BILKENT UNIVERSITY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ME 211: THERMO-FLUIDS ENGINEERING I

CH 2. THE FIRST LAW

Textbook: Introduction to Thermal and Fluids Engineering

D. A. Kaminski and M. K. Jensen

 2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

• principle of conservation of energy 1st Law of Thermodynamics

(no nuclear reaction, no relativistic effects)

• vital to understanding an enormous range of processes

• this chapter, only closed systems will be considered (no mass entering or leaving)

• open systems → Ch. 4

2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

change in energy energy

energy entering leaving
 2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

E has three components:

potential energy
due to the elevation of the
internal energy
system in a gravitational
• energy stored at a molecular or atomic level
field
• no simple expression
• For single-phase materials (i.e. solids, liquids, gases), kinetic energy
U depends primarily on T due to the velocity of
• U is also stored in chemical bonds and in attractive the system
forces between the molecules of solids and liquids

heat transfer to the system work done by the system

heat transfer from the system work done on the system

POWER PLANT NOTATION
2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

What about the pressure variation

during the process?
It is a constant P process
 2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

Alternatively;

initial incoming energy final outgoing energy

energy energy

Read Example 2.1

 2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

(i) Final position if there is no friction and aerodynamic drag (no pedaling)?

no pedaling, no overcoming
no friction no friction air resistance
no change in T no heat transfer
2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

(ii) Final position, friction and aerodynamic drag (no pedaling)?

T ,

daily life experience !!!

 2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

(iii) Final position is z2 = z1, friction and aerodynamic drag, pedaling for short time. Analyze!

internal energy increase due to friction in the tires, wheel bearings

and drive train components
2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

internal energy increase from the chemical reaction, which causes a

rise in the rider’s body temperature (muscular energy)
internal energy reduction due to chemical reaction (the products of
reaction have less energy than the reactants) (glucose is burned in
the body).
heat leaving the surface of the bicycle from parts heated by friction

heat leaving the rider’s body

work done in overcoming air resistance

work done by the tires against the pavement

What happens to the work done by the feet on the paddle?

the transmission of power from the chain to the gears?
THEY ARE INTERNAL TO THE SYSTEM , DO NOT CROSS THE BOUNDARY!!!
 2.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics

The actual calculation of the heat, work and internal energy terms requires a rather a

broad knowledge of thermo-fluid engineering.

• calculation of drag depends on a knowledge of external flow → Ch. 10 (ME212)

• heat leaving the surface of the bike and the rider requires the information about

conduction and convection heat transfer → Ch. 11, 12 (ME212)

• the reaction within the rider’s body can be analyzed by using the concepts

associated with chemical reactions → ME432

The first law is a very powerful tool in understanding engineering systems.

Read Example 2.2

 The First Law of Thermodynamics

2.2. Heat Transfer → Reading assignment

2.3. Internal Energy

Internal energy is the energy stored within the material.

It can take many forms:

• In a solid, energy is stored in the vibrations of the atoms about their equilibrium position,
also stored in the interatomic and/or intermolecular bonds,
vibrations , T

• In a gas, translational motion of molecules

rotation
vibration
electronic configuration
 2.4. Specific Heat of Ideal Liquids and Solids

We can write an equality, if we introduce a proportionality constant → specific heat

this is true for ideal liquids and solids (incompressible)

Most liquids and solids can be considered incompressible for ordinary ranges of T & P.

(i) c(T) is constant

(ii) If c(T) is known, evaluate the integral constant.

 2.4. Specific Heat of Ideal Liquids and Solids

(iii) In many cases, an equation for c(T) may not be available. As an approximation, an
average value can be used.

• The equation above will be exact if specific heat varies linearly with T.

• The unit of specific heat is [J/kg K]

• Specific heat is one of many useful quantities in thermal-fluid engineering that is

determined by experimental measurement.

• The data are tabulated for common engineering materials.

Read Example 2.3

 2.5. Fundamental Properties

(i) Density: mass per unit volume,

• choose a volume, measure the mass average density over the total volume
• for many applications, assuming an average or constant density is sufficient
• in some cases density changes locally
• to allow spatial variation,

➢ this allows us to specify the density at a point

QUESTION: How small ε ?

