TCDAN NVS 2022 Theory of Translation (Course)

CTU – English Department
CAN THO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE &CULTURES
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TRANSLATION THEORY
COURSE PACKET
September 2022
Translation Theory
1
Compiled by Nguyen Van Sau, M.Ed, and Thai Cong Dan, PhD.
CAN THO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE &CULTURES
---------------------
TRANSLATION THEORY
COURSE PACKET
Compiled by Nguyễn Văn Sáu

Instructed by Thái Công Dân
Acknowledgements: The compilers would like to appreciate all of these sources

from the authors admired and respected to make this course packet a useful
teaching and learning material.
September 2022
Table of Contents
Translation Theory
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Contents Page
Chapter 1: Views on Translation 4-14
Chapter 2: Kinds of Translation 15-21
Chapter 3: Steps in a Translation Project 22-28
Chapter 4: Meanings in Translation 29-38

Chapter 5: Types of Language and Transformation Translation 39-49
Chapter 6: Problems Related to Translation 50-64
Chapter 7: Strategies for Translators 65-71
References 72
Appendix A: Video clips for Translation Practice 73
Appendix B: E-readings for Translation Practice 74
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Chapter 1 VIEWS ON TRANSLATION

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Objectives: By the end of this chapter, the learners will be able to
- get to know the definitions of translation
- distinguish between translation and interpretation
- understand approaches to translation, principles of translation
and characteristics of a good translator
- and join a class discussion about the above-mentioned issues
I. Introduction
This chapter is concerned with translation and, in particular, with proposing a new
orientation to the study of translation. Translation, as we all know, is an activity of
enormous importance in our modern world. Nowadays, translation has become a
profession. It consists of staff translators, freelancers, contract translators, terminologists,
and pre- and post – editors in machine translation. The format of translation has partly
moved away from books to reports, contracts, brochures, journals and magazines,
instructions and advertisements; its topics range from literature to every type of
information with great emphasis to science and technology.
o Translation has been given greater prominence as a consequence of a number of
international developments. These include the increase in the number of international
organizations, the recognition of minority language groups in most countries in the
world; world-wide trade and international trade.
o Translation has been the subject of interest not only to linguists, professional and
amateur translators, and language teachers but also to electronic engineers and
mathematicians. A great number of books and articles have been written about this
area of human knowledge. However, “What is translation?” is still a question that
needs putting into account.
II. What is Translation?
1. Definition
Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form
to another, to turn into one’s own or another’s language.
FORM versus MEANING
Translation is the process in which a written communication or a text in a first

language is produced as the written communication or text in the second language
interpreting the same meaning.
 The form from which the translation is made will be called the SOURCE
LANGUAGE.
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 The form into which it is to be changed will be called the TARGET

(RECEPTOR) LANGUAGE.
In other words, translation is the transfer of meaning from one language to another
language. That is, translation is the expression in another language (target language) of
what has been expressed in another (source) language, preserving semantic and stylistic
equivalences.
However, languages are different from each other; they are different in form
having different codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of
language and these forms have different meanings.
To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to change the forms. Also,
the contrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally; there is
no absolute synonym between words in the same language, why should anyone be
surprised to discover a lack synonym between languages.
Faced by a text in a language, we are able to work out not only the meaning of each word
and sentence but also its communicative value, its place in time and space and information
about the participants involved in its production and reception. We might take, as a light-
hearted model of the questions we can ask of the text:
 What? is the message contained in the text; the content of the signal.
 Why? orients us towards the intention of the sender, the purpose for which the
text was is used. (Informing, persuading, flattering, etc.)
 When? is concerned with the time of communication realized in the text and
setting in its historical context; contemporary or set in the recent or remote past or
future.
 Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of

the speech event realized in the text.
 How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way.
 Who? refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and
receiver.
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Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure,

communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in
order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the
lexicon, grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its
cultural context.
2. Characteristics of language which affect translation
There are certain characteristics of languages which have a very direct bearing on
principles of translation.
 Meaning components are packaged into lexical items, but they are packaged
differently in one language than in another. In most languages there is a meaning
of plurality, for example the English -s. This often occurs in the grammar as a
suffix on the nouns or verbs or both. In Vietnamese, however, plurality is
expressed in an isolated word ‘những/các’. Many times a single word in the source
language will need to be translated by several words. For example, a projector was
called the thing that shows pictures on the wall by the Chipara Bolivia.
 The same meaning component will occur in several surface structure lexical
items. In English, the word ‘sheep’ occurs. However, the words ‘lamb’,’ ram’ and
‘ewe’ also include the meaning ‘sheep’. They include the addition meaning
components of young (in ‘lamb’, adult and male in ‘ram’ and adult and female in
‘ewe’. In Peru, ‘lamb’ would need to be translated by ‘sheep its child’, ‘ram’ by
‘sheep big’ and ‘ewe’ by ‘sheep its woman’.
 One form will be used to represent several alternative meanings. This again is
obvious from looking in any good dictionary.
Ex:
- The boy runs.
- The river runs.
- The motor runs.
- His nose runs.
- He runs the company.
 The same grammatical pattern may express several quite different meanings.
Ex: ‘My house’ may mean ‘the house I built’, ‘the house I rent’, ‘the house I live
in’, or the house for which I drew up in my plans.’
Car → ownership
Brother → kinship
Foot → part-whole
My singing → action
Book → ownership or authorship
Village → residence (the village where I live)
Train → use (the train I ride on)
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 Whole sentences may also have several functions.
Examples:
Asking for
information
- Mary, why don’t you wash the dishes? →
Commanding /
suggesting
 He made (as a carpenter) the bed.
- He made the bed.
 He puts the sheets, blanket and pillows in
neat order on the bed.
 Just as words have primary and secondary meanings.
Examples:
 The preposition ‘on’ is used in English to signal a variety of meanings.
- John found the book on the floor. → John tìm thấy cuốn sách trên sàn
nhà.
- John found the book on mathematics. → John tìm thấy cuốn sách viết về môn
toán.
- John found the book on Tuesday. → John tìm thấy cuốn sách vào thứ Ba.
- John found the book on sale. →John tìm thấy cuốn sách đang
bày bán.
 The uses of ‘by’.
- John was stopped by the policeman.
- John was stopped by the bookstand.
 A single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms.
Examples:
- The black cat

- The cat is black
- The cat, which is black
- May I sit here?
- Is this place taken?
- Is this seat free?
- Is there anyone sitting here?
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- Others blamed John because of the difficulty.

- Others blamed John for the difficulty.
- Others blamed the difficulty on John.
- Others said John was responsible for the difficulty.
- Others accused John of being responsible for the difficulty.
We have seen that even within a single language there are a great variety of ways
in which form expresses meaning. Only when a form being used in its primary meaning or
function is there a one-to-one correlation between form and meaning. The other meanings
are secondary meanings or figurative meanings. Words have these extended meanings and
in the same way grammatical forms have extended usages (secondary and figurative
function).
This characteristic of “skewing”; that is, the diversity or the lack of one-to-one
correlation between form and meaning is the basic reason that translation is a complicated
task. If there were no skewing, then all lexical items and all grammatical forms would
have only one meaning and a literal word-for-word and grammatical structure-for-
grammatical structure translation would be possible. But the fact is that a language is a
complex set of skewed relationship between meaning (semantics) and form (lexicon and
grammar). Each language has its own distinctive forms for representing the meaning.
Therefore, in translation the same meaning may have to be expressed in another language
by a very different form.
3. Translation versus Interpretation

 Translation is concerned with the written conversion of a text from one language
(source language) into another language (target or receptor language). A translator
therefore is a person who writes or transcribes the message from the source language
to the target language.
 Interpreting is the oral rendering (representing) of the meaning of the spoken word
from one language into another language. An interpreter therefore is a person who
orally renders the message of the source language into the target language. In the case
of sign language, interpreters render the meaning of the spoken word by signing or
rendering the meaning of sign language into the spoken words. There are several types
of interpreting:
 Simultaneous: The interpreter starts to translate before the speaker has finished
his/her utterance. Most often used at large events such as conferences and carried
out by panels of at least two interpreters using special equipment. As this type of
work is particularly tiring and stressful, the rule of thumb is that an interpreter
should be able to take a break after 45 minutes of continuous work.
 Liaison: A generic name for business interpreting; also just interpreting for
trade conventions and other general business situations. Usually refers to the
activities of a single interpreter who accompanies an individual or delegation
around.
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 Consecutive: The interpreter starts to translate only after the speaker has
finished his/her utterance. Often used at smaller conferences etc., generally used in
courtroom settings, speeches. Just one interpreter is often enough.
4. Translation: Process and Product
Translation is the process to transfer written or spoken source language (SL) texts
to equivalent written or spoken target language (TL) texts. The basic purpose of
translation is to reproduce various types of texts, comprising literary, religious, scientific,
philosophical texts etc. in another language and thus making them available to wider
readers, to a greater number of target audiences and to bring the world closer. There are
three distinguishable meanings for the word translation:
 Translating: the process (to translate; the activity rather than the tangible
object);
 A translation: the product of the process of translating (i.e. the translated text);
 Translation: the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of
translating and the product of that process.
5. Approaches to Translation
There are two approaches to translation:
 Formal equivalence: Formal equivalence implies word for word
translation or literal translation. It translates not only the exact appearance of
vocabulary but also the idioms and grammatical structure used in the original. This
creates a problem because idioms are expressions that have meaning which is quite
different from the actual meaning of the words used in the idiom. The drawback of
formal equivalence is that idioms or phrases can mislead or confuse the reader.
 Dynamic equivalence: Dynamic equivalence, also referred to as functional
equivalence, implies the essential thought expressed in the source text. This
includes, if necessary, literality, original meaning and word order, the text's active
vs. passive voice, etc. It is not following a word- for- word translation but
changing, adding, or subtracting from the original text to make it look as the
translator sees fit.
6. Principles of Translation
 The translation should make sense.
 The translation should display the spirit and manner of the original.
 The translated document has a natural and easy form of expression.
 The translated document produces a similar response.
 Equivalences in both languages
 A right choice of words - appropriate register
 Avoid literal translation
III. What is a Translator?
1. Definition
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A translator is a ‘bilingual mediating agent between monolingual communication

participants in two different language communities’, i.e., the translator decodes messages
transmitted in one language and re-encodes them in another.
2. Characteristics of a good translator
 The Translator: Knowledge and Skills
The translator, as a communicator, must possess the knowledge and skills (in two
languages) that are common to all communicators. That is, the translator must know:
(1) Semantic knowledge (how propositions are structured.)
(2) Syntactic knowledge (how clauses can be synthesized to carry
propositional content and analyzed to retrieve the content embedded in
them.) and
(3) Pragmatic knowledge (how the clauses can be realized as information-
bearing text and the text decomposed into the clause.)
 Ideal Bilingual Competence
The competence of the ‘ideal translator’ or ‘ideal bilingual’ means that s/he knows
both languages perfectly and is not unaffected by such theoretically irrelevant conditions
as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention or interest, and errors in applying
this knowledge in actual performance.
 Expertise
This refers to the approach based on inferences drawn from the observation of
translator performance consists of two basic components:
(1) A knowledge base consisting of:
o source language knowledge; the syntactic rule systems of the code, its
lexicon and semantics and its text-creating systems,
o target language knowledge; equivalent to that in the source language,
o text-type knowledge
o domain knowledge specific field (econmic,..)
o contrastive knowledge of each of the above
(2) An inference mechanism which permits:
o The decoding of texts, i.e. reading and comprehending source language
texts
o The encoding of texts, i.e. writing target language texts
 Communicative Competence
(1) Grammatical competence: knowledge of the rules of the code, including
vocabulary and word-formation, pronunciation/spelling and sentence
structure.
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(2) Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge of and ability to produce and

understand utterances appropriately in context, i.e. as constrained by topic,
the status of the participants, purposes of the interaction, etc.
(3) Discourse competence: the ability to combine form and meaning to
achieve unified spoken and written texts in different genres. This unity
depends on cohesion in form (the way in which utterances are linked
structurally to facilitate interpretation of text) and coherence in meaning
(the relationships among the different meanings in a text, literal meanings,
communicative functions or social meanings).
(4) Strategic competence: the mastery of communication strategies which may
be used to improved communication or to compensate for breakdowns
(caused by limiting factors in actual communication or to insufficient
competence in one or more of the other components of communicative
competence).
 Memory, Meaning and Language
The translator, like any other communicator, lives in the world of the senses
through which perceptions are integrated as concepts, experiences can be ‘recalled’ and
even ‘relived’ through the systems of memory.
o Sensation: the act of receiving stimuli from the outside world through the
senses.
o Perception: the organization of these impressions into an endlessly varied
but stable and consistent world with agreed dimensions of space and time.
 The Communication Process
The translator is by definition a communicator who is involved in written
communication. Below is the process of written communication in which translators are
involved.
(1) The sender selects message and code
(2) Encodes message
(3) Selects channel
(4) Transmits signal containing message
(5) Receiver receives signal containing message
(6) Recognizes code
(7) Decodes signal
(8) Retrieves message and comprehends message
 The Translation Process
The translation processes implies an entire process of how a translator produces
equivalences from a text (portions of a text) into another language. The translation process
can be described as:
 Comprehension of source text
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a. parsing the text (grammar and lexis)

b. access to specialized knowledge
c. access to intended meaning
 Transfer of meaning
d. relaying lexical meaning
e. relaying grammatical meaning
f. relaying rhetorical meaning, including applied or inferable meaning for
potential readers
 Assessment of target text
g. readability
h. conforming to generic and discoursal target language convention
i. judging adequacy of translation for specific purpose
In other words, the translation process can be briefly described as:
 Decoding the meaning of the source language text (The analysis of the
source language text-decomposition) and
 Re-encoding or translating this meaning in the target language (The
synthesis of that semantic representation into the target text-recomposition)
M
Memory
Source e
Language Analysis m
Text o
r
Semantic y
Prepresentation
Target
Synthesis Language
text
IV. Perspectives on translation

The following quotes taken from different sources provide an overview of the range of
diversity of opinions on the concept of translation:
o Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source
language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).
(Catford: 1965)
o Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a
representation of another equivalent text in a second language. (Hartmann &
Stock: 1972)
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o Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has

been expressed in another (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic
equivalences. (Dubois: 1973)
o Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalent of the source language message, firstly in terms of meaning and
secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber: 1974)
o Translation is a procedure which leads from a written SL text to an optimally
equivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, semantic, stylist and text
pragmatic comprehension by the translator of the original text. (Wilss: 1982)
o Translation, as the process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural
barriers, is an eminently communicative activity, one whose use could well be
considered in a wider range or teaching situations that may currently be the case.
(Tudor, cited in Duff: 1989)
o Translating is a communicative process which takes place within a social
context. (Hatim & Mason: 1990)
o Translating is the transformation of a text originally in one language into an
equivalent text in a different language retaining, as far as possible, the content of
the message, and the formal features and the roles of the original text. (Bell:
1991)
Summary
In this chapter, we have overlooked at the significance of translation in reality and
we have discussed a number of translation theories as developed by various translation
scholars in Europe and North America. First, we started an eminent Bible translation and
finished with the theory drawn on various insights from modern linguistics, psychology,
pragmatics, text-linguistics, and communication theory. Up to this point, it is necessary to
bring all the theories together to establish a kind of starting point and a theoretical
framework for that chapter that follows.
Discussion
Give your comments on one of the following issues.
1. Context and co-text are important factors in determining not only the meaning of
the source language text but also the structural arrangement or the target language
text.
2. Meaning is the key issue in translation.
3. Depending on the type of text, the ultimate goal of translation can be
communicative or idiomatic (semantic).
4. Grammatical analysis of the source language text is important.
5. The mention of the text writer is an important factor that should be taken into
account in the translating process.
6. Equivalence is the key concept in translation.
7. Target readership should be an important factor in determining the legitimacy of a
translated text.
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8. Translation is both an art than a science. It is an art in the sense that it is performed
by human beings and human beings are creative. It is a science in the sense that it
is a process going through different stages: analysis, transfer and restructuring.
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Chapter 2 KINDS OF TRANSLATION

