Arrangement & Motion of Particles

• In a solid:
o The molecules are very close together and arranged in
a regular pattern
o The molecules vibrate about fixed positions
• In a liquid:
o The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are no longer
arranged in a regular pattern
o The molecules are able to slide past each other
• In a gas:
▪ The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times
further apart in each direction
▪ The molecules move about randomly at high speeds

The Forces & Distances between Molecules

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 • The forces between particles affect the state of matter
• This is because the magnitude of the forces affects the relative
distances and motion of the particles
• This affects the ability of the substance to
o Change shape
o Change volume
o Flow
• The particles that make up matter include
o Atoms
o Molecules
o Ions
o Electrons

Intermolecular Forces and Motion of Particles

Solids

• The molecules in a solid are held in place by strong intermolecular forces

o They only vibrate in position
o The distance between them is fixed
o This gives the solid its rigid shape and fixed volume

Liquids

• The molecules in a liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces between
them
• They are still held close together
o The volume of the liquid is the same as the volume of the solid
• Molecules can move around (by sliding past each other)
o This allows the liquid to change shape and flow

Gases

• The molecules in a gas have more energy and move randomly at high speeds
o The molecules have overcome the forces holding them close together
• Because of the large spaces between the molecules
o The gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand
o Gases flow freely

Worked example
Two states of matter are described below. Identify each of the
states of matter.
Substance 1
•
o molecules are spaced very far apart
o molecules move very quickly at random
o molecules move in a straight line

Substance 2
•
o molecules are quite closely packed together
o molecules move about at random
o molecules do not have fixed position

substance 1
Step 1: Identify the distances between the molecules

•
o The molecules are spaced far apart
▪ This can only describe a gas

Step 2: Identify the motion of the molecules

•
o The molecules move quickly, at random and in a straight line
▪ This confirms that substance 1 is a gas

Substance 2

Step 1: Identify the distances between the molecules

•
o The molecules are closely packed
▪ This could describe either a solid or a liquid

Step 2: Identify the motion of the molecules

•
o The molecules move at random and do not have fixed positions
▪ This confirms that substance 2 is a liquid
 Temperature & Energy of Particles
• The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its container is dependent on the
temperature of the gas
o This is because particles gain kinetic energy as their temperature
increases
• As the temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure on the container also
decreases
• In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin, recognised that there
must be a temperature at which the particles in a gas exert no pressure
o At this temperature they must no longer be moving, and hence not
colliding with their container

• This temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273 °C

At absolute zero, or -273 °C, particles will have no net

movement. It is therefore not possible to have a lower
temperature

• The unit kelvin is written as K

o Note that there is no degree as with Celsius, which is
written °C
• Once you start thinking about the motion of molecules,
atoms, electrons and ions affecting their kinetic energy
this topic will become much easier to remember.
• An increase in temperature means an increase in
internal energy. With more energy the molecules can
move about more as they get more kinetic energy. Once
they are moving more they can break their bonds and
spread apart, which we experience as a change of state.
• Changes of state are caused, basically, by simple
conservation of energy and energy transfers, which you
should already be comfortable with from Years 7 and 8.

Motion of Particles in a Gas

• Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high speeds
• Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in no
specific path and undergo sudden changes in their motion if they
collide:
o With the walls of its container
o With other molecules
• Pressure in a gas is caused by the collisions with the surface
(walls) of the container
 Random motion of gas molecules in a container

Pressure & Force of Particles in a Gas

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Gas molecules hit the sides of the container and exert a force, which
creates pressure.

• A feature of gases is that they fill their container

• The pressure is defined as the force per unit area

• As the gas particles move about randomly they collide with the
walls of their containers
• These collisions produce a net force at right angles to the wall of
the gas container (or any surface)
• Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent
collisions with the container walls and a greater force
 o Hence the higher the pressure, the higher the force exerted
per unit area

Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container

• It is possible to experience this force by closing the mouth and

forcing air into the cheeks
• The strain on the cheeks is due to the force of the gas particles
pushing at right angles to the cheeks
 Brownian Motion
• The Kinetic Theory of Matter, which simply says that all matter is made up of
tiny particles, was discovered almost by accident
o The Scottish scientist Robert Brown first described the random motion of
pollen grains in water, which he saw under a microscope
o This observation could not be explained at the time, but later it was
realised that it shows that substances are made of particles which are
in constant motion (hence 'kinetic')

Brownian Motion: the random motion of microscopic particles when observed

through a microscope

• Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a

liquid or a gas produced by large numbers of collisions with
smaller particles which are often too small to see

•
o When small particles (such as pollen or smoke) are
suspended in a liquid or gas, they can be observed
through a microscope moving around in a random,
erratic fashion
 Light, fast-moving molecules collide with larger particles, giving them a little
nudge

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• When observing Brownian Motion, even with a microscope,

only the microscopic particles can be seen
 o The pollen or smoke particles are seen to move
o Smaller atoms and molecules, of water or air, are still
too small to be seen

