Chapter 2

Mathematical Language and Symbols

Lesson 1: Characteristics of Mathematical Language and Convention in the
Mathematical language

Core Idea: Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax, and rules.

The language of mathematics is

the system used by mathematicians to
communicate mathematical ideas among
themselves. This language consists of a
substance of some natural language (for
example English) using technical terms
and grammatical conventions that are
peculiar to mathematical discourse,
supplemented by a highly specialized
symbolic notation for mathematical https://place.education.wisc.edu/blog/tools-for-teaching-
mathematical-language-to-multilingual-learners/
formulas.

Mathematics uses symbols instead of words. There are the 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, ...,9.
There are symbols for operations: that “stand in” for values and
many special symbols: , etc. Mathematical expressions use
mathematical symbols instead of words. For example:

1. “the sum of five and a number ”

2. “a number decreased by two”

3. “twice a number increased by six”

Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1) Determine the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics
2) Explain the nature of mathematics as a language
3) Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.
4) Translate mathematical expressions into verbal expressions, and vise- versa.
 Engage: Let’s Try This!

Let the students watch the video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVm063xmnow.

After watching the video ask the following questions:
1. Why is Mathematics called a universal language?
2. Why were Mathematical symbols developed?
3. Why is Mathematical language important in learning mathematics?

Explore: Discover This!

Characteristics of Mathematical language: Precise, Concise, Powerful

The mathematical language is the system used to communicate mathematical
ideas. This language consists of some natural language using technical terms
(mathematical terms) and grammatical conventions that are uncommon to mathematical
discourse, supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical
formulas. The mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar and shared
by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.
The characteristic of mathematical https://clipart-library.com/clipart/
language is being precise, concise, and
powerful. One thing that stands out in
mathematical language over other languages
is its precision. Precision in mathematics is
like a culture being correct all the time.
Definition and limits should be distinction.
For instance, the English language sentence
“The cat is in the mat.” may or may not be
true. It depends on the speaker’s
perspective, feelings, or whether the
speaker is telling the truth or not. Now,
consider the mathematical sentence “3 × 6 =
21”.
In one glance and every perspective, one can tell that the sentence is false.
Precision is able to make very fine distinctions. For example, the use of mathematical
symbol is only done based on its meaning and purpose. Like + means add, − mea ns
subtract, × means multiply and ÷ means divide.
 Mathematical language must be concise or shows simplicity. Being concise is a
strong part of the culture in mathematical language. The mathematician desires the
simplest possible single exposition at the price of additional terminology and machinery
to allow all of the various particularities to be subsumed into the exposition at the highest
possible level. For example, the sentence “product of two numbers is equal to 51” can be
written as 𝑥𝑦 = 51, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are properly defined.
Concise is able to say things briefly. For example, the long English sentence can be
shortened using mathematical symbols. Eight plus two equal ten which means 8 + 2 = 10.
Another example, consider the sentence “the sum of any two real numbers is also a real
number.” In mathematical notation, this declarative sentence can be written as: ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈
𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅.
It is also powerful since it can express complex ideas with ease. Mathematical
language must also be powerful. It is a way of expressing complex thoughts with relative
ease. The abstraction in mathematics is the desire to unify diverse instances under a
single conceptual framework and allows easier penetration of the subject and the
development of more powerful methods. Mathematical language is powerful because it
enables to express complex thoughts with relative ease. For example, the application of
critical thinking and problem-solving skill requires the comprehension, analysis and
reasoning to obtain the correct solution.
To improve grammar and syntax in English language, it is must to improve the
vocabulary. The main reason is to make use of this vast range of vocabularies to take the
most appropriate word to precisely express the idea. Mathematics is no exception. The
table below shows some commonly used mathematical symbol. Some of these symbols
sounds familiar while some will be encountered along the journey of discovering the
world of mathematics.
Conversion of English Expressions to Mathematical Sentences and vice versa.

Conversion of English Expressions to Mathematical Sentences and vice versa.