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-understand kinds of translation and other forms of translation
-join a class discussion about the above-mentioned issues
- and practice translating
I. Introduction
It is often thought that when given a text, the translator’s task is to translate it from
beginning to end. But it is not always the case. In fact, as we can see, what the translator
often has to do is not always at his own will but on the order of the employer. This is
concerned with what is referred to in English as kinds of translation. In this chapter, we
shall attempt to explore in some detail a number of different kinds of translation.
II. Kinds of Translation
1. Literal versus Idiomatic
Because a given text has both form and meaning, there are two main kinds of
translation. One is form-based and the other is meaning-based. That is, literal translation is
form-based while idiomatic translation is meaning based.
 Form-based (Literal) translation: An attempt to follow the form of the source
language irrespective of communication value.
Ex: Vietnamese: Mời bạn về nhà tôi chơi.
Literal translation: Invite friend about house me play.
 Meaning-Based (Idiomatic) Translation: An effort to communicate the meaning of
the source language text in the natural forms of the receptor language.
Ex: Vietnamese: Mời bạn về nhà tôi chơi
English: Would you like to come to my house?
 Literal translation is useful for purposes related to the study of the source language,
it however, is of little help to the speakers the of the receptor language who are interested
in the meaning of the source language text. Literal translation sounds like non sense and
has very little communicative value. For example:
o Vietnamese original: Thuyền ơi có nhớ bến chăng?
o Completely literal English translation: Boat, yes, remember wharf?
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=>If two languages are related, the literal translation can often be understood, since
the general grammatical form may be similar. But they are not always related in reality.
Therefore, for some purposes, it is desirable to make the literal choice of grammatical and
lexical to make the translation sound foreign. In this respect, the above translation can be
modified as follows:
o Modified literal English transition: Boat, do you remember wharf?
However, these kinds of translation make little sense in English. This appropriate
translation would be: Oh my darling, do you miss me?
 As can be seen from above, idiomatic translation, in contrast to literal translation,
uses natural forms of receptor language, both in the grammatical constructions and in the
choice of lexical items. A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation. It
sounds as if it were written originally in the receptor language. For example:
o English original: What did you have for your breakfast?
o Completely literal Vietnamese translation: Cái gì anh có cho bữa sáng của anh?
o Partial literal Vietnamese translation: Anh đã có cái gì cho bữa sáng?
o Suggested appropriate Vietnamese translation: Sáng nay anh ăn/dùng gì?
=>It is recommended that a good translator should try to translate idiomatically. This
is his goal. However, translations are often a mixture of a literal transfer of the
grammatical units along with some idiomatic translation of the meaning of the text.
Very literal modified inconsistent near unduly
Literal literal mixture idiomatic idiomatic free
TRANSLATOR’S GOAL
2. Other Forms of Translation
In addition to these two main types of translation, different ways of rendering a
text or a message have been introduced by some authors. Below are a number of
translation methods generalized by famous writers.
 Word-for-word translation (Dịch từ đối từ)
This method is often called interlinear translation. The source language (SL) word
order is preserved and the words are translated singly by their most common meanings.
The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the structure of the
source language or to analyze a difficult text as a pre-translation process.
Ex:
- Khi xa nhà người ta cảm thấy nhớ nhà: When far home one feel homesick.
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- Từ phía đông thổi về một ngọn gió lạnh và ấm: From side east blow back a
wind cold and wet. ☞ (From the east came a cold wet wind.)
- Anh thì gầy, nó thì béo: You are thin, he is fat. ☞ You are thin, and he is
fat.
- Ăn mày đòi xôi gấc. (Beggars asking for momordica rice.) ☞ (Beggars
can’t be choosers.)
 Literal translation (Dịch nguyên văn)
Literal translation is a form-based translation method which attempts to render the
SL grammatical constructions into their nearest target language (TL) equivalents, but the
lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. If the two languages are related,
the literal translation can often be understood, since the general grammatical form may be
similar. However, the literal choice of lexical items makes this translation method sound
foreign and has little communication value.
Ex:
- Học, học nữa, học mãi: Study, study more, study forever. (Study, study and
study.)
- Mỹ muốn thay thế ông Arafat: The U.S. wanted to replace Yasser Arafat
.(Different meaning) ☞ The U.S. wanted Yasser Arafat to be replaced.
- Phương thức sản xuất chiếm hữu nô lệ: Mode of slavery production.
(Wrong meaning) ☞ Slavery mode of production
- Vạch mặtLaying bare the fact of… (Nonsense)
- Lê Qúy Đôn, biệt hiệu là Quế Đường, quê ở làng Diên Hà ngày nay thuộc
tỉnh Thái Bình: Le Quy Don, whose pseudonym was Que Dong, was a
native of Dien Ha village in present-day Thai Binh province.
- A lame duck congressman: Một nghị sĩ què cẵng. (Wrong meaning) ☞ (Một
nghị sĩ sắp mãn nhiệm.
 Faithful translation (Dịch trung thành)
A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the exact contextual meaning of the
original language (source language) within the constraints of the TL grammatical
structures. It 'transfers' cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical
'abnormality' in the translation. This kind of translation is completely faithful to the
intentions of the SL write.
Ex:
- Sông Hương (The Perfume River)
- Tôi cho rằng anh ta sẽ không đến
(I think that he won't come. /I don't think he will come.)
- Chiều ba mươi, nợ hỏi tít tù, co cẳng đạp thằng Bần ra cửa. Sáng mùng
một, rượu say túy lúy, giơ tay bồng ông phú vào nhà.
(On the afternoon of the 30th, creditors come in flocks; let us bend the
leg to kico out Poverty. On the First, tipsy with drinks of rice wine, let
us open our arms to invite Wealth.)
 Semantic translation (Dịch ngữ nghĩa)
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This kind of translation tends to be dependent on the source language, so it usually

sounds unnatural. It includes literal and faithful translation methods.
 Phonological / Graphological translation (Dịch phiên âm) is the replacement of
the source language phonology by the target phonology / graphology.
Ex: Marketing (ma-két-tinh); Filet (philê); Scandal (xì-căng-đan); Meeting
(mít tinh); Chauffeur (sốp phơ); Beijing (Bắc Kinh); Savon (xà phòng)
 Transliteration (Dịch chuyển chữ) refers to a complex translating process which
involves phonological translation with the addition of phonology-graphology correlation
at both ends of the process, i.e., in source language and target language.
Ex: Mockba (Moskva); logique (logic); ammonia (amoniac)
 Free Translation (Dịch tự do)
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without
the style, form or content of the original. It is a kind of meaning-based translation and
usually a paraphrase much longer the original.
Ex:
- Xe lôi: a wagon pulled by a bike (or a motorbike)
- Tên trộm lẻn vào nhà: The burglar went into the house stealthily.
- Business is business: Công việc là công việc, tình cảm là tình cảm, không lẫn lộn được.
- It’s raining cats and dogs: Trời mưa như trút nước.
- Twenty dollars a week doesn't go far. 20 mươi đô một tuần chả ăn thua gì.
 Communicative Translation (Dịch truyền đạt): This method displays the
contextual meaning of the original text in a manner where both content and language are
easily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.
Ex:
- You see that I am serious, that my motives are not altogether unworthy.
(Nghiêm túc mà nói thì động cơ của tôi không phải vì tiền.)
- My dear man, if you want them that badly, you can have them for 5 dollars.
(Thưa ngài, nếu ngài thật sự cần nó, ngài có thể mua nó với giá 5 đô la.)
- Gái thương chồng đương đông buổi chợ, trai thương vợ nắng quái chiều đông.
(A wife’s love for her husband is like a market at the busiest, and a husband’s
love for his wife is like the afterglow from the dying sun. / a market about to
close.)
II. Conclusion
It is obvious that translation is a complicated process. However, a translator who is
concerned with transferring the meaning will find that the receptor language has a way in
which the desired meaning can be expressed even though it may be very different from the
source language form.
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18
Considering the complexity of language structures, how can a translator ever hope
to produce an adequate translation? Literal translation can only be avoided by careful
analysis of the source language: by, first of all, understanding clearly the message to be
communicated. A translator who takes the time to study carefully the source language
text, to write analysis of it, and then to look for the equivalent way in which the same
message is expressed naturally in the receptor language, will be able to provide an
adequate, and some times brilliant translation. His goal must be to avoid literalisms and to
strive for a truly idiomatic receptor language text. He will know he is successful if the
receptor language readers do not recognize his work as a translation at all, but simply as a
text written in the receptor language for their information and enjoyment.
Questions for discussion
1. What are the differences between a literal translation and an idiomatic translation?
2. What should you do to translate a text idiomatically?
3. Why do people say that idiomatic translation is the target that the translator should
reach at?
4. What grammatical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give
some examples to support your ideas.
5. What lexical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give some
examples to support your ideas.
6. Why do you have to take the time to read the source language text carefully before
translating it?
Exercises
A. In each of the following pairs of sentences, which is more idiomatic English, a or b?
How would the meaning be expressed idiomatically in the language you speak?
1. (a) The storekeeper said that we will refund your money.
(b) The storekeeper promised to refund our money.
2. (a) A certain boy told me this little story at a party.
(b) He is one boy. He told the one little story. This is a game he said.
3. (a) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform as
well. How many children have shed hot tears about spelling?
(b) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform, too.
And how many hot children’s tears have not been shed on spelling?
4. (a) He then reported his misfortune to the police, who are searching diligently for
the thief.
(b) He then his mishap reported to the police, who are the thief searching
intensively.
B. Translate the following sentence into English as idiomatically as possible.
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19
1. Yêu cầu quý khách không sờ vào hiện vật.

……………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Cám ơn bạn đã giúp đỡ tôi tận tình.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Cô ấy đang nằm trong tình trạng thập tử nhất sinh.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Nhiều du khách nước ngoài đã giới thiệu cho chúng tôi về khách sạn Victoria.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Tôi vừa nhìn thấy một người phụ nữ ẵm em bé trên tay.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Tôi rất biết ơn người bác sĩ, người đã cứu sống mẹ tôi.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Tôi không tin rằng anh ta sẽ không trở thành một nhạc sỹ tài năng.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Chúng tôi ở đó hai ngày. Người ta đã đối xử với chúng tôi tử tế hơn là chúng tôi
tưởng.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
C. Translate the following extract into Vietnamese and make comments on the difficulties
in translating the text.
1. Despite the difficulties, he saw the job through to the end.

2. She is under the weather at the moment.
3. Janice felt at ease at the party because she didn’t know anyone there; they were all
complete strangers to her.
4. In many countries, food production cannot keep pace with population growth.
5. Environmental pollution is the terms which are used to refer to the ways by which
man pollutes his environment.
6. Pollution of soil reduces the amount of land which is available for growing foods.
7. The air travel company Air France has cancelled six flights to and from the US
because of what American officials say is a real terrorist threat.
8. US troops have attacked suspected guerrilla areas in Baghdad for a second night.
9. At least ten countries have banned imports of beef from the US.
10. Chinese officials say 191 people have been killed in an accident at a natural gas
field in the southwest.
11. At least eight people were killed when a passenger airplane crashed into the
Atlantic Ocean shortly after leaving an airport in Benin.
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20
12. UN weapons inspectors have begun visiting areas in Libya linked to that country’s
nuclear weapons program.
13. Reports from China say 233 people are dead as a result of an explosion in a natural
gas field last week.
14. Four people have been killed in bomb attacks in Iraq.
15. The British government is warning air travelers to expect more delays and
cancellations of international flights.
16. British Prime Minister Tony Blair has made a surprised visit to northern Iraq.
17. French search and rescue experts have arrived in Egypt to help investigate the
deadly plane crash on Saturday.
18. President Bush is expected to arrive on Monday in the Mexican city for the special
summit of American conference
D. Look for literalism in the following translations into English and underline the words
or phrases that do not sound natural in English. Suggest a more idiomatic way of saying
it.
1. Sir, the problems of before don’t forget.
2. If there is any means, send me a letter to Saigon.
3. I will think you time to time day and day.
4. I am very grateful to inform you with this letter.
5. I am a man who has been to Hanoi for 12 years.
---***---
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21
Chapter 3 STEPS IN A TRANSLATION PROJECT
--***---

-understand steps in a translation project
So far, we have discussed an overview of the main aspects of translation. We have