• These light, fast-moving atoms and molecules collide

with the larger microscopic particles
o The collisions give the particles a little nudge, causing
them to change their speed and directions randomly,
each time they are struck by a molecule

• The presence of the light, fast moving atoms and molecules

is inferred from the motion of the microscopic particles
o Inferences such as this are an important part of
scientific investigation
 Thermal Expansion
• When materials are heated, they expand
• This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or
vibrate) faster, which causes them to knock into each other and push each
other apart

When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more, pushing each other apart

Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up by the molecules that
increases. The molecules themselves remain the same size.
• Thermal expansion occurs in solids, liquids and gases

• When temperature is increased (at constant pressure);

o Solids will tend to expand the least
o Gases expand the most
o Liquids fall in between the two

Thermal Expansion in Terms of Particles

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• Molecules do not expand, but the space in between them does
o When solids, liquids and gases are heated:

Uses & Consequences of Thermal Expansion

• The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications, but
also has some undesirable consequences

• Applications:
o Thermometers rely on the expansion of liquids to measure
temperature
o Temperature-activated switches work when a bimetallic strip,
consisting of two metals that expand at different rates, bends by a
predictable amount at a given temperature
 The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit

• Consequences:
o The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if they get
too hot
o This could include:
▪ Metal railway tracks
▪ Road surfaces
▪ Bridges
o Things that are prone to buckling in this way have gaps built in, this
creates space for the expansion to happen without causing damage

Exam Tip
Remember that it is the material that expands, not the molecules. This
trips up many students, losing marks.

As heat is added;
1. The increase in temperature...
2. Leads to an increase in kinetic energy, so that...
3. Molecules and atoms move more quickly...
4. And move apart
o This separation of the the molecules makes the substance bigger!
 Internal Energy
• A rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy
o This can be thought of as due to an increase in the average speed of
the particles
o Increasing speed increases kinetic energy

• Internal energy is defined as:

The total energy stored inside a system by the particles that make
up the system due to their motion and positions
• Motion of the particles affects their kinetic energy
• Positions of the particles relative to each other affects their potential
energy
o Together, these two make up the internal energy of the system

Substances have internal energy due to the motion of the particles and their
positions relative to each other

Average Kinetic Energy

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• Heating a system changes a substance's internal energy by increasing

the kinetic energy of its particles
o The temperature of the material, therefore, is related to the average
kinetic energy of the molecules

• This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore internal energy) can:

o Cause the temperature of the system to increase
o Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)

As the container heats up, the gas molecules move faster

Faster motion causes higher kinetic energy and therefore higher internal energy
 Specific Heat Capacity
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• How much the temperature of a system increases depends on:

o The mass of the substance heated
o The type of material
o The amount of thermal energy transferred in to the system

• The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as:

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of

the substance by 1 °C
• Different substances have different specific heat capacities
o If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools
down quickly (ie. it takes less energy to change its temperature)
o If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools
down slowly (ie. it takes more energy to change its temperature)
 Low vs high specific heat capacity
Calculating Specific Heat Capacity

• The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a given mass by

a given amount can be calculated using the equation:

• Where:
o ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/kg °C)
o Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
Worked example
Water of mass 0.48 kg is increased in temperature by 0.7 °C. The
specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J / kg °C.

Calculate the amount of thermal energy transferred to the water.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities
•
o Mass, m = 0.48 kg
o Change in temperature, ΔT = 0.7 °C
o Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J/kg °C

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

Step 3: Calculate the thermal energy transferred by substituting in

the values

Step 4: Round the answer to 2 significant figures and include the

units

ΔE = 1400 J

Exam Tip
You will always be given the specific heat capacity of a substance, so
you do not need to memorise any values.

However, it's useful to have the general idea that, the larger the
number, the less the substance will increase in temperature for a
given amount of heat.

You can see this for yourself in your own kitchen at home. Metal pans,
which have a relatively low specific heat capacity get very hot, very
quickly when put on the hob. Add water to the pan, which has a
relatively high specific heat capacity and the water will take much
longer to heat up.

Notice the units of specific heat capacity:

joules per kilogram per degree Celsius : J / kg °C

'per' means 'divided by'. We say 'per' in front of every value that is being
divided by, hence 'per kilogram per degree Celsius'
 Investigating Specific Heat Capacity (Extended)
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Aims of the Experiment

• The aim of the experiment is to determine the specific heat capacity

of a substance, by linking the decrease of one energy store (or work
done) to the increase in temperature and subsequent increase in
thermal energy stored

Variables:
• Independent variable = Time, t
• Dependent variable = Temperature, θ
• Control variables:
o Material of the block
o Current supplied, I
o Potential difference supplied, V
Equipment List

• Resolution of measuring equipment:

o Thermometer = 1 °C
o Stopwatch = 0.01 s
o Voltmeter = 0.1 V
o Ammeter = 0.01 A
Method

