CTIVES, ‘Toverify, experimentally, the relationship between current, ‘voltage, and resistance in a circuit, To verify Ohm’s law. To investigate the causes of errors in measurement. IC INFORMATION nt 6 established that there isa definite relationship n current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit. It was that in closed circuit containing voltage V and resis- R there is a current J. It was further found that if the remains constant, the current decreases as the resis- increases. Ifthe resistance remains constant, the current as the voltage increases. results are important, but they are only descriptive of relationship that exists between current, voltage, and - When working with circuits itis necessary to have exact statement of the relationship in the form of a tical formula. The formula notonly showsthe change ‘makes it possible to predict how much of a change will ‘Using the method in Experiment 6 itis possible to develop tical formula forthe relationship between /, and Todo this, tis necessary to make many precise measure~ ‘of V and R in a circuit. By applying mathematical to the experimental results, formula can be written ill fitthe measured quantities. More measurements can ‘aken to verify or modify the formula, if necessary. Forexample, the circuit of Figure 7—1 was used tostudy the jonship between / and V for a constant value of R.A ter Was used to measure the voltage of the circuit, and eter Was used to measure the current. The voltage was 7-1. Developing a Formula for / when F= 100 0 EXPERIMENT OHM'S LAW 4 +f ]- A + v_ | votimeter R ® Figure 7-1. Circuit for veritying Ohm's aw. varied from 10 t0 50 V de in steps of 10 V with a 10-0 resistor inthe circuit. The results are tabulated in Table 7-1. ‘An examination of the data in Table 7-1 shows an exact relationship between / and V in that the ratio Vi for each step is equal to 10, As a formula the ratio can be written as v v =I or Sal Since the value of resistance was 10 0 it might be con- cluded that the ratio of Vi is always equal to R; that is, Ba a=) pk a-1) or Voy (7-2) R Of course, to verify this relationship for a more general case, the preceding experiment would need to be repeated ‘many times using different voltages and different resistanc- ¢s. For each result, the formula ViR- = I would need to be confirmed exactly. z om Vive 0 » ‘FE (amperes) 1 | 2 3 | 4 © 1982 by Glencoe Division of Macmilan-McGraw Hl Al igh reserved 47It should be noted that the preceding experiment was described using ideal conditions. That is, the resistance of the ‘meters was ignored, and it was assumed that the entire resis tance of the circuit was concentrated in the 10-0 resistor. In, ‘practical experiment, meter and circuit resistance have to be taken into account if exact measurements are to be obtained. ‘Ohm's Law Using the assumptions given for the preceding experiment and the actual results from Experiment 6, its possible to state a relationship between V, /, and R. Formula (7-2) states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. Stated an- other way, with R constant, as V is increased, / will increase; with V constant, as R is increased, / will decrease; where / is, in amperes, V is in volts, and R is in ohms. Formula (7-2) is known as Ohm's law, because it was first formulated by Georg Simon Ohm. The law is one of the fundamental relationships on which electricity and electron- ies is based. ‘Ohm's law can also be written as V=IXR All three forms of Ohm’s law are exactly the same. The choice of the formula to be used in any particular problem is determined by which values are known (V,, or R) and which values must be found. Measurement Errors In the preceding discussion it was assumed that all the mea surements made experimentally were 100 percent accurate. In practice, this is never so. Errors do occur and for several reasons. [i — a reading ros section of pointer Figure 7-2. Patalaxerrors occur when the line of sight ofthe viewer {and the meter pointer are not perpendicular tothe meter scale. 48 Experiment 7 One possible error results from reading the scale of an analog meter incorrectly. This can be corrected by exercising greater care and by taking the average of a number of the same ‘measurements. Interpolating incorrectly between calibrated ‘markers on a scale may be another source of error. A digital ‘meter eliminates these particular errors. Parallax is another source of error that can easily be cor- rected. It occurs when a meter reading is taken from an off- ‘center position—that is, when the line of sight between the viewer and the meter pointer is not perpendicular to the meter scale, Figure 7-2 illustrates the error of parallax. When the viewer's in position P, the line between the eye and the meter pointer A is perpendicular to the meter scale. Thi correct reading of 5. However, ifthe viewer is in position P,, the reading will be 7, an error due to parallax, To eliminate errors of parallax, a mirror strip is sometimes placed just ‘below the meter scale. The correct reading position i the one in which the pointer is positioned directly above its reflected mage in the mirror. Meter reading errors can be eliminated by using meters with a numerical readout—that is, digital meters. ‘There are other errors that are not so obvious and that can- not be corrected so easily. For example, there are inherent errors in the instruments used. The instrument manufacturer usually specifies the percentage of instrument error. For more accuracy, laboratory-precision instruments are re- quired. These are highly precise instruments whose inherent error is held to a fraction of a percent. ‘Another source of error results from the process of inserting an instrument in a circuit to make a measurement. If the instrument alters circuit conditions in any way, incorrect readings may be obtained, Insertion