dealt with what translation is, the kinds of translation, and some of the aspects of
relationship between grammar and semantics which affect the translation process. In order
to complete this overview, we turn now to a general discussion of the steps in a translation
project. Before beginning an actual translation, it is important to have in mind the total
translation project and what is involved in producing a good translation. Each of these
steps will be elaborated on in more detail in the last section of the book.
1. Establishing the project
Before one considers beginning a translation project, there are a number of matters
which need to be clearly understood by all who will be involved. These can be
summarized under four T’s - The text, the target, the team, and the tools.
 The text refers to the source language document which is to be translated. The
desirability of translating a particular text must be determined. Texts are chosen to be
translated for various reasons. Most often it is to communicate certain information to
people speaking another language, or it may be to share the enjoyment of the source text.
The translator should examine his reasons for choosing the text and the potential for its
use by the receptor language audience.
 The target refers to the audience. For whom is the translation prepared? The form
of translation will be affected by questions of dialect, educational level, age level,
bilingualism, and people’s attitudes towards their languages. Will it be used in school, in
business, or read orally in a meeting or at home?
 The team refers to the people who will be involved in the project. If a person is a
competent speaker of both the source language and the receptor language, it may be that
the project can be done completely by one person. But even so there should be other
available for evaluation and consultation. Most translation projects require a team, a
number of people who are going to contribute to the translation at some stage in the
project. The working relationship between these people needs to be established before the
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22
project gets underway. It may, however, also change as the project moves along and new
factors come into focus.
☞ There are certain requirements for any translation project. Not all these need to be
found in one person. There are various kinds of programs which may be set up depending
on the abilities and backgrounds of those who will be involved. The team may consist of:
(1) Co-translators, where one is a specialist in the source language and the other a
specialist in the receptor language.
(2) A translator with capability to handle both source language and receptor
language matters and an advisor or consultant.
(3) A committee working together with specific responsibilities delegated to each
one. Which kind of program is developed will depend on who is available and qualified to
determine the meaning of the source language, who is most skilled at drafting in the
receptor language, and who has an understanding of translation principles. The team may
also include the translators, a consultant, testers, reviewers, and technical people to do
typing and proofreading.
 Tools refer to the written source materials which will be used by the translators as
helps. These include, in addition to the document to be translated, any dictionaries,
lexicons, grammars, cultural descriptions. etc., of both the source language and receptor
language which are available. The team will want as much in formation available as
possible while translating. All of these tools should be brought to the translation site in
preparation for the project. For some projects, there will be a wealth of materials that can
be used to help in interpreting the source language text and in finding equivalents in the
receptor language. For other projects, there may be a scarcity of such material, but
whatever is available should be there to make the work easier. Equipment and finances are
also tools needed to carry on an effective program.
☞ Once the matters of the text, the target audience, and the team relationships are
cared for, and the tools needed made available, the project is ready to begin. The project
will follow a series of steps which include preparation, analysis, transfer, initial draft,
reworking the initial draft, testing, polishing, and preparing the manuscript for the
publisher
2. Exegesis
Exegesis is used to refer to the process of discovering the meaning of the source
language text which is to be translated. It is the step which includes the preparation and
analysis which must be done before anything at all can be written in the receptor
language. The text must be understood completely. This is the process which takes place
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23
in moving from the source language form to the semantic structure, i.e. to the meaning of
the text.
The translator(s) should begin by reading the text several times, then by reading
other materials that may help in understanding the culture or language of the source text.
As he reads the text, he will be looking for the author’s purpose and the theme of the text.
He will look for the larger groupings or sections. He may want to outline the text. The
purpose is to understand the text as a whole. Once he has done this, he is ready to work on
the material a section at a time.
The analysis of the source text will include resolving ambiguity, identifying
implicit information, studying key words, interpreting figurative senses, recognizing when
words are being used in a secondary sense, when grammatical structures are being used in
a secondary function, etc. It will involve doing the kind of analysis which this book is all
about.
☞ The goal of exegesis is to determine the meaning which is to be communicated in
the receptor language text. The translator carefully studies the source language text and
using all the available tools, determines the content of the source language message, the
related communication situation matters, and all other factors which will need to be
understood in order to produce an equivalent translation.
3. Transfer and initial draft
After a careful analysis of the source language text, as indicated above, the
translator begins drafting piece by piece, section by section. The transfer results in the
initial draft. In preparing this draft, the translator is transferring from the source language
into the receptor language. As he does so, he must always keep his target audience in
mind.
Before any extensive drafting can be done, the key terms must be determined.
Every text has a set of words which re crucial to the content and correct communication of
the theme. These need to be decided upon and may need to be checked with other
speakers of the receptor language. In general, there are two ways of approaching the
transfer and initial draft:
 Some translators prefer to do a quick rough translation so that the material flows
naturally. Then they go back and tighten up the details to be sure that there is no
wrong information, and no omissions or additions. In this way, the receptor
language text is more apt to be in the natural style of the receptor language.
 Others prefer to prepare a proposition-like semantic draft, being sure that all the
information all the information is accounted for, and then reword it for naturalness;
that is, reword it in the idiomatic form of the receptor language.
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24
☞ It may be necessary to rework the initial draft several times before the team is
satisfied that all the adjustments needed have been made, that no information is wrong or
omitted, that the text communicates clearly in the receptor language, and that the form
chosen will communicate to the desired audience. While making and reworking this draft,
the audience must always be kept in mind. Once the translation team has sufficiently
reworked the initial draft, they arrange for copies to be made so that adequate evaluation
can be carried on.
4. Evaluation
The purpose of evaluation is threefold: accuracy, clearness, and naturalness. The
questions to be answer are:
- Does the translation communicate the same meaning as the source language?
- Does the audience for whom the translation is intended understand it clearly?
- Is the form of the translation easy to read and natural receptor language
grammar and style?
☞ The translator will have to compare the translation with the source text at
several points during the translation process to be sure no additions, deletions or change of
in formation have crept in . Others may help with this work. It is especially advantageous
to have a consultant check over the material.
☞ The translator will have receptor language speakers read the text and then tell
back what the text communicated to them. As they read, there will be parts that are hard to
read or hard to understand. Any time there is an indication of a problem in reading, this
should be noted for further checking.
☞ The translator will also check by asking questions of those who read the text, or
to whom it is read. Questions need to be carefully formed so that they bring out the theme,
the author’s purpose, and the relevant facts of the text. Any wrong understanding should
be noted and then checked with others as well.
☞ It is best to have someone who has not worked on the translation, but know
both the source language and receptor language, translate back from the receptor language
into the source language without the reference to the original source language text. Does
the back translation carry the same information as the original source language text? Any
difference will need to be checked further.
=> It is very important that sufficient time and effort be given to evaluation. If
many of the people who will eventually be using the receptor language text can be
involved in the evaluation process, this will also create interest in the translated material
when it is finally published.
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5. Revised draft
After evaluation is done carefully, there will need to be a revised draft made on
the basis of the feedback received. Those with whom the translator has checked may have
suggested many rewordings, may have expressed misunderstanding, etc. The translation
team now works through this material, honestly accepting the evaluation, and rewording
the material accordingly.
If any key words are changed, the text will need to be checked carefully for
consistency in the change made. If some parts were hard for people to read, they may need
to be made easier by more redundancy (or less redundancy in another language), by
adding more information to clarify participants or theme or whatever. How much re-
drafting will be needed will vary depending on the results of the evaluation.
6. Consultation
In many translation projects, there are advisors or consultants who are willing to
help the translator. The translator(s) will expect that the consultant is interested in three
matters:
 Accuracy of content
 Naturalness of style
 Effect on the receptor language audience
☞ It is important that translators check their materials with a trained consultant
after completing a section or two of a long document. If they continue, and do large
amounts of translation work without this kind of a check, they will miss out on the
training which a consultant can give as they go over the material together.
☞ It is essential to ask a consultant to work through the material because s/he will
give the translator insights which will not only help his final draft of the material being
worked on, but will help him do better transfer drafts on the sections of the document
remaining to be done.
7. Final draft
The translator incorporates into the translated text the suggestions made by the
consultant, checks them again with mother-tongue speakers to be sure they are warranted,
and makes any other minor changes which have come to his attention. However, before
he prepares the final draft, decisions about format need to be discussed with the whole
translation team, the consultant, the potential publisher and those who will promote
distribution.
Translation Theory
26
Some matters may need special testing before the final draft is prepared. If the
publication is to include pictures, these will need evaluation. If a special size of print is
being recommended, it will need to be tested. A final editing for spelling and punctuation
will need to be made. When all matters are cared for, a number of copies should be
prepared and distributed for proofreading by various people before the actual printing
takes place. Every translator wants his final copy to be as accurate as possible. The time
spent in careful checking and preparation of the final draft will improve quality and will
make the translation more acceptable to the audience for whom it is being prepared.
Questions for discussion
1. Name and discuss the four T’s of a translation project.
2. Explain what is meant by exegesis.
3. What are the goals of the translator as he prepares the initial draft?
4. What is the purpose of the evaluation?
5. What kinds of evaluation checks can be made?
6. What is the consultant concerned about when he checks a translation?
7. How will the final draft be different from the revision draft done earlier?
8. How is the revision draft different from the initial draft?
Exercises
A. Read through the text below and answer the following questions before translating it
into Vietnamese.
1. What is the topic?
2. What is the main idea?
3. Where is the text probably taken from?
4. What is the writer’s main purpose?
5. Who is the intended reader?
6. In what style is it written?
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
The recognition of the significance of the concept of cultural landscapes is now
widely accepted around the world in cultural heritage conservation practice. Reflecting
this world-wide trend, UNESCO’s Operation Guidelines for Word Heritage listing were
amended in 1993 to include cultural landscape. There is often the tendency to assume that
only rural areas are included in the concept of cultural landscapes. But it does really
Translation Theory
27
embrace urban areas. In the context the AWPNUC Symposium in Hanoi the cultural
landscape construct is particularly germane because it proposes a contextual view of
human settings where the material cultural and human values are inextricably associated.
The concept of cultural landscapes demands that human settings, urban and rural,
are seen as composite entities where inter-relationships between people, events, and place
exist through historic periods. Hence cultural landscapes have continuity because they are
imprint of human history. They are the results of human intervention and present of a
record of human activity and human values. They reflect our, and our predecessors’,
relationships with our surrounds. They are a record of who we are and of our experiences,
customs, and ideologies. Thus cultural landscapes are a social construct. They are not
what we see, but a way of seeing where we interpret what we see through cultural
conditioning.
Given that people value their past, both its physical manifestations and meanings
inherent in places which we are bound up in the world ‘heritage’, there are two
fundamental canons which apply to the cultural landscape idea:
1. The first canon is the existence of layers in the landscape which can be read and their
meaning interpreted. It is the layers which reflect human values and significance.
2. The second, and following from 1, is that heritage is not a matter of separate dots on a
map where individual sites or buildings are separately listed. The cultural landscape idea
means that everything is interconnected because of the composite nature of cultural
landscapes. People find attachment, and therefore heritage values, in these
interconnections. There is a connection here with one of the focuses of the Symposium,
that is the comprehensive value in the heritage listing of Urban Conservation Areas where
the transaction between urban patterns, specific components and cultural traditions are
integrated so that conservation of social value is awarded due recognition. It also
embraces that fact that there are two categories of cultural landscape. These are:
(i) The icons or special places, and
(ii) Ordinary, everyday places.
It is important to remember that the latter are just as important as the former when it
comes to deciphering heritage significance. Conservation is not about protecting only the
Great White House.
(After Ken Taylor, Professor of Landscape Architecture)
---***---
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Chapter 4 MEANING IN TRANSLATION

----***---

-understand the meaning in translation, characteristics of meaning and
sentence meaning
This chapter is concerned with ‘meaning’, since it is ‘meaning’ which is the

kingpin of translation studies. In fact, without understanding what the text to be translated
means for the L2 users, the translator would be hopelessly lost. This is why the translation
scholar has to be a semanticist over and above everything else. But by semanticist we
mean a semanticist of the text, not just of words, structures and sentences. In this chapter,
we shall consider some alternative approaches to word-meaning and sentence-meaning
and close by distinguishing utterance, sentence and proposition.
I. WORD-MEANING
Among the possible ways of approaching the description and explanation of word-
meaning, three stand out as particularly interesting:
1. Reference theory (which would express the relationship between word and
entity in some terms such as ‘word X refers to entity Y);
2. Componential analysis (which would make use of an analogy from
chemistry – ‘each word contains a number of atoms of meaning’); and
3. Meaning postulates (which would relate meaning to meaning through the
conventions of set theory.
1. Reference theory
Reference theory seeks to provide the answer to the question: ‘What is the
relationship between the phenomena observed through the senses and the words that are
used to refer to those phenomena?’ There are two traditional and contrary answers to the
question which go back to Ancient Greek:
(a). The link between the word and the ‘object’ to which it refers is a natural and
necessary one which is determined by the structure of the universe (Plato’s
position).
(b). The connection is an arbitrary one constrained by no more than social
convention (Aristotle’s position).
In fact, there is, clearly, no simple one-to-one relationship of word to meaning to
object. And the linguistic form of word and its referent is clearly man-made rather than
natural and constitutes a convenient systems for labeling ‘objects’ by means of arbitrarily
assigned and socially accepted signs.
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29
Building on this assumption, de Saussure provides a rather more explicit model of

the relationship in which the link is shown to be between the linguistic sign and the
‘object’. The linguistic sign itself is composed of two indivisible elements, the concept
and the acoustic image, which might be shown diagrammatically:
concept
Linguistic sign = object
acoustic image
An example of this, for English, might be the relationship between the word ‘tree’
and the actual tree perceived by the senses which is referred to by using the word. We
shall use single quotes for the word, SMALL UPPER CASE for the concept and a
phonetic transcription for the acoustic image:
TREE
‘Tree’ = (image of tree)
/tri:/
The value of this for us is that it suggests ways in which we can integrate linguistic
models of the semantic and lexical structures of language witch psychological models of
the conceptual structure of memory. All very well, one might say, but what of the
translator? Does translator store the same information in different parts of memory
depending on the language? Here the linguistic sign for the concept ‘tree’ can be
represented in different languages: English, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Russian and
Vietnamese.
One advantage is that it helps to explain a phenomenon which translators find
particularly annoying and frustrating; being not only unable to recall the appropriate word
in a particular language but finding oneself incapable of recalling an appropriate word in
any language.
2. Componential analysis
In terms of Semantics, componential analysis is an approach to the study of
meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features.
The essential assumption of componential analysis is that the meaning of a word is the
sum of a number of elements of meaning which it possesses – semantic distinctive
features- and these elements are binary; i.e. marked as present or absent (+ or -). We might
take, as an example, a set of English words such as man, woman, boy, girl and show how
a componential analysis can be used to specify the lexical entry for each.
Man [+human; +adult; +male]
Woman [+human; +adult; -male]
Boy [+human; -adult; +male]
Girl [+human; -adult; -male]
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30
From the translator’s point of view, componential analysis has considerable

attractions as a practical technique. Consider the problem of lack of fit between the lexical
items of two languages; an issue which continually faces the translator.
Example 1: Take the difficulty of translating the German noun Uhr. Without help
from the context, the translator cannot know whether the appropriate English equivalent is
watch or clock or, even hour or time (die Uhr ist…=’The time is…). Further if the
translation is into French as ‘Quelle heure est –il?’ (What time is it?). what about a
translation into Vietnamese?
Example 2: Vietnamese: Ông già ấy có hai người con.
 English: ……………………………………
3. Meaning postulates
A fundamental problem for the translator is that the relationship of similarity and
difference between concepts (and the words that express them) do not necessarily coincide
in the languages involved in the translation. However, it is not difficult to express such
relationships for a particular language in terms of simple set theory and the key notions of
inclusion and exclusion: The first focusing on what concepts have in common; the
second on what distinguish them.
We can isolate three key types of relationship between concept and concept (and,
therefore, between word and word).
(a) Hyponymy involves total inclusion; one concept (or the meaning of one word)
is included in another. For example, animal includes tiger or wine include hock, i.e.
distinguishing example from class or, in traditional terminology, the subordinate
(hyponym) from the superordinate.
Examples:
- Thủ tướng chính phủ chỉ đạo xử lý nghiêm tình trạng lấn chiếm đất trái phép ở
khu vực sân bay Gia Lâm.
 ………………………………………………………………………………
- Nó đã giết chết cô ấy.
 ………………………………………………………………………………
- Những người lính bị giết chết bằng hỏa lực rất mạnh của đối phương.
 ………………………………………………………………………………
What is the inclusion here? Suggest a possible translation into Vietnamese.
(a) Synonymy ((between the two and exhibiting features of overlap – partial
inclusion and exclusion) is particularly problematic since it involves overlap rather than
total inclusion or exclusion and assumes that, in principle, either item may be selected, in
any context. As we all know, absolute 100 percent synonymy is very rare and perhaps
impossible, since it would requite each item to be totally interchangeable and collocate not
only with the same sets as the other but with all members of those sets.
Examples - English Conceal- and- seek (unacceptable)
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31
Hide – and – seek (acceptable)

- Italian: canale [canal (+) and channel (-)]
 English translation?
- English: lamb [=sheep + young]; ram [= sheep +adult + male];
ewe [= sheep + adult + female]
 Vietnamese: Tôi vưa nhìn thấy một con cừu đi ngang.
(b) Antonymy concerns exclusion rather than inclusion and exclusion involves a
number of relationships which can be illustrated as follows.
 Taxonomy: sets of items which displays opposition: binary (dead – alive),
multiple (hats = beret, boater, bonne, cap, bomler, skulcap, top-hat, trilly, etc.), and
hierarchical (e.g. numbers, colors).
 Polar: where the contrasts are placed at opposite ends of a scale such that
each is distinct from the other but the degree of distinctness is gradable. For instance, the
sentence, ‘He is more alive.’ is unacceptable in English.
 Relative: where there are converse relationships between the items, such as
asymmetrical social roles (doctor-patient), kinship terms (son-daughter) and so on.
 Inverse: where the terms can become perfect synonyms of each other, if (i)
one is substituted for the other and (ii) the negative is moved.
Examples
- Some students do not study linguistics.
 ……………………………………………………………………………..
- Trong Hotmail, bạn hãy nhớ đánh dấu hộp chon Rich Text Format lúc ban
soạn thư.
 ………………………………………………………………………………
- Bạo lực tiếp tục gia tăng ở Trung Đông.
 ………………………………………………………………………………
- In the seventh century, the various states of the peninsula were unified for the
first time under the Silla Kingdom (57 BC – AD 935). Such homogeneity has
enabled Koreans to be relatively free from ethnic problems and to maintain a
firm solidarity with one another.
 ………………………………………………………………………………
4. Characteristics of meaning
 Polysemy is a relation in which a single word has two or more slightly different
but closely related meanings.
Examples
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- Spending too much now will mean a shortage of cash next year. (result
in)
- I mean to help if I can. (intend)
- Keep off the grass! This means you. (refers to)
- Do you mean that I’m not telling the truth? (imply)
- The flash light means that the road is blocked. (indicates)
- Those clouds mean rain. (are signs of)
- I never mean that you should come alone. (want to say)
- She doesn’t mean what she said. (believe / think)
- The head and chief administrator of the

Department of State. (U.S)
- Any of several ministers in the British
- The Secretary of State => Government. (Brit)
- The appointed or elected official in a State
government whose chief function is to
distribute statues, administer elections, keep
archives, etc. (U.S)
 Ambiguity refers to the fact that a word (or a structure) permits more than one
interpretation.
Examples
- He found a bat.
- She couldn’t bear children.
- Music has got its own bank.
- She visited a little girl’s school.
 Anomaly is a violation of semantic rules to create nonsense.
Examples
- My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
- To dream diagonally
- A colorless green idea
 Compositionality
Examples
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- Nhà máy chế tạo ô tô thường xuyên thay đổi kiểu mẩu nên đã đẩy mạnh
việc bán sản phẩm. (Complex sentence)
 The car manufacturer’s frequent changes of models have promoted the sale of
products. (Simple sentence)
- You cannot be in two places at one.
 …………………………………………………………………………………….
- You cannot wash charcoal white.
 …………………………………………………………………………………….
- He was a bearded Russian soldier.
 …………………………………………………………………………………….
 Literal meaning vs. Contextual meaning
Examples
- The door is just behind you.
- It’s raining.
II. SENTENCE MEANING
The goal of semantics, in the view of majority of linguists is to show how words and
sentences are related to one another and to explain how the sentences of a language are
understood, interpreted and related to states, processes and objects in the universe.
Clearly, translators and linguists are in substantial agreement that both orientations to the
description and explanation of ‘meaning’ are necessary: an understanding of the
relationship of form to form within the code and also that of the formal structures of the
code to the communicative context of use.
1. Words and sentences
The earlier discussion of word-meaning was to show relationships of inclusion and
exclusion between concepts and between the words which express them. Similar
relationships can be found between sentences. In order to recognize the word-meaning it
is advisable to study the meaning of the word in the linguistics co-text of the sentence and
the setting of the sentence in its communicative context.
Faced by a text, the reader (and, therefore, the translator) has to cope not only with
the semantic sense of the words but also the ‘meaning’ of the sentences. The reader needs
to be able to work out whether what is stated in a sentence is true or false, whether it
possesses a single meaning or it is ambiguous and, indeed, whether it ‘makes sense’ at all.
Semantic-meaning, like word-meaning, can be approached initially through the
notions of inclusion and exclusion and the discovery of the sentence level equivalents of
hyponymy, synonymy and antonymy. We might begin by considering some examples:
1. Tigers are animals. (Analytic sentence)
2. Tigers are fierce. (Synthetic sentence)
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3. Tigers are birds. (Contradiction)