SYMBOLS/ BASIC ENGLISH TERMS
OPERATIONS
= Equals, is equal to, is the same as, is, are, represents, is similar to,
is equivalent to, exactly, results in.
+ Plus, sum, total, added to, added with, added by, raised, more,
more than, and, increased, put together
- Minus, difference, subtracted from, subtracted by, diminish, lee,
less than, decreased, separated
Times, product, multiplied by, multiplied to, multiplied with,
. or ( )
doubled, tripled, twice (etc.)
/, ÷ Divided by quotient, per, ratio, halved, over, over all

These symbols are used in Mathematical operations like the following examples.
BASIC
MATHEMATICAL ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS
STATEMENTS
 Five plus three equals eight
5+3=8  Five plus three is equal to eight
 Five increased by three is eight
 Eleven minus seven equals four
 Eleven less seven is four
11-7=4
 Seven less than eleven is equal to four
 The difference of eleven and seven is four
 Three times two equal six
3(2) = 6  The product of three and two is six
 Thrice the number two is six
 Ten divided by five is two
10/5=2  The quotient of ten and five is two
 The ratio of ten and five is equal to two

As observe, English language can be shorten using the mathematical symbols,

statements as well as expressions. This will help us expressing problems easier as
represented by symbols.

Conversion of Algebraic Expression to English Sentences

ALGEBRAIC
ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS
STATEMENTS
  Seven times a number is equal to twenty-eight
 Seven times a number is twenty-eight
 The sum of four and six all over to is five
 The ratio of four plus six, and two is equal to five
 Five is the quotient when the sum of four and six is divided by
two

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

In mathematics, an expression or mathematical expression is a finite combination of

symbols that is weel-formed according to rules that depend on the context. It is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest. An
expression does not state a complete thought; it does not make sense to ask if an expression is
true or false.
This simple idea – that numbers have lots of different names – is extremely important in
mathematics. On the other hand, a sentence (or mathematical sentence) makes a statement
about two expressions, either using numbers, variables, or a combination of both. It is the
analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states
a complete thought. Sentences have verbs. In mathematical sentence “3 + 4 = 7”, the verb is
“=”. If you read the sentence as ‘three plus four is equal to seven’, then it’s easy to ‘hear’ the
verb. Indeed, the equal sign ‘=’ is one of the most popular mathematical verbs.
A sentence can be (always) true, (always) false, or sometimes true / sometimes false. For
example, the sentence “1 + 2 = 3” is true. The sentence “1 + 2 = 4” is false. The sentence “𝑥 =
2” is sometimes true / sometimes false: it is true when 𝑥 is 2, and false otherwise. The sentence
“𝑥 + 3 = 3 + 𝑥” is (always) true, no matter what number is chosen for 𝑥.
Here are examples, to help explore the difference between sentences and expressions
how to read them, and their truth values.

English noun,
mathematical
How to read expression, English Truth value
sentence or
mathematical sentence
cat ‘cat’ English noun
2 ‘two’ Mathematical expression
The word ‘cat’
‘the word ‘cat’ begins
begins with English sentence FALSE
with letter ‘k’
letter ‘k’.
‘one plus two
equals four’ or ‘one
1+2=4 Mathematical sentence FALSE
plus two is equal to
four’
5–3 ‘five minus three’ Mathematical
expression:
 Note that when you say
‘five minus three’, you
have not stated a
complete thought.
‘five minus three
equals two’ or ‘five
5–3=2 Mathematical sentence TRUE
minus three is equal
to two’
The truth of this sentence cannot
be determined out of context. If the
The cat is
‘the cat is black’ English sentence cat being referred to is indeed
black.
black, then the sentence is true.
Otherwise, it is false.
Mathematical
expression: The letter 𝑥
(‘ex’) is
𝑥 ‘ex’
commonly used in
mathematics to
represent a number.
The letter 𝑥 represents a number.
The truth of this sentence depends
upon the number that is chosen for
𝑥. If 𝑥 is replaced by ‘1’, then the
sentence becomes true sentence
‘ex equals one’ or ‘ex ‘1=1’. If 𝑥 is replaced by ‘2’, then the
𝑥=1 Mathematical sentence
is equal to one’ sentence becomes the false
sentence ‘2=1’. Thus, the sentence
‘𝑥 = 1’ is SOMETIMES TRUE /
SOMETIMES FALSE,
depending upon the number that is
chosen for 𝑥.
‘ex minus one
SOMETIMES TRUE / SOMETIMES
equals zero’ or ‘ex
𝑥−1=0 Mathematical sentence FALSE. If 𝑥 is ‘1’, then the sentence
minus one is equal
is true. Otherwise, it is false.
to zero’
𝑡+3 ‘tee plus three’ Mathematical expression
The letter 𝑡 represents a number.
This sentence is TRUE, no matter
what number is chosen for 𝑡. The
‘tee plus three equals
order that you list the numbers in
three plus tee’ or ‘tee
𝑡+3=3+𝑡 Mathematical sentence an addition problem does not affect
plus three is equal to
the result. In other words,
three plus tee’
commuting the numbers in an
addition problem does not affect
the result.
IF this sentence is true, then it
This sentence would be false. IF this sentence is
‘this sentence is false’ English sentence
is false. false, then it would have to be true.
So, this sentence is not true, not
 false, not sometimes true, not
sometimes false.
This sentence is always TRUE, no
‘ex plus zero equal ex’ matter what number is substituted
𝑥+0=𝑥 or ‘ex plus zero is Mathematical sentence for 𝑥. Adding zero to a number does
equal to ex’ not change the identity of the
number.
Recall that the centered dot
denotes multiplication. This
Mathematical
‘one times ex equals sentence is always TRUE, no matter
sentence: The centered
1∙𝑥=𝑥 ex’ or ‘one times ex what number is substituted for 𝑥,
dot ‘∙’ denotes
is equal to ex’ since multiplying a number by 1
multiplication.
preserves the identity of the
original number.

Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematica languages have conventions and it helps individual distinguish between
different types of mathematical expressions. A mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation,
or usage which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians. Let say for example, one evaluates
multiplication before addition following the principle of PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent,
Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction). Another example of convention is when
introducing a new variable, “let 𝑥 be the sum of 𝑚 and 𝑛”, it is convenient to put 𝑥 on the left of
the equation. So instead writing 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 𝑥, write 𝑥 = 𝑚 + 𝑛.
Mathematicians abide by conventions to be
able to understand what they write without
constantly having to redefine basic terms. Almost all
mathematical names and symbols are conventional.
Mathematical notation includes letters from various
alphabets, as well as special mathematical symbols.
Letters in various fonts often have specific, fixed
meanings in particular areas of mathematics. In
general, anything that represents a variable should
be set in italic and this applies to characters from
Latin / English alphabet (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … ; 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, …) as to
letters from any other alphabet, most notably Greek
https://clipart-library.com/clipart/BigrayoBT.htm
(𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, … ; Α, Β, Γ, …).

Usage of superscripts (e.g. 𝑥𝑛) and subscripts (e.g. 𝑥𝑛) is also an important convention.
Thus, 𝑥1 would be suitable for the initial value, while 𝑥𝑖 would represent one instance from a set
of 𝑥′𝑠 (𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, …), also note that numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) are not variables. Likewise, in some
special cases symbol are used to represent general constants, such as 𝜋 used to represent the
ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter. Conventions, in other words, are used to make
things “convenient” to all people who practices mathematics.
 Chapter 2
Mathematical Language and Symbols
Lesson 2: Four Basic Concepts in Mathematical Language

Language serves as a tool for teaching mathematical concepts. It can show how to
make syntax and structure of mathematical language clear and explicit to understand the
fundamental mathematical concepts. Language serves as a major pedagogical tool to
understand how, what, and why things are said. The mathematical language is full of
terminologies and mathematical notations and have very precise and powerful meaning.
Notations are very important in understanding the mathematical language which may
include the use of sets, functions, relations and binary operations. We need to
familiarized with the four basic concepts on mathematics before moving to more
complicated mathematical structures.

Learning Objectives:
1. Indicate sets by the description method, roster method, and by using set builder
notation.
2. Determine if a number represents a cardinal number or an ordinal number.
3. Give an example of a universal set and list all of its subsets and all of its proper
subsets.
4. Properly use notation for element, subset, and proper subset.
5. Find the complement of a set, intersection of two sets, union of two sets, and
difference of two sets.
6. Construct a Venn diagram given two sets.

Engage: Let’s Try This!

Forget everything you know about numbers.

In fact, forget you even know what a

number is.

This is where mathematics starts.

Instead of math with numbers, we will now

think about math with "things".
https://www.10mathproblems.com/2020/02/set-notation-
types-of-sets.html
 Explore: Discover This!

A set is a well-defined collection of unique elements. Elements in a set do not

"repeat". The objects are called the elements and are usually denoted by lowercase
letters a, b, c, …; the sets themselves are usually denoted by uppercase letters A, B, C, ….

Methods of Describing Sets

a) By roster: A roster lists down all the elements separated by a comma.
Example 1: the set of counting numbers less than 6.
Set notation: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
This is a finite set with cardinality of 5.