Let’s discuss little bit about atomic level of fluids.
• In atomic level: solids, liquids and gases are composed of atoms which are in motion
• So, in microscopic world, how can we differentiate state of the matter?
Key point: Molecular spacing and intermolecular forces
 2.5. Fundamental Properties

Potential Analytical expressions are available for

Energy the functional form of the potential
energy
: equilibrium Lennard-Jones Potential
position Molecular
Spacing

Form of the potential function, and the

empirical constants will change for
different materials and for different states

QUESTION: Why don’t we model materials’ behavior by studying the motion of individual
atoms?
1 mole of substance has (Avagadro’s #)

More specifically, air at standard conditions

ANSWER: HUGE NUMBER OF ATOMS, IMPRATICAL (IMPOSSIBLE) to simulate
 2.5. Fundamental Properties

• To describe the behavior of the fluid, we use average (or macroscopic) value of
quantities of interest where the average is evaluated over a small volume containing
a large # of molecules.
• WE TREAT FLUID as a CONTINUUM

mathematically true
once the continuum is satisfied
99% of the engineering
applications can be treated as
physical picture continuum.

ε
QUESTION: How small ε ?
ANSWER: εmust be larger than microscopic lengths, smaller than macroscopic lengths.
As long as continuum assumption is satisfied, ε can be chosen as small as one wish
 2.5. Fundamental Properties

(ii) Pressure
• On a macroscopic level, pressure is something we feel as a force acting on our bodies.
• On a molecular level, pressure results from the combined motion of many molecules.
• Consider a tank with full of gas molecules. Each molecule strikes the wall and bounce
back and transfer some momentum to the wall. The integrated effect of all collisions of the
molecules against the wall is observed macroscopically as the pressure.
 2.5. Fundamental Properties

• Like density, with continuum assumption, one can define pressure as a function that
varies continuously a gas or liquid.
• The force in this definition is due to the motion of the molecules, this motion has no
preferred direction → pressure in a fluid is independent of direction.
• It is a scalar quantity, rather than a vector quantity.
• Numerous devices and techniques are used in its measurement (manometer,
barometer, piezoelectric material, McLeod gauges etc.)

➢ absolute pressure → relative to absolute zero

➢ gage pressure → relative to atmospheric pressure
1
Pgage,1 Local atmospheric
pressure
Pabs,1 Pgage,2
2
Pabs,2
absolute zero
 2.5. Fundamental Properties

(iii) Temperature
• To quantify how “hot” or “cold” a substance is temperature (as a thermodynamic
property) is used.
• A mercury thermometer is used to measure T.
• in used as units of T

relative absolute
scales scales
reference
is water

• From molecular point of view, T is the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
 2.5. Fundamental Properties

• It is important to have a very clear idea of the distinction among T, heat and U!

Consider compression of a gas in a well-insulated piston-cylinder assembly.

Process is adiabatic (no heat is added or removed)
Although no heat is added, T rises due to the compression as work is converted into U.
Both T and U , but heat transfer is zero.

Consider heating of a glass of water containing ice cubes.

As heat is added, the ice cubes begin to melt.
Process is isothermal (T does not change during the process)
Bonds between the molecules in the ice crystals are broken during melting, U .
Heat is added, U and T is constant.

Wake up in the morning, stand on a carpet

stand on a ceramic tile floor
carpet will feel “warmer”, however both are at same T!
difference is the rate of heat transfer. The foot contacting the tile cools quickly, and
thus, the tile seems cooler.
 2.6. Ideal Gases

Gases with some certain property

Macroscopic: high T, low P (high school definition)
?? ??
relative to the critical T and critical P of a substance (characteristic property)

Microscopic: Gas molecules travel freely without feeling any interatomic forces.
(straight molecular path vs curved molecular paths)

Equation of state for ideal gases (Ideal gas law)

universal gas constant gas constant

specific volume
UNITS ARE IMPORTANT!!!
 2.6. Ideal Gases
Read Example 2.4
Example 2.5

from Table A-10

 2.8. Work
(Read Section 2.7)

• The first law relates WORK, HEAT and changes in STORED ENERGY
• The work can be shaft work
expansion work
electrical work

OR
Inexact differential (W is path dependent!)
Compression or expansion work

• when a gas expands or is compressed, WORK IS DONE!