4. They found him a good friend. (Ambiguity)
5. Semantics killed the students. (Anomaly / nonsense)
6. He wrote a book on linguistics → He wrote a book. (Entailment)
7. What is his book about? It’s not about athletics. (Implicature)
8. Can you lend me Leech’s Semantics? (Presupposition)
2. Utterance, sentence and proposition
Utterance, sentence and proposition are the three levels of abstraction and
idealization which apply to any stretch of language we may wish to translate.
 The utterance can be typified as being concrete and context-sensitive. It is the
utterance not the sentence that is recorded on paper or an audio tape and it is tied to a
specifiable time, place and participants.
 The sentence in contrast, is abstract and context-free. Unlike utterances, sentences
exist only in mind. When a sentence is said or written, we still tend to refer to it as a
sentence.
 The proposition is even more abstract than the sentence. It is the unit of meaning
which constitutes the subject-matter of a sentence. The proposition is not only context-free
but also language-free in the sense that proposition is universal (not tied to any specific
language and underlying all languages). This gives its central position in communication
and provides us with a major clue in our attempts at making sense of the process of
translation.
3. Situation, context and universe of discourse
At the beginning of this chapter, we made the point that ‘meaning’ ultimately
depends on the context of use. But what is meant by ‘context’? Three levels of abstract
can be suggested:
 The immediate situation of utterance
During an act of communication individuals interact, knowledge is conveyed
through selections made from the resources (the meaning potential) of the code (and other
systems) and certain entities are referred to by the linguistic forms used: persons, places,
things, actions, relations…and, naturally language differ in the ways in which they
organize the transfer of information.
 The context of utterance
The context of utterance comes next in order of increasing abstraction and generality.
The relationship between the situation and the utterance can be demonstrated by observing
what happens when we attempt to place an utterance in its situation and in its context.
While the immediate situation of utterance requires the explicit spelling out of the
physical details, the specification of the context of utterance can be much more implicit
since it assumes the totality of the shared knowledge (linguistic and social) possessed by
the participants in the communicative act.
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 The universe of discourse

The universe of discourse is the most abstract and most general which consists of
whatever can be said about a particular subject and includes not only what the participants
know but also what they do not know and others do; all propositions which could be
constructed in relation to that subject. The same ‘genre’ will differ in its universe of
discourse from culture to culture. For example, words like soccer, rugby and cricket are
treated rather similarly in British and Indian newspapers, but expect strikingly different
interpretations in other cultures and contrast strongly in other conventions.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have been outlining the major formal aspects of meaning.
Specifically we have been considering semantic sense in relation to word-meaning and
sentence-meaning and have made three-way distinctions: between utterance, sentence and
proposition and between the immediate situation of utterance, the context of utterance and
the universe of discourse. These distinctions permit us to move the focus progressively
away from the context free formal characteristics of language as an abstract code towards
the context-sensitive functional view of language as a system of resources available to the
communicator for the expression and comprehension of meaning.
EXERCISES
A. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Chính sách mới, quyết định mới: Chính phủ đã ra Nghị định quy định về chức năng
nhiệm vụ, quyền hạn và cơ cấu tổ chức của Thanh tra Nhà nước. Bộ Công an ra Quyết
định về Danh mục bí mật Nhà nước độ mật của Ban nội chính Trung Uơng.
---------
2. Công cuộc chuẩn bị thị trường Tết Ất Dậu: không thể thiếu hàng và tăng giá đột biến.
--------
3. Sự thật về vấn đề tự do tôn giáo ở Việt Nam.
4. Tượng được đúc bằng đồng, nặng hơn 1 tấn, cao 3,3 mét. Bệ tượng 2m x 2m, cao 1,4m;
nhìn về hướng Bắc, nơi Bác đã lên tàu ra đi.
-----------
5. Với nỗ lực và sự cố gắng không ngừng vươn lên, Trung tâm Y tế quận đã nhận được
nhiều bằng khen của Bộ Y tế, UBND thành phố cho đơn vị và cá nhân.
----------
6. Ban quản lý dự án có chức năng, nhiệm vụ giúp tỉnh và ngành lập và quản lý các dự án
đầu tư chuyên ngành thủy lợi bao gồm cả quản lý về chất lượng, quản lý về kinh tế và
quản lý về kỹ thuật, đảm bảo đúng mục tiêu, mục đích của dự án đề ra.
------------
7. Thành phố Cần Thơ đã đề ra những chính sách, hướng dẫn cụ thể về quản lý, sử dụng
đất đai với văn bản quan trọng nhất là quy hoạch, kế hoạch sử dụng đất đai của thành phố
giai đoan 2010-2020.
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36
----------
8. Tại TP Hồ Chí Minh có hơn 1.200 doanh nghiệp gây ô nhiểm môi trường phải đưa và
diện di dời từ nội thành ra các khu công nghiệp và các nông trường trong thời gian từ
2005 đến 2008.
-----------
B. Analyze the contexts and translate the following conversations into English
1. A: Mợ ngồi tôi nói chuyện một câu.
B: Được a, cụ mặc con.
2. A: Ông giáo hút trước đi.
B: Tôi xin cụ.
3. A: Mời anh uống trà.
B: Anh để cho khi khác.
4. A: Mời chị ngồi.
B: Bẩm quan, con không dám.
5. A: Mời anh xơi nước.
B: Xin cụ cho phép cho. Cháu không khát.
6. Sáng nay 19-5 Sở NN &PTNT phối hợp với Tỉnh đoàn, UBND thị xã Kon Tom phát
động Tết trồng cây nhân kỷ niệm 113 năm Ngày sinh của Bác. Sau lễ phát động, lãnh đạo
địa phương và hơn 200 đoàn viên đã tiến hành ‘phủ xanh nhanh’ toàn bộ khuôn viên Phân
hiêu II trường Dân tộc nội trú tỉnh.
C. Choose a proper Vietnamese word to translate the word in italics.
1. Going to college has always had its ups and downs, but today the “downs” of the
college experience are more numerous and difficult.
2. Now, only three years later, Liza is miserable. She has changed her major four times
already and is forced to hold down two part-time jobs in order to pay her tuition. She
suffers from sleeping and eating disorders and believes she has no close friends.
3. Many of us are annoyed by telephone solicitors who call us day and night, trying to sell
us everything from magazine subscriptions to various homes. These electronic intruders
don’t seem to care how much they are inconveniencing us and refuse to take ‘no’ for an
answer.
4. Space biomedicine is a relatively new area of research both in the USA and in Europe.
Its main objectives are to study the effects of space travel on the human body, identifying
the most critical medical problems and finding solutions to those problems. Space
biomedicine centers are receiving direct support from NASA and / or the European Space
Agency.
5. Scientists say that virtual reality is where computers were in 1979. Personal computers
back then were slow and didn’t do much. But, say scientists, you could see the promise.
Ten years later, everything had changed. Today, personal computers are used in offices
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and homes all around the world. Virtual reality may take a litter longer to develop, but it
has the same potential for widespread use.
---***---
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Chapter 5 TYPES OF LANGUAGE AND TRANSFORMATION

IN TRANSLATION
----***---

-distinguish types of language and transformation in translation
I. Linguistic Forms and Functions

In terms of the function of the language, language can be classified as follows:
1. Translactional language is that which occurs when the participants are concerned
with the exchange of goods and services, that is, language is used for transactional
function.
2. Interpersonal language occurs when the speakers are less concerned with the
exchange of goods and services, than with socializing, i.e., expressing social
relations and personal attitudes.
3. Aesthetic function is the third purpose for which people use language. It is neither
to secure goods and services, not to ‘oil the wheels of social lifde’. Rather, it fulfils
an expressive or aesthetic function.
II. Types of Language in Translation
 Idiolect: Features of language variation characteristic of an individual speaker:
basically, everyone has a unique way of talking, depending on age, social status,
sex, emotion, education etc. This language variety referring to the personal identity
of the performer is called idiolect or simply personal dialect
 Dialect and accents: A form of speech peculiar to a particular region. In some
cases, it refers to a subordinate variety of a language with non-standard
vocuabulary, pronunciation, or grammar. Dialects come in various types including
temporal, regional, social and individual.
o Geographical Dialect is a language variety related to the geographical place
of origin of the performer. Examples of Geographical Dialect include
American English, Scottish English, Canadian English or Jamaican English.
Examples: - Pigsty (Brit) = Pigpen (Ame)
- Be realistic (Brit) = Get real (Ame)
- Besides (Brit) = Outwith (Scot)
- Flat (Brit) = Apartment (Ame) = Unit (Aus)
- Gymkhana (Indian) = Sports club
- Outback (Aus) = Remote area
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o Temporal Dialect is a language variety related to the provenance of the

performer, or of the text he has produced, in the time dimension (Old English
―› Middle English ―› Modern English): e.g. Contemporary English,
Elizabethan English, and Middle English.
Examples:
- Faeder, ure, thu the eart on heofenum, si thin nama gehalgod. (Old
English) ☞ Father, you are the earth in heaven, so your name is hallowed.
(Modern English)
- Sithen the sege and the assaut watz sesed at Troye, The borg brittened
and brent to brondez and askez. (Middle English) ☞ Since the siege and the
assault was ceased at Troy, The City destroyed and burnt to brands and ashes.
(Modern English)
o Social Dialects are related to the social status of the performer i.e. whether a
person is working-class, middle-class or upper-class. Social Dialects also
include such language varieties as slang or language varieties used by
particular social groups such as criminals, drug users or public school students.
Example:
- Chú để một mình tôi canh nó, nên nó trốn thoát! Được rồi, tôi “lập bô”
cho chú, chú sẽ phải “lập giòng”!
- Lạy quan lớn, ngày tha cho con.
Tha! “Tăng xương”! Coi thì mày chết, con ạ!
 Slang - words and phrases, or particular meaning of these, that are in common
informal use, but generally considered not to form part of standard English, and
often used deliberately for picturesqueness or novelty or unconventionality.
 Register & Style - linguitics varieties that are linked to occupations, professions,
or topics – is closely tied to lexical selection. Lexical choice within the identified
clusters will depend on the context (textbook, magazine, news report, etc.), the
author’s assumptions about the audience (cultured / educated / readers of the
popular tabloid press, etc), whether the style is to be read as ‘written’ or ‘spoken’ ,
and so on.
o The scales of formality indicate different levels of variation in speech or
writing. They must be considered in the translation of a text.
'The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically

Officialese
prohibited in this establishment'.
Official 'The consumption of nutriments is prohibited'.
Formal 'You are requested not to consume food in this establishment' .
Neutral 'Eating is not allowed here' .
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Informal 'Please don't eat here' .

Colloquial 'You can't feed your face here' .
Slang 'Lay off the nosh' .
Taboo 'Lay off the fucking nosh' .
Examples:
- “I ain’t studying no breakfast,”Nancy said. “I going to get my sleep out.” ☞
Informal + Colloquial.
- “Hỷ hại tâm, nộ hại can.” ☞ Technical (medical)
- “Ôi tổ quốc giang san hung vĩ!” ☞ Formal
o Scales of difficulty: There are six levels of difficulty:
'The floor of the sea is covered with rows of big mountains and
Simple
deep pits' .
'The floor of the ocean is covered with great mountain chains
Popular
and deep trenches' .
(Using basic vocabulary only)
Neutral ' A graveyard of animal and plant remains lies buried in the
earth's crust' .
'The latest step on vertebrate evolution was the tool-making
Educated
man' .
'Critical path analysis is an operational research technique used
Technical
in management' .
Opaquely
Technical 'Neuraminic acid in the form of its alkali-stable methoxy
(Comprehensible derivative was first isolated by Klenk from gangliosides' .
only to an expert)
III. Transformations in Translation

When difficulties are encountered by the translator, the whole issue of the
untranslatability of the text is raised. Catford distinguishes two types of untranslatability,
which he terms linguistic and cultural. On the linguistic level, untranslatability occurs
when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the TL for an SL item, whereas culture
untranslatability is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for
the SL text. The following are some examples of linguistic and cultural untranslatability.
 Lexical Transformation
In translation, the meaning of a single word in the SL can be expressed differently
in the RL. So the translator sometimes has to make some lexical transformation depending
on the context for which equivalences should be represented in the translated version.
Examples:
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- We are disappointed to learn that our request has been turned down.
(thất vọng)
- I’m disappointed at his failure at the exam. (buồn)
- Hopes for fine weather were not disappointed. (bị hẫng)
- My work keeps me busy all the morning.
- Shops are very busy at Christmas time.
- Markets are at their busiest during the near-Tet days.
- He is a busy lawyer.
- Victoria is one of London’s busiest stations.
- We passed through busy streets on the way to the airport.
- Big man (có tư tưởng lớn)
- To earn big money (kiếm được nhiều tiền)
- He had big ideas. (ý tưởng ngông cuồng)
- That’s big of you. (hào hiệp)
- You’re a big liar. (tổ sư nói dóc)
- He’s not a big eater. (người phàm ăn)
- The big people in the theater world. (quan trọng)
- The big toe (ngón chân cái)
- Big brother (anh cả / đại ca)
- Big lack of money. (thiếu tiền trầm trọng)
- He’s the big noise round here. (làm mưa làm gió)
- Trời nóng quá, mà chiếc máy điều hòa của tôi bị hỏng. (It’s very hot,
yet my A.C. doesn’t work.)
- Đường nhiều ổ gà quá nên lốp xe bị hỏng. (The road is full of pot-
holes, so the tyres go bad right away.)
- Con cá này hỏng rồi, đừng ăn nữa. (This fish has gone off, don’t eat it.)
- Tai nạn đã làm chiếc xe hỏng nhiều. (The accident has done a lot of
damage to the car.)
- Buổi biểu diển đã hỏng rồi. (The performance has turned out a flop.)
- Bộ phim hoàn toàn hỏng. (The film doesn’t quite come off.)
- Thằng bé được chiều quá đâm ra hỏng. (The child has become bad
mannered because of overspoiling.)
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 General => Specific