Example 2: the set of positive even integers greater than 8.

Set Notation: B = {10, 12, 14, …)
B is an infinite set which uses ellipsis to denote infinite sequence.

b) Set-builder notation (or rule method) presents elements by stating their common
properties. It is written as. It is also useful when describing infinite sets.

Example 3: Describing the set of all the natural numbers.

Set Builder Notation: {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}

Example 4: Describing the set of multiples of 5.

Set Builder Notation: {𝑚𝑚 is a multiple of 5}

The contents of a set are called its elements or members. For example: {1, 2, 3,
Ø, {3}} is a set containing 5 elements. The cardinality of a set is the number of elements in
the set. The cardinality of set A is denoted by 𝑛(𝐴). For example: Given 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = { 5 }. Then, 𝑛(𝐴) = 3, 𝑛(𝐵) = 2, 𝑛(𝐶) = 1
A finite set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and the last element
can be identified while an infinite set is a set whose elements are unlimited or
uncountable, and the last element cannot be specified. A unit set is a set with only one
element, it is also called singleton. The set that contains no elements is called the empty
set and is denoted by Ø.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets, 𝐴 is called subset of 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if and only if, every
element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵. 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, if and only
if, every element of 𝐴 is in 𝐵 but there is at least one element of 𝐵 that is not in 𝐴. On
contrary, the symbol ⊄ denotes that it is not a proper subset. 𝐴 equals 𝐵, written, 𝐴 = 𝐵,
if and only if, every element of 𝐴 is in 𝐵 and every element of 𝐵 is in 𝐴.

Examples:
a. Suppose 𝐴 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵,
since all elements of 𝐴 is in 𝐵.
b. Suppose 𝐴 = [𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐶 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑑}, and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓,
𝑔}, then 𝐴 and 𝐶 are both subsets of 𝐵; but 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, whereas 𝐶 ⊄ 𝐵. It can be
observed that only 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵 and not 𝐶 because 𝐵 and 𝐶 are with
the same elements (notice that set 𝐴 is inside sets 𝐵 and 𝐶).
c. Suppose 𝐴 = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑐}, and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝐴 ⊆
𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, therefore 𝐴 = 𝐵. It can be noted that all elements of 𝐴 are also
elements of 𝐵 (notice that set 𝐴 is also set 𝐵).

The universal set 𝑈 is the set of all elements of interest under investigation. It is the
largest in the sense that all sets considered in the discussion of the problem are subsets
of the universal set.

The union of sets A and B (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) is the set of all elements that belong to either A or
B or both. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 or both}
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {5}
Therefore, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {1, 5}, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}

The intersection of sets A and B (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) is the set of all elements in common with the
sets A and B. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {6}
Therefore, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {1, 5}, 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {}, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = { }

The complement of a set, denoted A', is the set of all elements in the given universal
set U that are not in A.
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {}
Hence, 𝐴′ = {2, 4}, 𝐵′ = {2, 3, 4}, 𝐶′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

The relative complement or set difference of sets A and B, denoted 𝐴– 𝐵, is the set
of all elements in A that are not in B.
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = { }
Then, 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {3}, 𝐵 − 𝐴 = { }, 𝐴 − 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

The idea of sets and all of their different sets and applications has generated a lot
of interest so far. But it just got better. John Venn invented these diagrams as a method
for studying logic. It turns out that these Venn Diagrams are equally useful for studying
and illustrating sets. These diagrams make working with sets simpler and more
interesting, which is the important part! Take a closer look.

Venn diagrams are used as a visual representation of sets. The universal set U is
represented by a rectangle, and subsets of U are represented by regions lying inside the
rectangle.

For example
1. The shaded part of the Venn diagram below illustrates 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

2. The shaded region of the Venn diagram below corresponds to 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

3. The shaded region of the Venn diagram below corresponds to 𝐴 − 𝐵

4. The shaded region of the Venn diagram below corresponds to 𝐴′ or complement of 𝐴

 Chapter 2
Mathematical Language and Symbols
Lesson 3: Language of Binary Operations

Our previous encounters with operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,

and addition are generalized by binary operations. A binary operation is a function on a
set that combines two items of the set to create a third element of the set, to arrange it
in a different context.
After properly defining binary operations, we consider the the properties of the
binary operations that we have already seen in specific conditions in this chapter. These
properties are: Closure, Commutativity, Associativity, Identity, and Inverses

Learning Objectives:
1. Show that a binary operation is commutative.
2. Recognize whether a binary operation is associative.
3. Illustrate that there is an identity with respect to a binary operation.
4. Prove that an element has an inverse with respect to a binary operation.