Apparatus to investigate the specific heat capacity of the

aluminium block
1. Start by assembling the apparatus, placing the heater into the top of
the block
2. Measure the initial temperature of the aluminium block from the
thermometer
3. Turn on the power supply and start the stopwatch
4. Whilst the power supply is on, the heater will heat up the block. Take
several periodic measurements, eg. every 1 minute of the voltage
and current from the voltmeter and ammeter respectively, calculating
an average for each at the end of the experiment up to 10 minutes
5. Switch off the power supply, stop the stopwatch and leave the
apparatus for about a minute. The temperature will still rise before it
cools
6. Monitor the thermometer and record the final temperature reached for
the block
 • An example table of results might look like this:

Analysis of Results

• The thermal energy supplied to the block can be calculated using the
equation:

E = IVt
• Where:
o E = thermal energy, in joules (J)
o I = current, in amperes (A)
o V = potential difference, in volts (V)
o t = time, in seconds (s)

• The change in thermal energy is defined by the equation:

ΔE = mcΔθ
 • Where:
o ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree
Celsius (J/kg °C)
o Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)

• Rearranging for the specific heat capacity, c:

• To calculate Δθ:

Δθ = final temperature – initial temperature

• To calculate ΔE:

ΔE = IVtf – IVti
• Where:
o I = average current, in amperes (A)
o V = average potential difference (V)
o tf = final time, in seconds (s)
o ti = initial time, in seconds (s)

• These values are then substituted into the specific heat capacity
equation to calculate the specific heat capacity of the aluminium block

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
• Make sure the voltmeter and ammeter are initially set to zero, to
avoid zero error

Random Errors:
• Not all the heat energy supplied from the heater will be transferred to
the block, some will go into the surroundings or heat up the
thermometer
 o This means the measured value of the specific heat capacity is
likely to be higher than what it actually is
o To reduce this effect, make sure the block is fully insulated
• A joulemeter could be used to calculate energy directly
o This would eliminate errors from the voltmeter, ammeter and
the stopwatch
• Make sure the temperature value is read at eye level from the
thermometer, to avoid parallax error
• The experiment can also be repeated with a beaker of water of equal
mass, the water should heat up slower than the aluminium block

Safety Considerations

• Make sure never to touch the heater whilst it is on, otherwise, it could
burn skin or set something on fire
o Run any burns immediately under cold running water for at
least 5 minutes
• Allow time for all the equipment, including the heater, wire and block
to cool before packing away the equipment
• Keep water away from all electrical equipment
• Wear eye protection if using a beaker of hot water
 Fixed Points of Water
• The melting and boiling points of pure water are known as fixed points
o Ice melts at 0 °C
o Pure water boils at 100 °C

• These are the accepted values for pure water at atmospheric pressure

Ice melts at 0 °C and water boils at 100 °C

Melting & Boiling

• While a substance is changing state, either
o Melting or freezing
o Boiling or condensing

• The substance does not change temperature, even though energy is being
transferred to or away from the thermal energy store of the substance
Boiling

• When liquid water is heated by adding thermal energy (say from the gas
flame or kettle element), the temperature of the water rises until the water
boils
o At the boiling point, even if more thermal energy is added, the liquid
water does not get any hotter
o This means that the internal energy is not rising

• The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular

forces between the molecules of water
o As the forces are overcome, the liquid water becomes water vapour
(steam)
o This is evaporation or vaporisation; the water is now a gas
 • The process is repeated backwards for cooling as energy is transferred
away
o A gas turns back into liquid through condensation

Melting

• When solid water (ice) is heated by adding thermal energy (from the
surroundings, or a flame), the ice melts
o At the melting point, even if more thermal energy is added, the solid
water does not get warmer
o This means that the internal energy is not rising

• The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular

forces between the molecules of the solid ice
o As the forces are overcome, the solid water becomes liquid
o This is melting; the ice is now a liquid

• The process is repeated backwards for cooling as heat is transferred away

o A liquid turns back into a solid through freezing

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Condensation & Solidification

• Heating and cooling graphs are used to summarise:
o How the temperature of a substance changes when energy is
transferred to or away from it
o Where changes of state occur
• Heating and cooling graphs tend to be the same
o Heating is when energy is transferred to the system and the kinetic
energy of the molecules increases (red arrows to the right)
o Cooling is when energy is transferred away from the system (or
dissipated to the surroundings) and the kinetic energy of the
molecules decreases (blue arrows to the left)
Condensation

• The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a gas condenses into a
liquid
o The gas has already lost heat energy (cooled down)

• The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly

o They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular
forces of attraction between molecules
o The particles get closer together
o They only have enough energy to flow over one another

• The gas has condensed into a liquid with no change of temperature

Solidification

• The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a liquid solidifies into
a solid
o The liquid has already lost heat energy (cooled down)

• The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly

o They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular
forces of attraction between molecules
o The particles get closer together
o They only have enough energy to vibrate about their fixed position

• The liquid has solidified into a solid with no change of temperature

Heating/cooling curve of a substance showing the energy changes as temperature is
increased/decreased