Unequal settlement of the underlying
subsoil occurs while there is different subsoil under the topsoil. Sometimes, a
rock may come underneath the building closer to the soil having different
pockets. In this case the foundation, which rests over the rock, may stand
firmly whereas the foundation resting over the mentioned pockets may settle.
To avoid such circumstances, careful and proper soil investigation is needed
prior to the design of the building.

2.1.2. Unequal settlements of masonry:

The characteristics of the building materials and the bonding agent may cause
such problems. If the building material used to make the foundation is of
different quality and character, if the bonding agent/ mortar is weak then this
type of problem occur. In such cases, the bonded masonry work fails which
gradually leads towards the complete collapse of building. To avoid such
cases, consistency of material quality is must. During construction care should
be taken. While masonry is being constructed, it should be raised in an equal
level of 1.5 m and left for the next day. This will help for the proper bonding
and hence there could be less chance for unequal settlement of the masonry.
Similarly the mortar used in bonding should be neither stiff nor very lean.
After masonry being constructed, one cannot assure its strength and the equal
settlement if proper curing is not done. Curing is also a vital part to avoid
unequal settlement of masonry.

2.1.3. Horizontal movement of the soil:

There are several types of soil according to their characteristics. One of such
types is black cotton soil which shrinks while dry and swells when wet. This
character leads it to be unsuitable for building construction as it contributes
for the volumetric change during seasonal change. Such volumetric changes
are liable for horizontal movement of the soil. This horizontal movement
forces the foundation to move and cracks are seen in the building. TO avoid
such conditions following steps could be carried out:
A. removal of layer of weak soil
B. filling the soil with granular materials like sand, gravel etc
C. restriction of load to 5.5 tons/sq.m.
D. Pushing the foundation further below from the layer of weak soil

2.1.4. Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture:

Moisture presence in the soil contributes for the maintenance of its original
volume. In some cases, it happens that the soil looses its original moisture and
therefore tends to shrink. Once the soil shrinks, the volume of such soil is
reduced to a large extent and therefore its impact is seen on the foundation.
The vegetation around the building site usually create such problem as trees,
shrubs, bushes absorb the moisture for their survival. Therefore it is not
logical to fell down the tree merely to construct a building. In such cases, it is
wise to construct generally 15m away from tree or any sort of dense
vegetation.

2.1.5. Lateral pressure:

If the foundation has to transfer the load of sloped roof, arch or a cantilever
projection then the later pressure in the foundation occurs. This pressure is
unavoidable. One has to understand that lateral pressure should be limited to
a standard so that it would not be harmful to the foundation. This however is
possible if the design is proper. Therefore while designing the foundation, the
lateral pressure should be calculated properly. This calculation supports for
the safe design. But one should not forget that even the good design fails if it
is not properly constructed. For the proper construction, proper supervision is
also must.
2.1.6. Action of atmosphere:
Atmospheric actions also contribute a lot for deterioration of existing
foundation. The major atmospheric action which affects the foundation is
rainfall. Snowfall, draught are other such atmospheric actions which affect
foundation. If rainfall comes in direct contact to the foundation, it harms so
proper drainage system at the ground level and at the foundation bed level
too. These days, technologies are developed so that such rainwater is collected
at the foundation bed level and pumped out.

2.1.7. Lateral displacement of soil:

In some cases the soil underneath the structure tends to move laterally. This
happens during the earthquake and in the areas closer to the riverside or in
sloppy land. If the site is on the riverbank of in sloppy land, flood and
landslide could sweep the soil and the foundation may be exposed to the
nature. In order to avoid such situation of sweeping, following measures
could be taken:
A. by making retaining walls
B. by making spurs to divert the river
C. by suing river training technology
D. using metal sheet piling
E. using chemical treatment of soil

2.2. Underpinning of foundation of existing building

Underpinning is the method of excavating under the building without
making any harm to the existing foundation. This is helpful to increase the
depth of the foundation and/or to increase the capacity of the foundation in
order to transfer the increased load.