Engage: Let’s Try This!

1. What is function?
2. What is relation?

In mathematics, a function can be defined as a rule that relates every element in

one set, called the domain, to exactly one element in another set, called the range. For
example, y = x + 3
If x is equal to {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} then;

Domain (x) y=x+3 Range (y)

2 (2) + 3 = 5 5
3 (3) + 3 = 6 6
4 (4) + 3 = 7 7
5 (5) + 3 = 8 8
6 (6) + 3 = 9 9

Any set of ordered-pair numbers is a relation. In other terms, a relation can be

described as a set of ordered pairs.
 One input can connect to just one output in a function; however, this is not true
of relations. As a result, all functions are relationships. However, not all relationships
have a function. A one-to-many relationship is not possible for a function. It can,
however, have many different kinds of relationships.

https://www.storyofmathematics.com/relations-and-functions/

Explore: Discover This!

A binary operation is a function that takes two elements from the same set S as
input and produces another element from S. S can be written as a pair (a, b) of the two
elements a and b. We define a binary operation as a function from S x S to S since (a, b) is
a component of the Cartesian product S x S.
Similar to how we describe the addition and multiplication of integers, we use
symbols to represent binary operations rather than function names. Multiplication
utilizes the symbol • whereas addition uses the sign +. To indicate alternative (non-
specific) binary operations, we shall utilize symbols like * and •.

The functions from A x A to A are used in binary operations * on a non-empty set

A. A x A → A is the binary operation, which is *. It involves two set elements whose
domains and co-domains also belong to the same set.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/relations-and-functions/binary-operations/#:~:text=The%20binary
%20operations%20associate%20any,element%20of%20the%20same%20set.
 Some of the binary operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponential.

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

A binary operation is an operation that takes two inputs. An operation is binary if it takes
two real numbers as arguments to produce another real number. If we let multiplication,
denoted by the symbol ×, be a binary operation, then 4 × 6 yields the real number 24 or 4 × 6 =
24.

Properties of Binary Operation

1. Closure property of Binary Operations: If any two elements are combined using the operation,
the result must be an element of the set.
Let 𝑆 be a set, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐, for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆

2. Commutative property of Binary Operations

Let 𝑆 be a set, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
For example, addition and multiplication in the set of real numbers are commutative
because the sum or product of two real numbers is a real number.

3. Associative property of Binary Operations

Let 𝑆 be a set, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
For example, addition and multiplication in the set of integers are associative.
For instance, (5 + 11) + 7 = 5 + (11 + 7) and (−2 ∙ 3) ∙ 13 = −2 ∙ (3 ∙ 13).
4. Identity property of Binary Operations
There exists an element 𝑒 in 𝑆, such that for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎.
For example, 0 is an additive identity element in the set of real numbers because any real
number added to 0, the result is the real number. 1 is a multiplicative identity element in
the set of real numbers because any real number multiplied to 1, the result is the real
number.

5. Inverses of Binary Operations

For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, there is an element 𝑎−1 of 𝑆, such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 where 𝑎−1 is
the inverse of 𝑎 and 𝑒 is the identity element in set 𝑆.

For example, −2 is an additive inverse of 2 in the set of real numbers because is a

multiplicative inverse of 7 in the set of real numbers

because.

Examples:
1. Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+, is ∗ a binary operation on ℤ+? (Note that ℤ+ is a set of
positive integers.)
Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether ∗ is a binary operation on ℤ+.
First, is ℤ+ a well-defined set?
The answer is yes because a set of positive integers is a well-defined set.
Second, is ℤ+ closed under ∗?
The answer is not because if 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 2, then 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 1 − 2 = −1, which is not an
element of ℤ+.
Therefore, ∗ is not a binary operation on ℤ+.

2. Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 3𝑎 + 𝑏, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
a. Is the operation ∗ commutative?
b. Is the operation ∗ associative?
a. Solution: Using the commutative property of binary operation, verify that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎,
for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
𝑎∗𝑏=𝑏∗𝑎
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 3𝑏 + 𝑎
3𝑎 − 𝑎 = 3𝑏 − 𝑏
2𝑎 = 2𝑏
𝑎=𝑏
Since the operation ∗ is commutative only if 𝑎 = 𝑏, hence the operation ∗ is not
commutative.

b. Solution: Using the associative property of binary operation,

verify that(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), for all
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
(3𝑎 + 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (3𝑏 + 𝑐)
(3𝑎 + 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (3𝑏 + 𝑐)
3(3𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 3𝑎 + (3𝑏 + 𝑐)
9𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐 = 3𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐
9𝑎 = 3𝑎
Since 9𝑎 ≠ 3𝑎, thus the operation ∗ is not associative.

Sometimes, a binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of elements) is
displayed in a table which shows how the operation is to be performed.

3. A binary operation * is define on the set {m, a, t, h}

a. What is m * a?
Solution: m * a = a

b. Is h * a commutative?
Solution: h * a = t and
a*h=t
Hence, h * a is commutative.
c. What is the identity element of the operation?
Solution: The identity element of the operation is t. You will have
found the identity element when all of the values in its
row and its column are the same as the row and column
headings.

d. Find the inverse of each element.

Solution: The inverse of m is m, the inverse of a is h, the inverse of t is t,
the inverse of h is a.

e. Is associative for these values? a * (h * t) = (a * h) * t

Solution:
a * (h * t) = (a * h) * t
a*h=t*t
t=t
Hence, it is associative for values a, h and t.
 Chapter 2
Mathematical Language and Symbols
Lesson 4: Elementary Logic: Connectives (Proposition, Negation and Truth Table)

Forms of reasoning are what logic is concerned

with. Since most intellectual endeavors include reasoning,
logic is applicable to a wide range of activities. For those
studying computer science, logic is a crucial subject to
study. Students studying mathematics and other subjects
that use mathematical proofs, like linguistics students, find
it to be of great value. Inferences are drawn throughout
the reasoning process.
In an inference, a set of statements—the premises
—are used to support a different statement—the http://www.practicereasoningtests.com/
inductive-and-deductive-reasoning-tests-
conclusion. tips/

The study of logic is necessary for work in the foundations of mathematics, which
is mainly concerned with the nature of mathematical truth and with supporting proofs
regarding mathematical objects like integers, complex numbers, and infinite sets.
Learning Objectives
1. Define a proposition
2. Utilize connectives to create a combination proposition.
3. Determine the truth values of compound propositions

Engage: Let’s Try This!

LOGICAL PUZZLES
Let the students thick logically

1. LOO, MON, NOM, OOL, ___

A. POK C. HOK
B. HOL D. JOI
Answer is A
Solution: The 2nd letter is static, so concentrate on the 1st and 3rd letters. This
series involves an alphabetical order with a reversal of the letters. The 1st letters are in
alphabetical order: L, M, N, O & P. The 2nd and 4th segments are reversals of the 1st and
3rd segments. The missing segment begins with a new letter.
2. Pedro is older than Nena.
Juan is older than Pedro.
Nena is older than Juan.
If the first 2 statements are true, the 3rd statement is
A. True B. False C. Uncertain
Answer: B
Solution: If the first two statements are true, then Eina is the youngest of the
three, so the third statement is necessarily false.

3. Find the next number in the sequence: 30, 45, 90, 225, 675, ____
A. 1890 C. 1845
B. 1745 D. 2362.5
Answer: D
Solution: The logic is 30 *1.5 = 45,
45* 2= 90,
90*2.5 = 225,
225*3 = 675,
675 * 3.5 = 2362.5

Explore: Discover This!

Mathematical methods of reasoning are laid forth in the rules of mathematical

logic. The father of logical reasoning was the Greek philosopher Aristotle. The theoretical
foundations of several branches of mathematics, and consequently, computer science,
are provided by logical reasoning. It is used in the design of computing devices, artificial
intelligence, the definition of data structures for programming languages, and many other
practical areas of computer science.

Statements to which the truth values "true" and "false" can be given are the focus
of propositional logic. The objective is to evaluate these claims, either individually or in
combination.

A proposition is a group of declarative statements that can be either "true" or

"false" in terms of their truth values. Propositional variables and connectives make up a
propositional. The propositional variables (A, B, etc.) are denoted with capital letters.
The propositional variables are connected by the connectives.