errors are discussed in ‘greater detail in later experiments. ‘The fact that errors do occur is mentioned here because in this experiment the objective is to develop the formula for ‘Ohm's law from experimental data. You can expect your data to contain some errors of measurement. SUMMARY 1. The relationship between the voltage V applied to a clos- ced cireuit by some source such as a battery, the total re- sistance R, and the current / in that circuit is given by the formula I= VIR. 2. ‘The relationship between the voltage drop V across a re- sistor R and the current / in that resistor is given by the formula I= VIR. 3. The formula / Ohm's law. 4, Toverify Ohm’slaw experimentally, many measurements must be made and the results ofthe measurements must be substituted in formula (7-2) to verify the formula, '5. One set of data is obtained by measuring / while holding the measured value of V constant and varying the measur- VIR is a mathematical statement of ‘Copyright© 1982 by Glencoe Ovison of Macmilan-MGraw Hi. lights reserveded value of R. The data obtained should fit the formula 1=VIR. 6. Another set of data is obtained by measuring J while holding the measured value of R constant and varying the ‘measured value of V. The data obtained should also fit the formula /= VIR. 7. Measurement errors do occur, and these must be consid- ered in attempting to establish the accuracy of a formula such as Ohm’s law. 8. Among the measurement errors that may occui {a) incorrect reading of the meter scale, (b) incorrect me- ter readings due to parallax, (c) errors resulting from the accuracy of the instrument used, and (d) errors introduced. by inserting the instrument in the circuit (insertion or loading errors). PROCEDURE ott Part A Adjust the potentiometer so that the resistance between ter~ minals A and B [Figure 7-3(a), (p. 50)] measures 1000.2. Always measure the resistance of the potentiometer when it is disconnected from the circuit. AL. Connect the circuit in Figure 7~3(b). Make sure power is Off and switch 5, is open before wiring the circuit, Have ‘your instructor check and approve the circuit before proceeding to step 2 -A2. Turn power on. Close switch S, to apply power to the circuit. Slowly increase the voltage until the voltmeter reads 2 V. Read the milliammeter; convert the reading to “amperes and record the value in Table 7-2 (p. 51) in the *2'V" column. A3. Adjust the voltage again until the voltmeter reads 4 V. Record the milliammeter reading (in amperes) in the “4 .V" column of Table 7-2. Ad. Adjust the voltage again until the voltmeter reads 6 V. Record the milliammeter reading (in amperes) in the “6 V" column of Table 7-2. “Copygnt © 1992 by Glencoe Division of Macmilan-MeGraw- il Al ights reserve, MATERIALS REQUIRED Power Supplies: Variable 0-15 V de, regulated Instruments: 0-10 mA milliammeter (analog meter preferred) DMM or VOM Resistors HL 1000-0 -W, 5% M1 5-0 2-W potentiometer Miscellaneous: SPST switch AS. Adjust the voltage again until the voltmeter reads 8 V. Record the milliammeter reading (in amperes) in the “8 V" column of Table 7-2. Open switch S,. Tum off the power. A6, Calculate the value of V/l for each of your test values of voltage and current in Table 7-2. Record your answers in the "Vil" row of the table AT. From step A6 you should be able to deduce the relation- ship between V and J. Write the relationship, or formula, in Table 7-2 where indicated. Using the formulas in step A7, calculate the value of 7 when V = 5.5 and V = 11.0 V. Record your answers in the “Formula Test” section of Table 7-2 in the “Y cal- culated” row. AY. Turn power on; close S,. Adjust the voltage until the voltmeter reads 5.5 V. Record the milliammeter read- ing in Table 7-2 in the “/ measured” row. Increase the voltage to 11.0 V and record the milliammeter read- ing in the “I measured” row again. Open S,. Turn off powerto the circuit, Remove the potentiometer fromthe circuit. AB. Ohm's Law 49a cobmmeter (a) + saa potentiometer ) Figure 7-3. (a) Measuring the resistance across the terminals of a potentiometer. (6) Crcut for procedure step At Part B Adjust the potentiometer so that the resistance across AB is, 2000.2. B1. Restore the potentiometer to the circuit of Figure 7-3. ‘Tum power on. Close 5, to apply power tothe circuit. Increase the voltage until the voltmeter reads 4 V. 50 Experiment 7 Record the milliammeter reading in Table 7-3 (p. 51) in the “4 V" column, B2, Repeat step BI using voltages of 6 V, 8 V, and 10°V in order. Record all milliammeter readings in Table 7-3. Open S; tum off power. B3. Calculate the value of Vi for each of your test values of voltage and current in steps BI and B2, Record your answers in the “V/I” row in Table 7-3 for each V and [. B4, Write a formula for the V and / relationship indicated in step B3. Record the formula in Table 7-3 where indi cated. BS. Using the formulas in step B4, calculate the value of / when V = 6 V and V = 12 V. Record your answers in the “Formula Test” section of Table 7-3 in the “7 cal- ‘culated” row. B6. Tum on power: close S,, Adjust the voltage until the voltmeter reads 6 V. Record the milliammeter reading Table 7-3 in the “/ measured” row. Increase the volt- ageto 12 V and record the milliammeter reading inthe “I measured” row of Table 7-3. Open S, and tum power Off, Remove the potentiometer from the circuit. PartC Repeat the procedures of parts A and B using a potentiometer resistance of 3000.2. The test voltages are 6 V, 8 V, 10 V, and 12V. The “Formula Test” voltages are 7 V and 14 V. Record all data for part C in Table 7-4, PartD Repeat the procedures of parts A and B using a potentiometer resistance of 4000. The test voltagesare8 V, 10, 12V. and. 14V. The “Formula Test” voltages are 8 V and 15 V. Record all data for part D in Table 7-5. ‘Copyight © 1992 by Glencoe Dison of Macmian-McGraw-il lights reserved