1. Chống Iraq – chống hòa bình chống nhân loại, trái với đạo lý.☞ Fighting
against Iraq is tantamount to opposing peace, resisting mankind and
running counter to motarity.
2. Về qui chế tổ chức biểu diển: đối tượng rộng, thủ tục thoáng nhưng quản
lý chặt chẻ nội dung. ☞ About the new artistic performance regulations:
scope of performer is broadened; procedures are simplified; but contents,
strictly controlled.
 Specific => General
1. They go to the beach at weekend. ☞ Họ thường đi ra biển vào cuối tuần.
2. It always gets me to see a woman crying. ☞ Mỗi khi có người đàn bà nào
khóc tôi lại tìm cách đến xem.
3. TV serials do not interest me. ☞ Tôi chẳng bao giờ thích xem phim truyền
hình nhiều tập.
4. He is as good as his words. ☞ Hắn là người luôn giữ lời hứa.
5. They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs. They
inspected innumerable kitchen. Ruth was exhausted and more than once
lost her temper. ☞ Họ đã từng xem hàng ngàn ngôi nhà; họ đã từng trèo
hàng ngàn cầu thang, họ đã từng ngắm nghía vô số nhà bếp. Ruth hẳn đã
kiệt sức và đã hơn một lần nàng mất hết cả bình tĩnh.
6. All men are created equal. They are endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable Rights; among these are life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness. ☞ Tất cả mọi người sinh ra đều có quyền bình đẳng. Tạo hóa đã
cho họ những quyền không ai có thể xâm phạm được; trong đó có quyền
được sống, quyền tự do và quyền mưu cầu hạnh phúc.
 Synonymy Transformations
1. Vietnam thrashed Myanmar 4-2, qualifying for the semi-finals of the
fourth Southeast Asia soccer tournament Tiger Cup. Earlier, Vietnam had
trounced Cambodia 9-2, the Philippines 4-1, and held a 2-2 draw with
Indonesia. ☞ Đội tuyển bóng đá VN đã giành thắng lợi trước đội tuyển
Myanmar với tỷ số 4-2, vào vòng bán kết Giải vô địch bóng đá Đông Nam
Á lần thứ tư. Trước đó, đội VN đã thắng đậm đội tuyển Cam pu chia với tỷ
số 9-2, thắng đội tuyển Philippines 4-1, hòa đội Indonesia 2-2.
2. He finished asking me foolish questions. ☞ Nó không hỏi tôi những câu
hỏi ngớ ngẩn nữa. (Negative => Positive)
3. Cục thuế TP.HCM: Công ty Phú Mỹ Hưng không nộp thuế là vi phạm pháp
luật. ☞ HCM Department of Taxation: Phu My Hung Company’s refusal
to pay tax is a breach of law. (Positive => Negative)
 Antonymy Transformations
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1. Flattery will get you nowhere. ☞ Sự tâng bốc sẽ không đưa anh tới đâu cả.
2. Chỉ khi nào sức cạnh tranh tăng lên thì gạo mới trở thành mặt hàng xuất
khẩu chiến lược được. ☞ Rice would not be a strategic export unless its
competitiveness was improved.
3. The child didn’t think there was any harm in doing it. ☞ Cậu bé cho rằng
làm việc đó chẳng hại gì cả.
4. Work time: when is it least inconvenient for participants to meet
researcher? ☞ Thời gian làm việc: khi nào là thời gian thuận tiện nhất cho
người tham gia gặp các chuyên gia nghiên cứu?
5. The article makes dull reading, the story is not less uninteresting. ☞ Bài
báo thì tẻ nhạt, truyện cũng chẳng hay ho gì.
6. As for the husband, having learnt his lesson, from that day on he spared his
younger brother neither affection nor assistance. ☞ Còn người chồng,
thấm thía bài học, từ hôm đó trở đi anh ta dành cho em trai mình cả tình
cảm lẫn sự giúp đỡ.
7. She didn’t arrive until yesterday. ☞ Mãi đến hôm qua cô ấy mới tới.
8. Nhiều nông dân còn thiếu các phương tiện bảo hộ khi cản xuất, không thực
hiện đúng quy trình sử dụng thuốc; không thu gom bao bì đựng thuốc, gây
ô nhiểm môi trường xung quanh. ☞ Many farmers still lack the means of
protection in production, do not strictly follow the utilization norms of the
chemical and litter its packing, which causes environmental pollution.
9. Writing stories is a hard work, making poems is a no less difficult job. ☞
Viết truyện là một công việc khó khăn, làm thơ là một công việc cũng
chẳng dễ dàng gì.
 Grammatical Transformations
1. Sau vụ án Trương Văn Cam và đồng bọn bị khởi tố, Nguyễn Văn Sỹ bị bắt,
trường hợp tại ngoại trước đó của y mới bị cơ quan chức năng phát hiện.
☞ Nguyen Van Sy should have been imprisioned after the trial but be
remained free the prosecution of Nam Cam and his gang. (Structural
transformation)
2. What do you intend by your words? ☞ Những lời lẽ của anh ngụ ý gì?
3. I find no savour left in life. ☞ Tôi thấy cuộc sống không còn hương vị nữa.
4. Có 12.178 cặp đang sống chung với nhau mà không có đăng kí kết hôn ở
thành phố HCM. ☞ HCM City is home to 12.178 couples who co-habitted
without marriage certificates. (Adverb phrase → Noun phrase)
5. Thành phố HCM có 994 công ty, văn phòng đại diện của Việt kiều. ☞ As
many as 994 overseas Vietnamese’s companies and representative offices
are operating in HCM City. (Noun phrase→ Adverb phrase)
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6. Tổ máy số 1 thủy điện Nậm Mu phát điện. Nhà máy có 3 tổ máy với công
suất 12.000 Kw. ☞ Turbine No. 1 of the Nam Mu Hydroelectric Plant has
started generating power. The three-turbine plant has a combined capacity
of 12.000 Kw. (Clause → Phrase)
7. It’s very nice to see you again. ☞ Gặp lại anh rất thú vị.
8. Khách du lịch sẽ không được nhìn những dấu mốc như cổng Hải Vân ở
trên đỉnh đầy mây khi ô tô tắt qua con đường hầm sẽ được hoàn thiện năm
sau. ☞ Lankmarks like the Hai Van gate, standing on top of the cloudy Hai
Van Pass, will go unseen by tourists has buses and cars are expected to opt
for the short-cut through the tunnel when it opens next year. (Object →
Subject)
9. His other children he seldom saw. ☞ Ông ta ít khi gặp những đứa con khác
của mình. (Inversion)
10. A suburban train was derailed in London last night. ☞ Tối hôm qua, ở gần
Luân Đôn, một chuyến tàu ngoại ô bị trật bánh. (Different Word Orders)
11. Bộ phận bán hàng được ông giám đốc công ty đặc biệt khen ngợi vì đã làm
tốt công tác tiếp thị. ☞ The sale devision came in for special praise from
the company director for satisfactorily performing the marketing. (Passive
→ Active)
12. He was seen walking down the street. ☞ Người ta nhìn thấy nó đi dọc theo
phố. (Single → Complex)
13. Honda Vietnam was awarded a Prime Minister’s mention for its
achievements in implementing the Customs Law from 2000 to 2002. The
presentation of the honor was made by a Deputy Prime Minister at a
ceremony on October 15 to review the company’s 20 months executing the
Law. ☞ Với những thành tích trong thực hiện luật Hải quan từ năm 2000
đến 2002, ngày 15/10 vừa qua, Công ty Honda Vietnam đã vinh dự được
một Phó Thủ tướng trao tặng băng khen của Thủ tướng Chính phủ nhân lễ
sơ kết 20 tháng thực hiện Luật Hải quan. (Splitting and Combining
Sentences)
14. Bac Kan province, which is mostly inhabited by the H’mong ethnic
minority, has made success in preserving the Ba Be National Park’s
biodiversity over the past three years. ☞ Tỉnh Bắc Kạn, nơi phần lớn dân
cư là người dân tộc H’mong, trong ba năm qua đã bảo tồn thành công đa
dạng sinh học của Vườn Quốc gia Ba Bể. (Verb→Noun)
15. I’ve just had a throat operation, and my problem is not that I can’t hear,
but that I can’t speak. ☞ Tôi vừa bị mổ cổ họng cho nên cái khó khăn của
tôi không phải là không nghe được mà là không nói được. (Noun → Verb)
16. Hoạt động tại VN từ 1994, Qũy Cựu Chiến binh Mỹ tại VN đã triển khai
cùng Bộ Y tế VN dự án phục hồi chức năng cho các nạn nhân chiến tranh
và bệnh nhân khuyết tật. ☞ Operational in VN since 1994, the VN
Translation Theory
45
Veterans of American Foundation has, together with the Vietnamese

Ministry of Health, carried out a project on functional rehabilitation for
victims of the war and handicapped people. (Verb → Adjective)
17. Cần phải có biện pháp để chống thất thoát trong đầu tư, xây dựng cơ bản.
☞ There should be managerial measures against losses in infrastructure
construction investment. (Verb → Preposition)
18. Nó đến bất ngờ làm tôi ngạc nhiên. ☞ His sudden coming took me
unaware. (Adverb → Adjective)
19. Ánh nắng già dặn buổi trưa nung đốt mặt cánh đồng dưới chân đồi, làm
rung rinh lớp không khí bốc từ mặt đất.
☞ The intensive sun at noon baked the field at the foot of the hill and
vibrated the air coming from the ground. (Noun → Prepsosition)
20. His returning so soon surprised his family. ☞ Nó trở về quá sớm làm gia
đình ngạc nhiên. (Noun phrase → Clause)
21. Châu Âu đồng loạt phản đối đề nghị đình chiến được coi là của Bin Laden.
☞ Europe protests in union what is considered Bin Laden’s truce
overtures. (Phrase → Clause)
22. Cách mạng tháng Tám thành công mang lại độc lập cho nước nhà. ☞ The
successful August Revolution brought about independence to the country.
(Clause → Phrase)
23. That he wins is certain. ☞ Nó thắng là điều chắc chắn. (Phrase → Clause)
French English Vietnamese
Il est journaliste. He is a journalist. Ông ấy là nhà báo.
Il a la jambe casee. He has a broken leg. Nó bị gãy chân.
La paix Peace Hòa bình
Du pain Bread Bánh mì
 Addition in Translation
7. The director has proposed a meeting on streamlining the work between the
divisions.☞ Ông giám đốc đề nghị triệu tập một cuộc họp về sắp xếp công
việc giữa các phòng.
8. This mission proposed a reproductive health project at commune level. ☞
Phái đoàn này đã đề nghị thực hiện một dự án sức khỏe sinh sản ở cấp xã.
9. German investors complain about the problems with the authorities and
laws in Vietnam, but know that the German government itself has huge
problems in listening to business people and ruling in a way to gain trust in
their policies. ☞ Các nhà đầu tư Đức phàn nàn về những vấn đề liên quan
Translation Theory
46
đến các nhà chức trách và luật lệ ở VN, nhưng họ biết rằng bản thân chính
phủ Đức cũng có những vấn đề lớn trong việc lắng nghe ý kiến các nhà
kinh doanh và trong việc quản lý để làm người ta tin vào chính sách của
mình.
10. Kết hợp (phát triển) KT – XH và quốc phòng an ninh trong thời kỳ mới: ổn
định dân cư các địa bàn chiến lược. ☞ Combining socio-economic
development with security-defence in the new period: stabilizing
population in strategic areas.
11. Internal furnace. ☞ Lò đốt trong (chứ không phải lò trong)
12. Solid engine. ☞ Động cơ đun nhiên liệu rắn (chứ không phải động cơ rắn)
13. Nationalized industries. ☞ Các ngành công nghiệp được quốc hữu hóa.
14. He’d always been so spruce and smart; he was shabby and unwashed and
wild-eyed. ☞ Trước kia lúc nào anh ta cũng diêm dúa và bảnh bao đến
thế; lúc này anh ta tiều tụy, bẩn thiểu và đôi mắt nhìn hoang dại.
15. Cá heo ở VN trở thành diễn viên xiếc. ☞ A dolphin (caught in Vietnam’s
sea) become a circus actor.
16. Hoạt động của đội cứu nạn trên các bãi biển Đà Nẵng đem bình yên cho
du khách. ☞ The Emergency rescue team’s operations on Da Nang city’s
beach resorts help set tourists’ mind at peace.
17. Nổi tiếng với động Phong Nha, rừng nguyên sinh Phong Nha –Kẻ Bàng,
cùng nhiều loại động thực vật quí hiếm, Quảng Bình có nhiều tiềm năng
phát triển du lịch, nhất là du lịch sinh thái. ☞ The central province of
Quang Binh has great potentials for tourism development, particularly eco-
friendly tours, with well-known Phong Nha grotto, Phong Nha – Ke Bang
virgin forest and many rare species of fauna and flora.
18. What has been their level of schooling, if any? Are there still at school?
Are they illiterate or well educated, or in between? ☞ Các em đã học xong
lớp mây, nếu đi học? Các em còn đi học không? Các em bị mù chữ hay
được học hành chu đáo, hay ở giữa?
19. It was almost nine o’clock before he reached the club, where he found Lord
Henry sitting alone, in the morning room, looking very much bored. ☞
Gần chín giờ, anh đến câu lạc bộ nơi anh thấy Huân tước Henry đang ngồi
một mình, trong một căn phòng ban mai, trông dáng vẻ đầy chán chường.
 Omission in Translation
 Meaning redundancy
1. Các cơ quan có trách nhiệm cần có chính sách quản lí giá cả cũng như có
phương hướng mở rộng thị trường xuất khẩu rau sạch, thực phẩm sạch ra
nước ngoài. ☞ Responsible agencies should work out policies for price
control and orientation for expanding market to export safe vegetables and
food.
Translation Theory
47
2. The performance is rated dull and uninteresting. ☞ Ai cũng cho cuộc biển
diễn đó là tẻ nhạt.
3. VN đẩy mạnh xúc tiến đầu tư ra nước ngoài. ☞ Vietnam promotes
investment abroad.
4. Just and equitable treatment. ☞ Cách đối xử công bằng.
5. By force and violence. ☞ Bằng bạo lực.
6. Nước các song Cửu Long đang lên nhanh. ☞ The water level in the
Mekong River’s tributaries is rising.
7. Bước tiến mới trong xuất khẩu lao động năm 2009 và triển vọng trong thời
gian tới. ☞ New steps forward in labor export in 2009 and prospect.
8. Vài nét về tổng quan kinh tế đất nước trong năm qua. ☞ An overview of
(Not Some outlines of overview of) the country’s economy in the past year.
 Style Differences in the RL
1. I had nothing much complain of except my poverty. ☞ Tôi chẳng có gì
(nhiều) để phàn nàn ngoài sự nghèo khổ của mình.
2. The negative team may agree with or choose to challenge the definition
presented. ☞ Đội phủ định có thể đồng ý hoặc (chọn) phản đối định nghĩa
đã được trình bài.
3. Reassure them that they will be supported in their preparations and that
statements are not supposed to be long and drawn out. ☞ Đảm bảo với các
em rằng các em sẽ được hỗ trợ trong công việc chuẩn bị của các em và các
bài phát biểu không được rườm rà và dài dòng.
4. Thêm một kênh tín dụng phục vụ người nghèo. Tổ chức lại Ngân hàng
phục vụ người nghèo thành Ngân hàng chính sách xã hội để mở rộng thêm
các đối tượng phục vụ là hộ nghèo, học sinh, sinh viên, các đối tượng
chính sách. ☞ One more credit channel in service of the poor. The Bank
for the Poor will be reorganized into the Bank for Social Policies so as to
expand its service (Not expand the objects of service) to poor households,
students and beneficiaries of the welfare policy.
5. Từ đầu năm đến nay, cả nước có 578 dự án nước ngoài được cấp phép đầu
tư với tổng số vốn 1,42 tỷ USD. ☞ Since the beginning of the year, 578
foreign invested projects across the country have been licensed with a
combined capital of $US1,42 billion.
6. Ngày 31/1 tiến hành ca phẫu thuật ghép gan đầu tiên tại VN. Gần 300 sinh
viên tình nguyện hiến máu phục vụ ca phẫu thuật. ☞ The first liver
transplanting surgery will be conducted on Jan. 31. Nearly 300 students
have volunteered to donate blood (to serve) to the operation.
 Avoiding Repetition
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1. Ngày 23/10, tại Chùa Quán sứ (Hà Nội), Học viện Phật giáo VN đã tổ chức
phát bằng tốt nghiệp khóa III hệ cử nhân Phật học cho 132 tăng ni sinh.
Được biết sau 3 khóa học, Học viện Phật giáo VN đã đào tạo gần 300 tăng
ni sinh làm nòng cốt trong phát triển Phật giáo tại các tỉnh, thành hội khu
vực phía Bắc.
☞ As many 132 monks and nuns have received Buddhism Bachelor
Diplomas from the Vietnam Buddhism Institute (third batch) at the Quan Su
Pagoda in Hanoi on October 23. The Institute provided to nearly 300
monks and nuns during its three batches, who serve as nuclei for the
development of Buddhism in northern provincial and municipal Sangha
organizations.
2. Vấn đề của cuộc thi độc tấu nhạc cụ dân tộc toàn quốc: nâng chất lượng
các giải thưởng. ☞ About the solo competition of national musical
instruments: quality of prizes should be raised.
 Avoiding Wordiness
1. Tái định cư cho dân ở vùng lòng hồ thủy điện Sơn La: bộn bề Tân Lập. ☞
Tan Lap is bustling with the resettlement of people relocated from the area
destined for the Son La hydropower plant lake. (Not for the Son La
hydropower plant lake’s bed)
2. About a gallon of water was dripping down my neck, getting allover my
collar and tie. ☞ Nước từ đầu chảy xuống cổ, ca vát, cổ áo ước cả.
 Transpositions
1. He spent the early part of the first evening talking alone with Miss
Paddock in a corner of the room. ☞ Buổi tối đầu tiên, anh nói chuyển
riêng với cô Paddock ở góc phòng.
2. Trying not to show her sadness, she went into Johnsy’s room, whistling. ☞
Cô vừa đi vào phòng của Johnsy vừa huýt sáo, cố gắng không để lộ nỗi
buồn.
 Replacements
1. She flew out of the room and down the stairs to the street. ☞ Cô ta lao khỏi
phòng và chạy xuống cầu thang dẫn ra phố.
2. Many people who are interested in art come to Greenwich village, which is
a section of New York City. ☞ Nhiều người yêu thích nghệ thuật đến ngôi
làng Greenwich. Đó là một vùng đất nằm ở cạnh Nữu Ước.
---***---
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49
Chapter 6 PROBLEMS RELATED TO TRANSLATION

---***---

-understand problems to translation
We have already seen in the previous chapters that translating is a complex

process. It is complex because it involves a number of problem-solving and decision-
making tasks which seem to strike the translator’s mind simultaneously during the
translating process. What seems to be more problematic for the translator is that when
translating a text, s/he will have to create in the target language an equivalent context
which is foreign to target language itself. With regard to translating activities, there are
various problems worthy of special consideration.
I. Lexical Problems
1. Word Choice
 The context itself determines the meaning of words.
Ex:
- Clergy (giáo sĩ, giới tăng đồ)
- Death (cái chết, băng hà, viên tịch)
- Kha Luân Bố đã tìm ra Tân thế giới vào năm 1842.

→ The New World was discovered by Christopher.
- Tôi đang tìm cuốn sách.