2.2.1. Necessity of underpinning:

Underpinning is necessary if the excessive settlement has occurred due to:
A. uneven loading,
B. unequal settlement of subsoil,
C. Action of subsoil water,
D. Action of tree roots etc.
Similarly, as discussed earlier, if the superimposed load is to be added, the
dimensions of foundation have to be increased; it is prescribed to use the
underpinning technology. Addition of such load could be due to addition of
floors or by the change of function of the building. Increment of the floor
below the ground level or laying the building services under the foundation
may also need underpinning.

2.2.2. The process of underpinning:

Underpinning process is carried out making holes at regular intervals usually
at 1.2-1.8m and the entire load of the wall is transferred to the needles
inserted into the cut holes which rest on the sole pieces or jacks at ground
level. Needles in this case could be of timber rolled steel joist. The load to be
carried out by the needles governs selection of material of needle. In this case
of temporary construction the load is carried out by needles for a short
duration and hence the foundation could be strengthened or further deepen.
A pit for easy workability having comfortable width is provided in this case
with a required depth along the length of the wall. When the foundation of a
wall is to be replaced only 90 to 120cm longer part is cut and the new
construction work is carried out. This process is continued until the entire job
is completed. This is how the entire foundation could be replaced. When
longer walls are to be underpinned, the work starts from the central part of
the wall and is gradually expanded towards both the ends. The temporary
construction is prescribed to be removed after setting up the newly
constructed structure is finally set with full strength and there is no danger of
further damages.

2.2.3. The sequential stages of underpinning:

Underpinning operation can be carried out in the following stages:
i. Stage 1: suitable holes are driven through the walls for inserting the
needle beams, one end of which is resting on the wooding block resting
on a small concrete block and the longer end is left largely
unsupported for a small temporary support near the wall on the side.
ii. Stage 2: Excavation is carried out under the unsupported end of needle
beams to the desired depth and the sides are held in place by adequate
timbering. The unsupported needle beam is supported by a wooden
post which rests on a concrete block. The temporary support provided
to support the longer end is removed.
iii. Stage 3: Excavation trench is widened so that the trench goes under the
foundation to be underpinned. The offsets of the existing foundation
are cut off.
iv. Stage 4: The new foundation is laid and a new wall is built up to the
underside of the old foundation.

2.3. Shoring of existing building during foundation strengthening

Shoring is one of the types of temporary construction works that is basically
provided to support the unsafe structure preventing it from falling down.
This not only supports the ill structure but also contributes in the avoidance
of danger to any person from its collapse. Following are the situations where
shoring is prescribed:
i. if the wall is bulging, leaning and unstable due to subsidence;
ii. if basement is being constructed and impact is felt to the nearby sound
walls;
iii. if the wall is being demolished and the adjacent walls to be protected,
iv. if the lower wall is to be punctured for large openings;
v. if the supporting wall is to be removed and replaced by beam;
Structural softwood is recommended for shoring members but these days
steel has replaced them at large.

Shoring is classified into three types according to the characteristics:

a. Dead shores
b. Raking shores
c. Flying shores
Each of the mentioned types owns its typical function to perform and is based
upon the principles of perfectly symmetrical situation therefore skilled
workmanship is must. It is therefore a risky job to be performed to avoid
accidents.

2.3.1. Dead Shores

This system of shoring is prescribed to render vertical support to walls, roofs
and floors. If the lower part of the wall is to be removed or punctured, this
type of shoring is recommended. In this system the shores support the dead
load which acts vertically downwards. The simplest type of dead shore
consists of beam or needle, head plate, shore legs and adjustments. In the
process of supporting the dead load of the wall, the beam or the needle is
injected into the wall and thereafter the shore legs support the both end of the
needle. Hence the load from the wall is transmitted to the sore legs through
beam or the needle; therefore the shore legs are to be rested on a solid bearing
surface. Needles are placed at the distance calculated on the basis of the load
to be carried out which usually are equal to 1.2 –1.8m c/c. Hence shores are
also provided at the regular intervals similar to the needles. Therefore to
prevent the vertical props or shores from lateral displacement, sleepers and
bracings are also provided. In such types of shoring, a regular distance
between the wall and the shores are must to provide the working space to the
workers. In order to prevent displacement of door/ windows frame during
dismantling the wall, only shoring wouldn’t contribute therefore struts are to
be provided. This is similar to the floors therefore floor props are also are
recommended. (See figures)