Example:
a) “6 + 4 = 4 + 6”, it returns truth value “TRUE”
b) "12 + 9 = 3 – 2", it returns truth value “FALSE”
 c) "A is less than 2", not a proposition because unless we give a
specific value of A, we cannot say whether the statement is true or
false.
Negation
The negation of a statement p, denoted by ~p (read as
“not p”) is the statement whose truth value is the opposite of the
truth value of p.
Example: p: This book is interesting.
~p can be read as:

Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are:

1. CONJUNCTION
The conjunction of p and q, p ^ q (read as “p and q”), is the statement that is true
if and only if both p and q are true.
Example:
: This book is interesting.
I am staying at home.
: This book is interesting
and I am staying at home.

2. DISJUNCTION
The disjunction of p and q, p ˅ q (read as “p or q”), is the statement that is true if
and only if at least one of p and q is true.
Example:
: This book is interesting.
: I am staying at home.
: This book is interesting or
I am staying at home.

3. CONDITIONAL
Given statements p and q. The truth value for p → q is true unless p is true and q
is false. If p is true and q is false, then p → q is false.
Example:
: This book is interesting.
: I am staying at home.
: If this book is interesting,
then I am staying at home.
4. BICONDITIONAL
The biconditional of the proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑝 if
and only if 𝑞.” Symbolically, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, where ↔ is the symbol for “if and only if.”
Example:
𝑝: This book is interesting.
𝑞: I am staying at home.
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞: This book is interesting if
and only if I am staying at home.

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

TRUTH TABLE
The truth table displays whether a compound statement is true or false. It
depends on whether the simple truths that form its foundation are true or false. A true
proposition is denoted by T, whereas a false proposition is denoted by F.
The truth table's function is to
determine every condition of true or false
for a specific logical proposition. By first
entering every possible combination of
truth values for the atomic sentences
included in the statement and then
calculating the output, or overall truth
value of the logical statement, for all https://www.chilimath.com/lessons/introduction-to-number-
theory/truth-tables-practice-problems-with-answers/
possible combinations of inputs, the truth
table enables us to determine the full set of logical possibilities for any given statement.
The truth table represents the entire set of logical possibilities for the statement
as a whole given all possible combinations of truth values for the individual sentences
involved in the statement. This is due to the rigid and determined structure of the logical
system we are currently studying and the fact that atomic sentences within a logical
statement can either be true or false.
Example:
Construct the truth table of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑞 Solution:
 Chapter 2
Mathematical Language and Symbols
Lesson 5: Elementary Logic: Quantifiers

One of the most important mathematicians, logicians, and linguists was Gottlob
Frege. His innovations in such areas continue to shape them, particularly in the English-
speaking world. Frege is regarded as one of the most influential mathematicians ever as
well as the greatest logician since Aristotle.
He worked on the mathematical
foundations and contributed to the
Begriffsschrift, which helped to develop
contemporary logic. Michael Dummett cites his
book, The Foundations of Arithmetic, which is
regarded as the foundational work of the logicist
project, as the source of the linguistic turn. His
philosophical writings "On Sense and Reference"
and "The Thought" have also received a lot of
attention. The former supports descriptivism and
two distinct forms of meaning.

Frege defends Platonism in Foundations and "The Thought" against psychologism

or formalism with regard to numbers and propositions, respectively. By demonstrating
the falsity of Frege's Basic Law V from the Foundations, Russell's paradox weakened the
logicist project.

Learning Objectives:
1. Define quantifiers
2. Identify the two types of quantifiers
3. Prove some mathematical statement using quantifiers

Engage: Let’s Try This!

Pink Hair
Let's say you're talking to your friend Bella and she's
telling you about the two clubs she recently joined. She
describes the members of the first club as having pink hair:
"There exists a member of Club 1 such that the individual has
pink hair." She describes the second club as "the member has
pink hair for all members in Club 2."
 What can you tell me about the hair color of Club 1 and Club 2 members based on
these two statements? Let’s take a closer look at her statements and dissect them.
Club 1 Club 2

https://www.quora.com/Why-are-the-majority-of-Japanese- https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/17/movies/17kehr.html
people-tanned-skinned-unlike-the-Koreans-and-the-Chinese

"There exists a member of Club 1 such that the "The member has pink hair for all members in
individual has pink hair." Club 2."

The words "there exists" and "for all" are essential in logic and mathematical logic
statements. They have their own name since that's how essential they are: quantifiers.
Quantifiers are statements, words, or phrases that describe the number of items that a
statement refers to.

“There is” and “For all” are examples of quantifiers. “There exists” is another
phrase that appears in mathematical statements.

Explore: Discover This!