→ I am looking for my book.
- Michael Faraday đã tìm ra máy phát điện.(invent)

→ Michael Faraday invented the generator.
 It is characteristic of word that a single lexical item may have several
meanings.
Ex 1:
Translation Theory
50
- He is the former head of the Chemistry Section of the Australian Atomic

Energy Commission. ( leader)
- Although he is the head of the company, he has no head. ( leader-

intelligence)
Ex:
- The Prime Minister has also assigned relevant agencies to formulate a law
on industrial zones to provide a complete legal background/frame for the
operation of IZs and EPZs in Vietnam. (Thủ tướng đã giao cho các cơ quan có liên
quan ban hành bộ luật về khu công nghiệp nhằm cung cấp một số cơ sở pháp lý
hoàn chỉnh cho việc hoạt động của khu công nghiệp và khu chế xuất ở Việt Nam.)
☞ In order to avoid committing errors of context, words should be solved in
context and the analysis of their meaning has to be made carefully to pick out the most
appropriate equivalent.
2. Lack of Equivalent Concepts
- “Gentleman" = "trí thức, lịch lãm, có tư cách",
- "Lady" = "lịch sự, đoan trang, duyên dáng"
- The word "quân tử" = "người tài đức xuất chúng, người phẩm hạnh ngay
thẳng, ngườI có nhâncách" is different from "gentleman" in English.
- The concept "de facto relationship" is not available in Vietnamese. In
Vietnamese, we have "bà bé, bà nhỏ" or "lấy làm bé, làm vợ bé, làm vợ ". Can
it be translated as "concubine" or "wife" in English?
3. Lack of Superordinate
- "Flower"- the superordinate which has the semantic field of "rose, daffodil,
lily, orchid, tulip, sunflower, chrysanthemum,..." (hồng, thủy tiên, huệ, lan, tuy
líp, hướng dương, cúc ...) as hyponyms.
- "Problems" means "vấn đề (issues), vấn nạn/tệ nạn (irregularities), khó khăn
(difficulties), trở ngại (obstacles), trục trặc ([mechanical] troubles), biến chứng
(complications), thắc thắc (queries). lỗi (fault), lỗi tại tinh trùng (sperm
problems), chứng khót hở" (breathing problems).
- "Rice" = "mạ, lúa, thóc, gạo, cơm, cốm, bỏng", Sở Túc mễ (Rice Service).
Phrases such as "imported rice", "rice fields", "green rice", rice bubbles,
"boiled/steamed rice" may cause problems in translation.
- Kinship terms: "uncle" generally means "chú, bác, cậu, dượng" and "aunt" "cô,
bác, dì, già, thím, mợ". How would we translate the phrase "Dượng Năm" into
English?
4. Lack of Hyponyms in the Receptor Language
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- "House" = "bungalow, cottage, croft, chalet, lodge, hut, mansion, manor, villa,
hall ...". In Vietnamese we have "nhà sàn, nhà tranh, nhà tranh vách đất, nhà lá,
nhà ngói, nhà gạch, nhà cây, biệt thự, vila, nhà chòi, túp lều, nhà trệt ..."
- "Cooking" = "boil, roast, bake, brew, stew, braise, simmer, poach, grill, seal,
glaze, prick, brown ". We have "luộc, xào, chiên, rang, bác, rán, tráng, dim,
nướng, nướng vỉ, hấp, hấp cách thủy, hầm..."
- "To wear,"= "để (tóc, râu), đi (giầy, vớ, bít tất, hia, hài), mặc (áo, quần), đội
(nón, mũ, tóc giả), chít (khăn), đeo (kính, nhẫn, dây chuyền, càvạt), thắt (dây
lưng, cà vạt), đánh/giồi (phấn), thoa (son, kem chống ắng), tô (son), bôi (son,
nước hoa), xức (thuốc, dầu), xịt (dầu thơm)", đóng (khố). In English we can
translate “to wear" hoặc "to put on", nhưng không dùng "to put on" cho "hair"
(tóc), ngoại trừ "to put on a wig", "to apply", "to apply make-up"
- "To lose" = "mất, thua, lạc, thất, sụt, bại, chết" (money), mất bạn (friends),
mất mặt (face), mất niềm tin (faith) ...", "thua" "thua trận (a battle), thua cuộc
(a contest) ...", (the way), lạc hướng (direction) ...", " thất" như trong " thất tình
(one"s love), "thất vọng (one"s hope)... ", "sụt" như trong " sụt cân/kí
(weight)...", " bại" như trong " bại trận (a war)", "chết" (lose one"s life).
- "To carry" = "đem, đưa, mang, vác, xách, đội, cõng, cầm, ôm, bồng, ôm,
khiêng, gánh, quảy, đeo, đèo, chở, lai, thồ, điụ, bưng, bế, kiệu,
- "Áo" = "shirt, blouse, sweater, windcheater, pullover, cardigan, coat, jacket,
slip, shawl, cape, smock, dress, tunic ...". In Vietnamese, we have "áo sơ mi,
áo lạnh, áo ấm, áo bông, áo choàng, áo tơi, áo dài ..."
5. Different Word Collocations
Ex 1:
Vietnamese English
Trà đặc Strong tea

Gội đầu To wash one’s hair
Đánh răng To clean one’s teeth
Đỡ đẻ To deliver a baby
Xóm chị em ta Red-light district
Phạm luật To break the law
Chữa thẹn To beat shyness
Bỏ thói quen To kick the habit
Chiếu khán đi đến chổ phục hồi The passport to recovery
Ex 2:
Translation Theory
52
“Giả" = "fake, false, bogus, counterfeit, sham, imitation, reproduction,

artificial, forged, assumed, replica, glass, prosthetic...".
=> Tiền giả (counterfeit notes/coins); nữ trang giả (imitation jewelry);
thuốc giả (fake pharmaceutical products); hôn nhân giả (bogus/sham/fake
marriage); giấy tờ giả (forged/fake papers); chữ kí giả (forged/fake signature);
chân tay giả (artificial/prosthetic limbs); mắt giả (glass eye); răng giả (false teeth);
tên giả (assumed/false name); cục vàng giả (replica gold nugget); bức tranh giả
(reproduction painting)…
Ex 3: Cash (tiền mặt trả liền)

Coffee (cà phê pha nhanh)
Fame (nổi danh / tiếng liền)
Lawn (thảm cỏ mua sẳn trải liền)
Love (có tình yêu liền)
- Instant Noodle (mì ăn liền)
Scratchies (vé số cạo trúng lấy tiền liền)
Sellout (hàng hoá bán ra hết liền)
Signs (bản vẽ lấy liền)
Success (thành công tức thì)
Boiling water (nước sôi nấu nhanh)
- Heavy + smoker (hút liên tu bất tận); drinker (sâu rượu); sleeper (ngủ say
như chết); eater (ăn khoẻ như trâu); gambler (kẻ ghiền cờ bạc)…
chim/ cừu (A flock of birds/ sheep)
gia súc/ trâu (A herd of cattle/ buffaloes)
- Đàn chó/ bê (A pack of dogs/ calves)

cá/ gà (A school of fish/ chickens)
sư tử/ nai (A pride of lions/ deer
☞ It is inevitable for the translators to obey the principles of English and

Vietnamese word collocations. In order to avoid this type of errors, the translator should
read as many English books and magazines to take notes of collocated words under the
English standard.
6. Personal Pronouns and Prepositions
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 In Vietnamese, there are many ways to express the thoughts and feelings or
attitude which differ from those in English. The social status, age, sex, and the family
order are distinguished clearly and systematically. This is reflected in a distinguished
clearly and systematically. This is reflected in a number of words for addressing such as
“cụ, ông, bà, bác, cô, chú, thím, dì, dượng, cậu, anh, chị, ngài, quí vị, mày, em, ..” such
words are generally expressed by English people in one word “you”.
 In Vietnamese, each preposition has a fixed meaning which does not change
regardless of the noun, adjective or verb proceeding it. On the contrary, the meaning of a
preposition in English depends on its preceding word.
Ex:
- a talk on history : một cuộc nói chuyện về lịch sử
- be disappointed in : thất vọng về
- be interested in : quan tâm về
- lay emphasis/ stress on : nhấn mạnh về
- be worried about : lo lắng về
- be proud of/ take pride in : tự hào về
- be famous for : nổi tiếng về

☞ In order to avoid this type of errors the translators should learn the prepositions going
with nouns, adjectives or verbs by heart. If they do not know how to use prepositions
exactly, they tend to the Vietnamese ones into English or vice versa. As a result, the
translators should be provided with as many structures with prepositions systematically as
possible to help them take notes and draw out the formation and rules.
7. Synonymy
Some translators depend largely on the meaning in dictionary picking out the
synonyms without paying much to the context. In fact, the pairs of synonyms share at least
one sense in common but do not share all their senses. To some extent, they can hardly
substitute for each other. The misuse of synonyms makes the meaning of one of the
following sentences unacceptable.
- You have my deep/ profound sympathy.( acceptable)
- The river is deep.”( acceptable)
- The river is very profound.” (unacceptable)
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Another example shows that some translators do not realize the connotational
meaning, which leads to the distorting of the meaning of the sentence. Take “famous”(nổi
tiếng) and “notorious” (khét tiếng) as an example. While “famous” means “well-known/
celebrated”, and therefore contains some features of positive meaning, “notorious” means
“well-known” especially for unfavorable reason & negative meaning.
The following can be seen as the misuse of the synonyms by some of the
inexperienced translators.
o “Cậu bé này rất bướng bỉnh.” (This boy is very stubborn/unyielding.) ( right)
o “Người Việt Nam có tinh thần bất khuất.” (The Vietnamese people are really
stubborn.) (wrong)
o Chính phủ có kế hoạch xây hàng ngàn ngôi nhà cho người vô gia cư.” (The
government plans to build thousands of homes for homeless people.) ( wrong)
Most of the synonyms have the same meaning in certain context. If a translator use
synonyms without referring to the context,(s)he can make wrong & funny for his readers.
In order to avoid the misuse, the translator should carefully take the synonyms into
consideration before using them. In addition, it would be better for the translator to
consider the differences of the pairs of synonyms when translating.
8. Idioms & terminologies
The meanings of idioms are not definitely related to grammatical rules or the
lexical meaning of each word because they feature the metaphor and figures of speech.
For example, “ wet blanket” should be translated “người rầu rĩ” instead of “cái chăn ướt”
or “to read one’s palm” translated as “xem chỉ tay” instead of “đọc cái gì ở lòng bàn tay”.
In fact, idioms can be translated satisfactorily by considering the context, if not, it
is difficult to find the exact meaning. An English idiom must be translated into
Vietnamese by an equivalent one. It is very important to be aware that we must not choose
the equivalents of every word forming the idiom but we do find the equivalent ways of
expression which exist in both languages. If we stick to each word, the meaning becomes
strange, unnatural and funny. For instance, “to sell like a hot cake” is usually translated as
“bán đắt như tôm tươi.” Instead of “bán như bánh nóng”. “ There is no time like present.”
is usually translated as “việc hôm nay chớ để ngày mai” instead of “không có thời gian
như bây giờ”. “Live and learn” is usually translated as “còn sống còn học” instead of
“sống và học”.
The following errors were found in some of the translated texts and should be
corrected.
- “Every time, we have our children’s birth certificates signed at the local
People’s committee, we have to go though a lot of red tape.” was translated as
(“Mỗi khi nhờ họ ký giấy khai sinh tại ủy ban nhân dân phường, chúng tôi phải đi
qua nhiều băng đỏ.”
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- “At first we intended to stay at home. On the second thought, we decided to