2.3.2. Raking shores

Raking shores are recommended in such type of construction when the
modification in the adjoining walls is to be performed.
In this type of shoring, the load from the wall and the floors are transmitted to
the ground by the means of sloping struts or rakers. Careful and high
supervisory is recommended when this process is carried out, as this has to
transfer the maximum load from wall and the floors to the ground. The
ground on which the load is being transmitted should be arranged in an
inclined base in order to create a safe base called as platform made of 200X100
mm timbers. The centerline of the wall or floor bearing and the centerline of
the rakers are to be intersected in such a way that the load could be
transmitted without any complications. In this type one raker for each floor is
required and the inclination of the rakers must be in between 40° to 70° to the
horizontal. Only one raker not ever times support the structure therefore
usually three rakers are arranged in this type. If the building is four or more
storied then additional supporting members called as riders are provided.
In the process of this type of shoring, a wall plate of 230mm X 50 to 76mm is
provided with the help of hooks adjacent to the wall. The rakers rest on wall
plate and wedged with the help of needles and further strengthened by cleat.
Therefore when the use of shoring is completed, they can be easily removed.
(See figures)

2.3.3. Flying shores

These shores are similar to raking shores but are more advantageous as a
clear working space is provided in this type. If the building is being
demolished in the urban streets where buildings are standing in a row, this
type of shoring is applicable as to support the walls of the adjoining
buildings. They can be used between any parallel wall surfaces within the
span of maximum 12m. The span if is minimal to 9m a single horizontal shore
is used whereas if the span is more then two horizontal shores are provided.
The flying shores consist of wall plates, needles, cleats, horizontal shores and
inclined struts. I n this system of shoring, arrangement of wall plates is similar
to raking shores whereas the load in this system is carried out by the adjacent
walls which are transmitted through the horizontal members called shores
wedged to the wall plates. To ensure the strength of the horizontal member,
straining sill is provided. This sill not only adds the strength to the horizontal
shore, rather will contribute against the lateral movement of the horizontal
struts. (See figures)

2.4. Retaining properties and water-proofing of basements

Submerged structure or substructure is always in direct contact of water,
therefore water proofing is must.
The building must be free from moisture because moisture as damp hampers
the building in a large extent.
If the building is consisting of basement floor, then special treatment for such
floors is required in order to prevent the building from dampness. In such
case, the occurrence of dampness is all around the building base i.e. floor and
wall along four sides as they all come in contact with the moist ground.
Therefore, special wall construction is prescribed. This is similar to the
construction of water tank where the wall of basement acts as wall of water
tank and prevents the building from moisture penetration. For the purpose,
two layers of wall are constructed with a film of asphalt in between. Asphalt
film is water proofing agent and restricts the moisture travel towards the
inner skin of the wall. This is how the internal wall is protected from the
attack of moisture and the building is considerably safe. Similarly a proper
drainage system around the basement floor may also contribute for the
restriction of dampness. It is done laying the drain pipes where the water
particles are collected and drained out in a comfortable area or pumped up
and let out.
2.5. Sealing of cracks in basement
The first and foremost thing to remember in building construction is to get rid
of cracks wherever it is. But eventually if it is seen, then immediate action
against it should be taken. Basically, cracks if seen on the basement might be
harmful the entire building because:
i. There could be the threat of moisture travel
ii. There could be threat of building collapse

In such cases of cracks, proper investigation is to be carried out. After the

investigation, the reasons for such cracks are opened up. If the reason of such
cracks is ordinary (i.e. weakness of material, failure of bonding materials etc.)
and of smaller magnitude, then such cracks could be sealed with the help of
water proofing materials. Otherwise, major interventions are to be carried
out.
2.5.1. Process of sealing the cracks
If the cracks are seen on the basement and are of ordinary nature, sealing
could be done. Following is the process:
i. the crack is widened up to a moderate gap
ii. the adjacent surface is chiseled
iii. mortar with water proofing materials is inserted into the gap
iv. the mortar is left to set and properly cured