• the force on the piston is related to the pressure of the gas
• We assume the gas is in equilibrium.
• Equilibrium implies a state in which there are no imbalances in forces , T, P, phase or
chemical composition, that is all properties are uniform throughout the volume of the
gas.
 2.8. Work: Compression or expansion work

• In equilibrium, P is the same at every location in the gas, and there is no driving force
causing the gas to flow.
• Now, imagine heat is transferred to the system and the piston rises.
• The pressure in the cylinder is due to the collision of molecules with the surface of the
piston.
• As the piston moves, these molecules must adjust to a new equilibrium state with the
new position of the piston.
• If the piston moves slowly compared to the speed of the molecules, the molecular
adjustment takes place very rapidly and the expansion process can be imagined as a
succession of equilibrium states →QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS

2 2
Remove Remove
Mass the mass the mass
1 1 1-by-1

GAS GAS

REAL PROCESS QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS

 2.8. Work: Compression or expansion work

• For an quasi-equilibrium process, the force on the piston can be related to the
pressure of the gas.

In an actual expansion or compression process area under the P-V curve

P • in some cases where lack of the
Real data
Curve fit required pressure-volume
relationship keeps us from
evaluating the work from the
equation, we can determine work
from an energy balance
alternatively.
V • an expansion or compression
Estimate the work! process P-V curve can be described
analytically.
One general form:
for the case of an automobile engine, polytropic process is a good model!
 2.8. Work: Electrical & shaft work
Electrical work
• Work is also done in electrical systems.
• Work is done when a electrical current flow over an electrical resistance.

current:
voltage difference

if the voltage and the current is constant over a time interval:

Shaft work
• In many practical situations work is transmitted via rotating shaft.
• Driveshaft of a car and stirring of a fluid by a paddlewheel are two common examples
Read Example 2.7
Read Example 2.8
angular velocity
torque on the shaft
Read Sections 2.9 and 2.10
 2.8. Work - Exercise
Example 2.6
CO2 is slowly heated from an initial temperature of
50oC to a final T of 500oC. The process occurs in
two steps.
 2.11. Specific Heat of Ideal Gases

(i) Consider Case (a)

• If the gas is an ideal gas, then it can be shown experimentally that the internal energy
is only a function of temperature.
• A specific heat can be defined for gases in much the same way as the specific heat was
defined for solids and liquids.

specific heat at constant volume

define internal energy per unit mass:
 2.11. Specific Heat of Ideal Gases

(ii) Consider Case (b)

Assume that the process is slow enough to be quasi-equilibrium:

 2.11. Specific Heat of Ideal Gases

Define enthalpy:

for an ideal gas:

Enthalpy of an ideal gas is only a function of temperature!

for a constant volume process:

for a constant pressure process:

specific heat at constant pressure

However use of cv and cp are not limited to constant volume and constant pressure process !!!
 2.11. Specific Heat of Ideal Gases

define enthalpy per unit mass:

Most of the time this is tabulated

2.11. Specific Heat of Ideal Gases

• Ideal gas specific heats →Table A-8

• Equations as a function of T → Table A-8
• For air h and u values are tabulated → Table A-9

In the case of constant specific heat:

Sometimes for the constant specific heat of air, the value of the specific heat at
room temperature is used →cold air assumption

For ideal liquids and solids (incompressible), a single specific heat is used!
 2.12. Polytropic Process of an Ideal Gas

where n is the polytropic index and is a constant. n may take any value from to

• Another polytropic process is an adiabatic, quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression

of an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
• Although it may seem to be a very special case, it has practical importance in
understanding reciprocating engines, compressors, turbine, nozzles and many other
devices.
 2.12. Polytropic Process of an Ideal Gas

• For this kind of polytropic process, n becomes k

Many useful expressions can be derived for quasi-equilibrium, adiabatic expansion or

compression of an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
 Ch2. Exercises
Read Example 2.9
Example 2.10
Calculate W

(i) assume constant specific heat

(a) Let’s use cv at T=295 K

(b) Let’s use cv at T=701 K

(c) Let’s use cv at T=498 K

 Ch2. Exercises

Example 2.10

(ii) assume variable specific heat

From Table A-9:

Read Examples 2.11, 2.12 and 2.13