go out.” was translated as “Thoạt đầu chúng tôi có ý định ở nhà. Trong lần suy
nghĩ thứ hai chúng tôi quyết định đi ra ngoài.”
- “She rarely saves her time to do her homework. She often lets the grass grow
under her feet.” was translated as “Cô ấy hiếm khi tiết kiệm thời gian để làm bài
tập ở nhà. Cô thường để cỏ mọc dưối chân.”
II. Problems related to Structural Differences
1. Parts of Speech
Each language has its own division of lexicon into classes such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, etc. It is not always possible to translate a SL noun with a noun in TL.
In English, there is a tendency of using more nominal structures while verbal structures
are used more in Vietnamese. Some translators keep the same structures when translating,
leading to vagueness in TL texts. For example, “Thank you for your pretty present.” was
translated as “Cám ơn anh vì món quà đáng yêu.” instead of “Cám ơn anh đã tặng em
món quà đáng yêu.”
2. Voice
There is a tendency of using more passive constructions in English than in
Vietnamese. For instance, “The USA is said to be a powerful country.” was translated as:
“Mỹ được nói là một cường quốc.” instead of “Người ta nói rằng Mỹ là một cường
quốc.”
The following examples of structural errors were made by some of translators.
- The Vietnamese Airlines has coped with difficulties due to the regional
financial crisis. (Hàng không Việt Nam gặp phải những khó khăn do cuộc
khủng hoảng tài chính vùng trầm trọng.)
- Schools teach mathematics because of its very important roles. (Trường học
dạy toán vì tầm quan trọng của nó.)
- Thank you for your letter. (Cám ơn lá thư của em.)
- Hue was recognized as the world’s cultural heritage by UNESCO in 1994.
(Huế được xem là di sản văn hóa thế giới bởi UNESCO vào năm 1994.)
- I was rewarded with a trip to Nha Trang by my parents after a year of hard
work. (Tôi đã được thưởng một chuyến đi đến Nha Trang bởi bố mẹ của tôi
sau một năm làm việc vất vả.)
The above-mentioned translations do not sound Vietnamese, lacking the coherence
and smoothness, not conveying the desired meaning of the SL sentences. It would be more
idiomatic to translate as follows.
2. Do ảnh hưởng của cuộc khủng hoảng tài chính trầm trọng trong khu vực,
nên Hãng Hàng Không VN phải đương đầu với những khó khăn.
3. Trường học dạy toán vì toán học đóng vai trò rất quan trọng.
4. Cảm ơn em đã viết thư cho em.
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5. UNESCO đã công nhận Huế là di sản văn hóa thế giới vào năm 1994.
6. Sau một năm học hành chăm chỉ, bố mẹ đã thưởng cho tôi một chuyến du
lịch đến thành phố Nha Trang.
It is clear that translators sometimes focus on the structures of SL so much that
they fail to convey all the implicit meanings of TL. In fact, it is not necessary to keep the
form at all. The most important thing is that the translations must be done on the basis of
the TL grammar that is familiar to the readers.
Another problem is that some translators are not aware of the relationship between
form and function of language. It is commonly known that in some languages, one
function can be expressed by many forms and vice versa. For example, in English the way
of giving an advice could be expressed by a number of structures: “Why don’t you..?”,
“You should/ ought to..”, “If I were you, I’d..”, “You’d better” or “ I advise you to.”. In
addition, some translators did not realize the conversational implicature understood
implicitly as follows.
1. What’s the time? (Why are you so late?)
2. Are you my teacher? (You want to teach me.)
3. Why don’t we go to the cinema? (a suggestion)
4. Why did you say so? (You should not have said so)
5. Unless he has done the work to my satisfaction, I will not pay him for
this. (If he has not done, …)
As mentioned in the previous parts, the structural differences between the SL and
the TL are likely to make it difficult for the translators. Below are the translated sentences
with their structural errors made by some of inexperienced translators. Please, give your
comments on the following:
1. “The dividing gap between the rich and the poor as well as corruption and social
unrest caused by the relocation of people in industrialized areas, have made
many people hesitate in further changes.” (Khoảng cách lớn giữa người giàu và
người nghèo cũng như sự tham nhũng và tình trạng bất an của xã hội gây ra do
sự phân bố lại dân cư ở các khu công nghiệp đã làm cho nhiều người phải do dự
khi chấp nhận những thay đổi lớn.)
2. “It is also necessary to invest in increasing capability of battery production
establishments to meet the demand for automobile and motorbike manufacturing
and assembling in accordance with the localization program.”(Nó cũng rất cần
thiết để đầu tư vào việc tăng năng suất của những cơ sở sản xuất ắc qui để đáp
ứng nhu cầu dây chuyền sản xuất vào việc chế tạo ô tô và xe máy phù hợp với
chương trình ở trong nước.)
3. “It takes much time to deliver goods to remote areas by backward means of
transport.” (Nó lấy nhiều thời gian để phân phối hàng hóa đến các vùng xa xôi
bằng các phương tiện giao thông lạc hậu.)
III. Problems related to style differences
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Styles play an important role in translation and strongly affect the process of
translation. Due to the context, text-type and audience, the levels of language in
translation can be different - the informal language used in informal situations;
colloquials used in spoken language; familiar language used among friends, relatives, and
family members; formal language used in formal texts such as speeches in conferences,
legal documents, business letters & documents, research papers, etc.
The examples given below clearly indicate that the same message could be
expressed in different styles.
1. Drop me a line. ( informal language )
2. Remember to write me a letter. ( neutral)
3. I look forward to your letter. ( informal language )
4. They can escape from family superrvision.( formal)
5. Their parents can’t keep an eye on them. (colloquial)
6. They are completely armed. ( formal)
7. They are armed to teeth. ( colloquial)
Style error is an acute problem to the translators. As translators, we should be
aware of the differences when using various styles such as conversational, academic,
scientific, literary styles. Unfortunately, many translators fail to do so when coming across
the unfamiliar styles lacking awareness of the degree of formality (informal or formal
style), usage of vocabulary ( informal, colloquial, formal).
These are some style errors taken out from some Vietnamese- English translations. Please,
give your comments on the following:
- Nếu chúng tôi đặt hàng với số lượng lớn, liệu doanh nghiệp anh có bán với giá
rẻ không? (If we place substantial orders, can your enterprise get us with soft
price?)
☞ It is impossible to use informal style in a business letter. Instead of using “soft price” ,
the translator should use “cheaper price”.
- Thời tiết ở Huế không thích hợp cho người già. Mùa hè trời nóng như thiêu
đốt, trong khi mùa đông lạnh đến xương tủy. (The weather in Hue is favorable
for the old. It is burning hot in summer while it chills to the bones in winter.)
☞ It is impossible to use informal style to tanslate a formal text. Instead of using “burning
hot”, the translator should use “exceedingly hot”.
IV. Cultural Differences
Culture could be understood as the total set of beliefs, attitude, customs, behavior,
and habits etc. of the member of a particular society. In the broad sense, it includes modes
of production, production activities, community organization, spiritual life, knowledge of
nature and society, emotions, and moral conceptions. Language is regarded as both a
component of a culture and network through which other elements of culture operate.
Language, therefore, uses almost all other cultural elements so as to perfect its universal
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58
and self-sufficient nature. It could be said that we will not translate from this to that
language perfectly unless we know its relation to its culture.
For example, it is commonly known that “ao dai” is a traditional costume of the
Vietnamese women and we never find an equivalent word in English to translate “ao
dai”. However, some translators translated mechanically “ao dai” into “ a dress”. How
funny it is! It would be preferred to writing down “ao dai” to express the cultural feature
to making foreign people misunderstand “ao dai” as “a dress”.
Therefore, “ Trang phục truyền thống của người phụ nữ Việt Nam là chiếc áo dài tượng
trưng cho sự duyên dáng.” should be translated as “ The traditional costume of the
Vietnamese women is “ao dai” which symbolizes the grace.
III. Problems of Untranslatability
The problems of untranslatability can be described as linguistic and cultural. On
the linguistic level, untranslatability occurs when there is no lexical or syntactical
substitute in the TL for an SL item. Linguistic untranslatability is due to differences in the
SL and the TL, whereas cultural untranslatability is due to the absence in the TL culture of
a relevant situational feature for the SL text.
To define untranslatability without making a separation between the linguistic and
the cultural, it is essential to distinguish two types of situation.
 A situation in which the linguistic elements of the original cannot be replaced
adequately in structural, linear, functional or semantic terms in consequence of
lack of denotation or connotation.
 A situation where the relation of expressing the meaning, i.e. the relation between
the creative subject and its linguistic expression in the original does not find an
adequate linguistic expression in the translation.
Example
If ‘I'm going home’ is translated as Je vais chez moi, the content meaning of the SL
sentence (i.e. self assertive statement of intention to proceed to place of residence and/or
origin) is only loosely reproduced. And if, for example, the phrase is spoken by an
American resident temporarily in London, it could either imply a return to the immediate
‘home' or a return across the Atlantic, depending on the context in which is used, a
distinction that would have to be spelled out in French.
 Linguistic untranslatability - when the target language has no corresponding
words, tenses, phonetic or grammatical entities that occur in the source language.
Examples
- Iron sinks = sắt chìm, chậu sắt
- Singapore is a fine country ('fine' = đẹp, tiền phạt)
- A heavenly Piece of Kentucky Fried Chicken (Heavenly = delicious)
- 'Heavenly Piece' sounds like 'Gate of Heavenly Peace' (Thiên An Môn)
- Canh toàn quốc (the word 'quốc' is untranslatable)
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- Da trắng vỗ bì bạch
- Bà già đi chợ cầu đông.
Xem một quẻ bói có chồng lợi chăng.
Thầy bói gieo quẻ nói rằng.
Lợi thì có lợi nhưng răng không còn.
☞ The old woman goes to the market of the Eastern Bridge where she
asks a soothsayer about the “lợi” that may come to her through
marriage. The soothsayer consults his orancular coins and says: There
may be some gum staying with you but no teeth.
- Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh xem xét khả năng sản xuất điện từ rác thải. ☞
HCM City examines the possibility of generating power from rubbish.
(‘Power’ = điện, quyền lực, sức mạnh…)
- A: Waiter, what do you call this?
B: It’s ____ (bean / been) soup, sir.
A: I don’t care what it’s ____(bean / been). What is it now?
- A: Have you hunted ____(bear / bare)?
B: No, I always hunt with my clothes on.
- A teacher saw two boys fighting in the playground.
Teacher: Stop! You know the school rules – No fighting
____ (allowed / aloud).
Student: But, sir, we weren’t fighting ____(allowed / aloud).
We were fighting quietly.
- A: How can I get rig of my headache?
B: Hit your head against a window and the ____(pain / pane)
will disappear.
Thời gian trôi nhanh làm sao.
- Time flies ☞
Hãy quan sát tốc độ của ruồi.
- “Realize thyself, Anocba dearr”, said Will; and Amocba realized
myself, and there was so Small Change but many Checks on the Bank
wherein the wild Time grew and grew and grew. “A-mốc-ba than yêu,
em hãy nhì cho rõ”, Uyn nói. A-mốc-ba nhìn kỹ, nàng không thấy
(Đồng tiền lẻ / sự Thay đổi cỏn con) nào mà chỉ có nhiều (Séc Ngân
hàng mả thời hạn đang đến gần một cách dễ sợ / Vật cản trên Bờ song
dưới đó dòng song Time hung dữ cữ cuồn cuộn chảy.)
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 Cultural untranslatability - when the target language and its culture lack a
relevant situational feature for the source language text (allusions, symbols, puns).
- Gallon, acre, kimono, yukata, kimchi, pizza, yumcha, de facto...
- Phở, áo dài, cải lương, chèo, tuồng...
Where’re you going? / Hello or Hi!
- Anh đi đâu đấy? ☞
Où allez-vous? / Bonjour!
- Thân em vừa trắng lại vừa trò.
(My body white, my shape, round)
Bảy nổi ba chìm với nước non.
(Many and many a time, I emerge and sink in the water.)
Rắn nát mặt dầu tay kẻ nặn.
(The hand, that kneaded me, made me hard or soft at will.)
Mà em vẫn giữ tắm long son.
(But I always keep my heart vermillion.)
Cultural untranslatability falls on the cultural terms and idiomatic expressions
which have no equivalents in the TL culture. They can be dealt with in the 'Principles of
Translation'. And translators deal with untranslatability by employing a number of
procedures. These include:
 Adaptation - when social or cultural reality of the source text with reality
taken from the culture of the target language;
 Borrowing - when the translator uses the word or phrase of the original,
usually in italics;
 Calque - when the translation of an expression is rendered word-for-word;
 Compensation - when the translator adds elements to the target texts to make
up for their absence in the target language;
 Paraphrase - when a word of the source text is replaced, in the target text, by
a whole group of words that explain a non-existent notion in the target
language;
 Translator's note - when the translator breaks the flow of the text by an
annotation that compensates the untranslatability.
 Referential Untranslatability occurs when a referential element in the source
message is not known or readily comparable to a particular item in the target
language. The Vietnamese language, for example, has different names for several
different kinds of stuffed wheaten food:. Bánh bao, bánh ngọt, bánh khọt … But to
the English speaker, all these have but one name  dumpling (a small piece of
dough, boiled or baked, often enclosing meat, fruit, etc.): the contrasts between
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these different kinds of stuffed food are not lexically represented in English. Of
course circumlocution or description may often help bridge the lexical gap.
 Pragmatic Untranslatability arises where some pragmatic meaning encoded in a
source item is not encoded likewise in a functionally comparable unit in the target
language, or where the exact pragmatic meaning(s) carried by the source sign
is/are unclear or indeterminable due to historical reasons or to the intentional
equivocation on the part of the author.
 Intralingual Untranslatability: By intralingual untranslatability we mean any
situation in which the source expression is apparently not transferable due to some
communicatively foregrounded linguistic peculiarity it contains. It differs from
“linguistic untranslatability” as defined by Catford in that instead of including
those conventionally followed rules of the language, it pertains only to those
linguistic features that are foregrounded somehow in the context. Intralingual
untranslatability accounts for a majority of cases of untranslatability. Look at the
following example.
The Clerk: Are you engaged?
Augustus: What business is that of yours? However, if you will take
the trouble to read the society papers for this week, you will
see that I am engaged to the Honorable Lucy Popham,
youngest daughter of 
The Clerk: That isn’t what I mean. Can you see a female?
Augustus: Of course I can see a female as easily as a male. Do you
suppose I’m blind?
The Clerk: don’t seem to follow me somehow. There’s a female
downstairs: what you might call a lady. She wants to know
can you see her if I let her up.
Augustus: Oh, you mean am I disengaged. Tell the lady I’m busy.
(My emphases)
IV. Loss and Gain in Translation

Once the principle is accepted that sameness cannot exist between two languages,
it becomes possible to approach the question of loss (leaving something) and gain (adding
something) in the translation processes. It is again an indication of the low status of
translation that so much time should have been spent on discussing what is lost in the
transfer of a text from SL to TL whilst ignoring what can also be gained, for the translator
can at times enrich or clarify the SL text as a direct result of the translation process.
Moreover, what is often seen as `lost' from the SL context may be replaced in the TL
context.
Ex: Loss and gain in meaning
- The university of CF  trường ĐH( tổng hợp, đa ngành) CF <~ loss
- Trường ĐH Kinh tế (college of economics) university of economics<~ gain
- Trường đời  The university of life <~ loss
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- A sprinster  (An unmarried woman) <~ gain

Ex: Loss and gain in lexis/ structure
- Trường đời  The university of life. (The, of: gain in lexis – functional words)
- Mình đi xem film đi  Let us go to the cinema, shall we? (Let, shall: gain)
- Một chiếc thuyền câu bé tẻo teo  A tiny fishing boat (tẻo teo: loss)
EXERCISES
a. Tổng Công ty Điện lực Việt Nam tạo điều kiện thuận lợi cho các doanh
nghiệp FDI.
☞ Electricity of Vietnam creates favourable conditions for businesses with
foreign direct investment. (tạo điều kiện thuận lợi = make it easy for)
b. Hội Nông dân Việt Nam phát huy mạnh mẽ vai trò trung tâm nồng cốt
trong phong trào nông dân và xây dựng nông thôn mới.
☞ The Vietnam Farmers’ Association (vigorously) brings into full play its
central and key role in the farmers’ movement and in building a new
countryside. (Adverb→ Adjective)
c. The Deputy Minister also briefed his hosts on the outstanding soci-
economic achievements Vietnam has recorded in recent years, especially in
keeping themarco economy in balance, reducing poverty and maintaining
socio-political stability in order to facilitate foreign investment and
businesses.
☞ Thứ trưởng cũng giới thiệu về những thành tựu KT-XH nổi bật của VN
trong những năm qua, đặc biệt là thành công trong cân đối kinh tế vĩ mô,
giảm đói nghèo và duy trì sự ổn định về chính trị và xã hội, tạo môi trường
thuận lợi cho nhà đầu tư và kinh doanh nước ngoài.
Suggest suitable Vietnamese translation for all the underlined words in the passages
below.
a. Some people are always up in the clouds or down in the depths. They swing from one
extreme to another. Others are stolid and indifferent, never much thrilled by success and
never greatly put out by failure.
b. Men are prepared to go to extra ordinary lengths to get political power. They will
sacrifice health, comfort and domestic peace, up with almost unlimited amounts of public
criticism, and risk the humiliations and disappointment of defeat.
c. 'Why did you believe him when he said he wasn't married?' asked Mary.
'Because' , replied Pamela, 'he was so good-looking and well-dressed, and had such a nice
voice.'
'All that glitters is not gold' , Mary reminded her.
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d. 'Why are you writing science fiction' , asked the friend of an author, 'instead of the
historical novels you used to write?'
'Because' , replied the author, science fiction has become very popular and 'I'm making
hay while the sun shines.'
e. 'I applied for a fortnight's holiday, but we've so short-handed that they'd only give me a
week. Still, half a loaf's better than no bread.'
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Chapter 7 STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS
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-understand strategies for translators
The following strategies have been suggested by translators,

commissioners of translations, and others involved in translating as ways to approach
difficulties in translations from English into Vietnamese.
1. STRATEGY 1: How to deal with non-equivalence at lexical level
It is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese for
English words. It may be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnamese translators, as in
the case of ‘gender’, which is, in fact, a relatively new concept in general, and a very
difficult concept to understand and explain in many languages. It may also be that the
concept is known or understood but there is no specific word in Vietnamese used to
express it. Another difficulty is that, in addition to their concrete meaning, some words
have special connotations that are not conveyed by the Vietnamese word for the same
thing. The strategies listed below can be used to handle cases of non-equivalence.
1.1 Translating by a more specific word
In some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific word to
translate an English word into Vietnamese. This usually involves choosing among several
different words, as there may be many Vietnamese words that correspond to the general
category or meaning expressed by English word. For instance, Vietnamese has many
words that mean “to carry” with distinction being made depending on the size and shape
of the object; its animate ( e.g. a child as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g. in
the hand, or in the arms...). Similarly, the English word for “rice” can be translated by
many different Vietnamese words, depending on whether one is planting it, harvesting it,
cooking it, or eating it. In these cases, the English word alone is not enough to determine
the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it is necessary to examine the English context.
1.2 Translating by a more general word
In other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate an
English word with no specific Vietnamese equivalent. For example, English makes
distinctions among mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and
engines than both mopeds and scooters. Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-
wheel, motorized vehicles as “xe máy”. Similarly, the English words “paw”, “foot”, or
“leg” may all be translated by the Vietnamese word “chân”, which does not suggest any
problems of comprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear from the context which
of these words is meant. Another example can be found in a manual on community
development, which translates the word “matrix” by the Vietnamese word “ma trận”.
Translation Theory
65
However, in Vietnamese, “ma trận” has a specific use in mathematics only, and does not
have the additional sense of a model or a plan according to which something is developed.
In this example, “matrix” is better translated “bản”, which is a more general word used to
classify a written plan or formula.
1.3 Translating by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with one of
the different meanings but similar impact in the translated text. Because of their self-
described “respect” for the original text, most Vietnamese translators object to this
strategy and tend to translate directly, even though it is in appropriate. For example, a
farmer’s manual that has been translated into Vietnamese suggests the planting of
different types of fruit trees which are not even grown in Vietnam. The original manual,
which was developed in other parts in Asia, was not modified at all for the Vietnamese
context. Though some translators argue that it is not the responsibility of the translator to
chance the text in this way, the translator is in fact playing an important role in this task.
Translators should be encouraged to consider the appropriateness of the documents they
are translating and suggest changes to make them more culturally appropriate. However,
this is not only the burden of the translator, but also of the commissioners of the
translation and the editor.
1.4 Translating by using a loan word plus explanation
There is some objection to this strategy in Vietnam, as many translator prefer to
coin new words in Vietnamese rather than borrow English words. However, this strategy
is very useful when the translator deal with concepts or ideas that are new to Vietnamese
audience, culture-specific items, and proper names of diseases or medicines that are
widely known in English names. For instance, HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are
frequently used in Vietnamese, as they are referred to by their English names in almost
every part of the world. Because these words have been in common used in Vietnam for a
long time, they are often used without any accompanying explanation. Whenever a loan
word is used , it is better to give an explanation. Another example is the acronym for oral
dehydration salts, or ORS, which is printed on every package and hence easily recognized;
this is normally written in English with an explanation in Vietnamese : ORS (muối bù mất
nước)
1.5 Translating by using a paraphrase
This strategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that does
not exist in Vietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include all the
meanings conveyed by the English term for the same concept. For example, in the
sentence: “Pregnant women should avoid alcohol.”, the English ‘alcohol’ includes all
alcoholic drinks in its meaning. The Vietnamese word ‘rượu’ does not include beer in its
definition, so the Vietnamese translation should add the word beer to reflect the full
meaning of the source language sentence. Another example is that the English words
‘abuse’ and ‘neglect’ signify a whole range of behaviors, some of which are not conveyed
by the Vietnamese words alone. As a result, the English sentence: “Children should be
protected from abuse and neglect.” cannot be translated as simply as “trẻ em nên được
bảo vệ khỏi sự lạm dụng và lơ là.”. This translation does not account for their full
meaning , which must be unpacked for better understanding. This can be done by
Translation Theory
66
paraphrasing as a translator has attempted in the following translation: “trẻ em cần bảo vệ
chống lại mọi hình thức bạo lực, gây tổn thương hay xúc phạm, bỏ mặc hoặc xao nhãng
trong việc chăm sóc”. Back translated roughly into English, this sentence reads, :
“Children must be protected from all forms of violence causing harm or offense, and from
abandonment and negligence in their care.”
1.6 Translating by omission
Though some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is sometimes
appropriate to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the
text. This is especially true for words that would require lengthy explanations, awkward
paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translations, which would interrupt the flow of the
text and could distract the reader from the overall meaning. For example, the sentence “
Much can be done even without being physically present in the meeting.” is best
translated into Vietnamese by, “ nhiều việc có thể làm ngày cả khi không có mặt tại cuộc
họp” which omit the word “physically” in the translation. The difference in meaning
between “ being physically present” and being present” is so minimal that it does not
justify translation into Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the slight emphasis
implied here by the author, and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality of a
person’s presence.
2. STRATEGY 2: How to deal with idioms and set expressions