Predicate variables are quantified using a quantifier. It includes a formula, a

statement type whose veracity depends on the values of specified variables. Whenever
we give a predicate a definite value, it transforms into a proposition. Another way to put
it is that the predicate will turn into a proposition if it is quantified. Accordingly, the word
"quantify" is a kind that relates to quantifies like "all" or "some".

A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite number of variables and becomes

a statement when specified values are substituted for the variables. The domain of a
predicate variable is the set of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable.

Example: Let be the predicate “ ” with domain the set of of all real

numbers. Write , , , and indicate which of these statements are true

and which are false.
Solution:
 , hence, is
true.

, but ,

hence, is false.

= , hence

is true.
When an element in the domain of the variable of a one-variable predicate is
substituted for the variable, the resulting statement is either true or false. The set of all
such elements that make the predicate true is called the truth set of the predicate.
If is a predicate and has domain , the truth set
of is the set of all elements of that make true when
they are substituted for . The truth set of is denoted

Example: Finding the truth set of a predicate

Let be the predicate “ is a factor of 8.” Find the truth
set of if

a) the domain of is , the set of all positive integers.

Solution: the truth set of is { }

b) the domain of is , the set of all integers.

Solution: the truth set of is {

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

Universal and existential quantifiers are the two primary categories of

quantifiers. In addition to this, there are various more quantifier types, including nested
quantifiers and quantifiers used in Standard English. The primary purpose of a quantifier
is to indicate how many elements a particular predicate contains. Additionally, it
demonstrates whether the predicate is true or false for all conceivable values or for
specific value(s) inside the realm of discourse.
Quantifiers are phrases that refer to given quantities, such as "for some" or "for
all" or "for every", indicating how many objects have a certain property.
The symbol is called the universal quantifier. It is read as “for every x,”
“for each x,” “for any x,” “given any x,” or “for all x.”
Example:
a) “Every human being is mortal.” or “All human beings are mortal.”
 human beings , is mortal.
b) “For every human being , is mortal.” If you let be the set
of all human beings, then you can symbolize the statement more formally by
writing
 , is mortal.
c) “For all real numbers and , .”
 “ real numbers and ,
.”

In a universally quantified sentence the domain of the predicate variable is

generally indicated either between the symbol and the variable name (as in
human being ) or immediately following the variable name (as in
).
Some other expressions that can be used instead of for all are “for every”, “for
arbitrary”, “for any”, “for each” and “given any”.
Let be a predicate and the domain of . A
universal statement is a statement of the form “ .” It is defined to
be true if, and only if, is true for every in . It is defined
to be false if, and only if, is false for at least one in .A
value for for which is false is called a counterexample to the
universal statement.
Example:
a) Let , and consider the statement
Show that this statement is true.
Solution: is true
is true
is true
is true
is true
 b) Consider the statement
Find a counterexample to show that this statement is false.
Solution: If , then is
false. Hence, 0.5 is a counterexample.

The symbol denotes “there exists” and is called the existential

quantifier. There exists an element, “for some ”, “there exists an
, “there is at least one ”.
Example:
“There is a student in GECMAT” can be written as
 a person p such that is a student in
GECMAT, or
 such that is a student in
GECMAT

Where: is the set of all people. The domain of the predicate variable is
generally indicated either between the symbol and the variable name or
immediately following the variable name, and the words such that are inserted just
before the predicate.
Let be a predicate and the domain of . An
existential statement is a statement of the form “ .” It is
defined to be true if, and only if, is true for at least one in .
It is false if, and only if, is false for all in .

Example:
a) Consider the statement such that . Show that this
statement is true.
Solution: Observe that , thus
is true for at least one integer m. Hence, such that
is true.

b) Let and consider the statement such that

. Show that this statement is false.
 Solution: Note that is not true for any integer m (5,
6, 7, 8), thus, such that is
false.

Example:
Let Determine if each proposition is true or false.
a) Solution: true
b) Solution: false, 1 is not even
c) Solution: false, but
d) Solution: true, 2 is both prime and even
e) Solution: true

Example:
Translating from formal to informal language. Rewrite the following formal
statements in a variety of equivalent but more informal ways. Do not use the symbol
∀ or ∃.
a)
Solution: The square of any real number is positive.
b)
Solution: Every square of a real number is not equal to or No real
numbers have squares equal to −1.
c)
Solution: There is a positive integer whose square is equal to itself or Some
positive integer equals its own square.