Idioms and set expressions can be dealt with in the ways similar to those
mentioned above. With idioms, however, there is another difficulty that the translator may
not realize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression, since more idioms may make
sense when translated literally.
2.1 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning and form
It is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or expression with a similar
meaning to an English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the same way. One
example is the idiom “ to fight like cats and dogs”, which is expressed using the same
words in Vietnamese: “ cãi nhau như chó với mèo.”; another is “ Better than never.”,
which is translated : “Thà muộn còn hơn không đến”. It is ideal if such a match can be
found, but this kind of correspondence is not common, and it is usually necessary to use
other strategies in dealing with idioms and set expressions.
2.2 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning but different form
It is possible and easy to find a Vietnamese idiom with a similar meaning for an
English idiom or set expression. A good example can be found is the translation for to
carry coals to Newcastle”: “Chở củi về rừng." ,which is translated as “ to carry firewood
to the forest.” The meaning here is clearly the same for both idioms- to bring something to
a place that has an abundance of that thing- but the way in which each language expresses
is bound to be the culture of that language. It is far more cumbersome to translate this
idiom literally into Vietnamese with an explanation that Newcastle is a well-known coal-
producing city in England (as was suggested by some Vietnamese translators), which
would unduly interrupt the flow of the text and greatly diminish the idiom’s impact. By
substituting a similar Vietnamese idiom, then, the flow and the impact of the source text
are retained in the translation.
Translation Theory
67
2.3 Translating by paraphrasing

When Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the best way
to deal with an idiom or set expression in English. A good example can be found in an
article on maternal mortality, which includes the sentence, “ But before the new estimates
replace the old as a way of packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has
been made in allowing statistics such as these to slip into easy language. The expression
“packaging up the problem” caused the problems in translation, as it was misinterpreted to
mean “assembling” or “gathering”. However, even if this phrase were clearly understood,
it would be difficult to find a precise equivalent in Vietnamese. In fact, it would be
difficult to restate concisely in English. This phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing,
which in English could be understood as something like “summing up the problem by
referring to it simply as a number, which does not reflect its true magnitude or impact.”
The expression “to slip into easy usage” is problematic for the same reasons, and is also
best dealt with by paraphrasing, as a literal translation into Vietnamese would be
meaningless.
2.4 Translating by omission
This strategy could be used when we translate words or phrases that would require
lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translation. This
strategy has also be used when we translate phases which has two meanings one of the
meanings may be sacrificed for the other. For instance, a book entitled “ Being Positive-
Living with HIV/AIDS” causes problems in translate because of the double meaning of “
being positive”. The meaning of the phrase could be that a person is suffering from
positive HIV and that s/he should have an optimistic outlook on life. This may be clear to
the translator , who may interpret the phrase to mean that this book is for and about people
who are HIV positive. However, the double meaning should be made clear through
collaboration with the commissioner, after which a choice must be made between the two
meanings, for it would not be possible to translate both meanings by one Vietnamese
phrase. As the emphasis is on positive outlook on life but not on the fact of being HIV
positive, one translator has suggested the translation: “Hãy Sống Yêu Đời Dù Nhiễm
HIV”. This translation expresses the notion of being positive about life without
mentioning anything about being HIV positive status.
3. STRATEGY 3: How to deal with voice, number and person
3.1 Voice
The passive voice is used very often in English and poses some problems in
Vietnamese translation. Passive voice can be translated from English into Vietnamese in
the following ways:
a. English : A is/was/has been done by B
Vietnamese: (i) A được+ động từ+(bởi B)
A được/do+(B)+động từ
(ii) A bị +động từ + bởi B
A bị +(B) + động từ
Example:
Translation Theory
68
This house was built by Frank in 1930

NgôI nhà này do Frank xây năm 1930
Tom is given a present by Mary
Tom được Mary tặng một món quà
Tom was attacked by a stranger last night
Tom bị một kẻ lạ mặt tấn công tối hôm qua
b. English : A is/was/has been done.
Vietnamese: (i) A được+ động từ
(ii) A bị+ động từ
(iii) Người ta/ai đó + động từ + A
Example:
Tom has been promoted recently.
Tom mới được đè bạt gần đây.
The CD has been broken.
Chiếc đĩa CD đã bị vỡ/ Ai đó đã làm vỡ chiếc đĩa CD.
The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, so it is
difficult to know what way used to translate into Vietnamese.
Example: The children were given injections.

Vietnamese translation : “Các cháu được tiêm.”, or “Các cháu bị tiêm.”
depending on whether the receiving injection is considered a positive or negative
experience. On the other hand, when the positive or negative connotation of the sentence
is clear it is more appropriate to retain the passive voice in Vietnamese.
Example: The H’Mong people do not like to be called Meo. They prefer to
be called H’Mong.
Vietnamese: Người dân tộc Hơ Mông không thích bị gọi là dân tộc Mèo. Họ
thích được gọi là dân tộc Hơ Mông.
In Vietnamese, there are some cases where one can see the words được/bị but they
are not translated into English passive sentences at all.
Example: - Anh ấy bị ngã. : He fell.
- Chị Lan bị ho. : Lan has a cough.
- Hôm nay chúng ta được đánh chén no nê.
We had and enormous meal today.
3.2 Number
Translation Theory
69
Though both languages have similar notions of number and countability, each
language has its own way to express these notions. In English, number is expressed as a
grammar category; that is, there are different grammatical forms for singular and plural
nouns. In Vietnamese, however, no such distinction is grammatically made.
Example : Phụ nữ: can mean either woman or women
In Vietnamese, some plural markers such as “các”, “những”, tất cả”, “mọi" ,”mỗi”
can be used in addition to the noun. “các” generally means all of the given category of
things, whereas “những” refers only to some of the total number of things being
discussed. “Mỗi” emphasizes the identity of the individual member of the category
without indicating anything of their totality; “mọi” expresses both the individuality of the
items and the totality of the category. If it is clear from the English context which of these
plural markers should be used in the Vietnamese, then the translator should choose
accordingly.
3.3 Person
Participants’ roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through a
very complicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship terms. Unlike
English pronouns, Vietnamese pronouns bear a number of semantic components
depending on the relationship within a family, age, sex, familiarity, social status, and even
one’s particular mood or attitude in a given situation. These distinctions are not always
explicitly expressed in English and can usually be determined by the context in which the
language operates. If it is not possible to determine the distinctions of the English
pronouns, the attention should be focused on the tone and the overall purpose of the text to
be translated.
Example: A book on health-care contains many sections written especially for
children and adults. In the sections for children the pronoun “you” is translated as “em” or
“các em”. In the sections for adults, “you” should be translated as “chúng ta” .
4. STRATEGY 4 : How to deal with non-subject sentences
(Vietnamese- English translation)
The following techniques could be used to translate the non-subject sentences in
Vietnamese texts:
4.1. Passive voice
4.2. It + to be + Adj + to infinitive
4.3. There + to be...
4.4. Use the subject that is found in the previous sentence(s)
Example:
Cần đảy mạnh công nghiệp hóa, hiện đại hóa.
Industrialization and modernization should be promoted.
Or: It is necessary to promote industrialization and modernization
Vẫn chưa có cách chữa khỏi bệnh AIDS.
Translation Theory
70
There has been no cure for AIDS.
5. STRATEGY 5 : How to deal with newspaper headlines

Some main characteristics of newspaper headlines are as follows.
5.1. Present tense = past events
5.2. Present participle = event in progress
5.3. To infinitive = future events
5.4. Past participle = passive voice
5.5. Nouns
5.6. Verb + noun
Example:
1. Chinese Professors Turn To Business
Các giáo sư Trung Quốc chuyển sang kinh doanh
2. US President Visiting Vietnam
Tổng thống Hoa Kỳ đang thăm Việt Nam
3. Oil Price to Rise?
Giá dầu sẽ tăng
4. Three More Investment Projects Licensed This Year
Thêm ba dự án đầu tư nữa được cấp giấy phép trong năm nay
5. Investment Boom
Bùng nổ đầu tư
6. See You in Court
Hẹn gặp tại tòa
---***---
Translation Theory
71
References
Dorer, Brita. (2012). Round 6 translation guidelines. London: European Social Survey
Duff, Alan. (1998). Translation: Resource books for teachers. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Munday, Jeremy. (2012). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.

London: Routledge.
Nguyễn, Quốc Hùng. (2007). Hướng dẫn kỹ thuật phiên dịch Anh - Việt Việt - Anh :
Interpreting techniques English - Vietnamese Vietnamese - English. NXB: Thành phố Hồ
Chí Minh: Tổng hợp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh
Nguyễn, Quốc Hùng. (2007). Hướng dẫn kỹ thuật biên dịch Anh - Việt Việt - Anh :
Translation English - Vietnamese Vietnamese - English. NXB: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh:
Văn hóa Sài Gòn
Vũ, Văn Đạt. (2011). Lí luận và thực tiễn dịch thuật : (Sách chuyên khảo phục vụ đại học
và sau đại học) . NXB: Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
---***---
Translation Theory
72
Appendix A: Video clips for Translation Practice
1.Research Say Ideas About Music and https://youtu.be/paHvxNXGNck

Intelligence Are...(VOA)
2.Higher Education Opens to More People https://youtu.be/wNp2gj35hUU
Worldwide (VOA)
3.“Exploding” Lake to Provide Power in https://youtu.be/Q2HI0nZRkxk
Rwanda (VOA)
4.China's Alibaba to Sell Stock on the New York https://youtu.be/rEwnTf5QNVY
Stock Exchange (VOA)
5.South Africa Faces Labor Imbalance (VOA) https://youtu.be/sCOyXC_ZAYo
6.Four translation methods that could make (or https://youtu.be/oSzzwNUgap4
break) your project
7. Eight Methods of Translation https://youtu.be/uUvUGs3fm8o
9. Thirteen types of translation where you must https://youtu.be/SMbv4WuDwpw
use expert translators
10.Techniques of Translation https://youtu.be/HKkHL03ZNwQ
11.What Is Technical Translation? What Does https://youtu.be/wDadpAIbbfg
Technical Translation Mean? Technical
Translation Meaning
12.What is a Technical Translation? https://youtu.be/YE0otrO4MQI
13. Three tips for technical translation projects | https://youtu.be/v6EsZJx3vtY
Need-to-know
14.Universe Technical Translation, An Inside https://youtu.be/c_mSD8IOVpY
Look
15.Explaining our best practice approach to https://youtu.be/WgSGj733014
technical translation
16.Introduction to Technical Translation-Part 1 https://youtu.be/PLcw4wivpIM
17.Translation of a technical document https://youtu.be/01vF1IZQGfk
18.Technical Translation - That's What We Do https://youtu.be/o8MxDy1K5cs
19.Technical Translation -Grace Technology's https://youtu.be/_4C2hufur0
Manual Production
20. Practices & Tips to customize Machine https://youtu.be/Dm1GBsj_kHE
Translation for Technical Translation
21.An Introduction to Machine Translation https://youtu.be/yu9gLQtPySQ
22.Translation Process https://youtu.be/ubUJTK_T5-4
23.Financial English Vocabulary VV 41 - https://youtu.be/1GpBQi_d6Fc
Corporate Taxes (Lesson 1) | Business English
Vocabulary – (BUSINESS ENGLISH)
Translation Theory
73
24.Financial English VV 51 - Company Finance https://youtu.be/yc_kH_bEUPk

and Startups (1) | Business English Vocabulary
(BUSINESS ENGLISH)
25.English for Economics VV 34 - https://youtu.be/0XiCQhyvJMU
Macroeconomics (2) | Financial English
Vocabulary (BUSINESS ENGLISH)
26.Business English Vocabulary : VV 47 – https://youtu.be/s1vtM_g6rpE
Manufacturing & Production Process (1) | English
Vocabulary (BUSINESS ENGLISH)
27.Business English Vocabulary VV 55 - Product https://youtu.be/boi0Sb0GFDs
Management English | Marketing English
(BUSINESS ENGLISH)
28.Advanced Business English Vocabulary https://youtu.be/9REw-ohiNJU
Lesson for ESL - Accounting Vocab
(BUSINESS ENGLISH)
29.Business English Vocabulary Lesson for ESL - https://youtu.be/270NOPYz3x4
Finance & Accounting Vocabulary 2
(BUSINESS ENGLISH)
30.VV 22 Business English Vocabulary - Risk https://youtu.be/e1GtWNyQUzM
Management 1 (BUSINESS ENGLISH)
31.Business English Vocabulary VV 38 - Internet https://youtu.be/iXhoFyGGJ1E
Marketing & SEO (2) | English for Marketing-
(BUSINESS ENGLISH)
32.Business English Vocabulary for ESL - Project https://youtu.be/KVIqrUz76jw
Management 1-(BUSINESS ENGLISH)
33.Việt Nam News https://vietnamnews.vn
34.Thư viện pháp luật https://thuvienphapluat.vn
---***---
Translation Theory
74
Appendix B: E-readings for Translation Practice
1. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/DSRQuDPkKF4
2. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/KOBtORRQoNY
3. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/gw2WdEZtbiM
4. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/l3RSiSUwlT0
4. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/k57UkxLV-XU
5. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/g2eFEIuB8mI
6. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/YJZ1jac4nwU
7. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/XIrUIBQRIwo
8. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/CPdFoNsefaE
9. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/5BJPxEAGQP4
10. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/6FHPlh6KZO4
11. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/EL6gw96u1-U
12. Reading and Translation Practice https://youtu.be/EL6gw96u1-U
---***---
Translation Theory
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Translation Theory
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Translation Theory
77 Compiled by Nguyen Van Sau, M.Ed.
Translation Theory
78 Compiled by Nguyen Van Sau, M.Ed.

TCDAN NVS 2022 Theory of Translation (Course)

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CTU – English Department

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

Compiled by Nguyễn Văn Sáu

Acknowledgements: The compilers would like to appreciate all of these sources

Chapter 1: Views on Translation 4-14

Chapter 2: Kinds of Translation 15-21

Chapter 3: Steps in a Translation Project 22-28

Chapter 4: Meanings in Translation 29-38

Chapter 6: Problems Related to Translation 50-64

Chapter 7: Strategies for Translators 65-71

Appendix A: Video clips for Translation Practice 73

Appendix B: E-readings for Translation Practice 74

Chapter 1 VIEWS ON TRANSLATION

FORM versus MEANING

Translation is the process in which a written communication or a text in a first

 The form into which it is to be changed will be called the TARGET

 Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of

 How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way.

Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure,

2. Characteristics of language which affect translation

 Whole sentences may also have several functions.

 Just as words have primary and secondary meanings.

 The preposition ‘on’ is used in English to signal a variety of meanings.

 The uses of ‘by’.

- John was stopped by the policeman.

- John was stopped by the bookstand.

 A single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms.

- The black cat

- Others blamed John because of the difficulty.

3. Translation versus Interpretation

A translator is a ‘bilingual mediating agent between monolingual communication

(2) Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge of and ability to produce and

a. parsing the text (grammar and lexis)

IV. Perspectives on translation

o Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has

Chapter 2 KINDS OF TRANSLATION

Objectives: By the end of this chapter, the learners will be able to

This kind of translation tends to be dependent on the source language, so it usually

1. Yêu cầu quý khách không sờ vào hiện vật.

1. Despite the difficulties, he saw the job through to the end.

Chapter 3 STEPS IN A TRANSLATION PROJECT

Objectives: By the end of this chapter, the learners will be able to

So far, we have discussed an overview of the main aspects of translation. We have

Chapter 4 MEANING IN TRANSLATION

Objectives: By the end of this chapter, the learners will be able to

This chapter is concerned with ‘meaning’, since it is ‘meaning’ which is the

Building on this assumption, de Saussure provides a rather more explicit model of

From the translator’s point of view, componential analysis has considerable

Hide – and – seek (acceptable)

- The head and chief administrator of the

3. Tigers are birds. (Contradiction)

 The universe of discourse

Chapter 5 TYPES OF LANGUAGE AND TRANSFORMATION

Objectives: By the end of this chapter, the learners will be able to

I. Linguistic Forms and Functions

o Temporal Dialect is a language variety related to the provenance of the

'The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically

Informal 'Please don't eat here' .

III. Transformations in Translation

 General => Specific

Veterans of American Foundation has, together with the Vietnamese

Il est journaliste. He is a journalist. Ông ấy là nhà báo.