Measurement of distance.

In surveying, the commonly employed methods of linear measurement include

pacing, taping, tachymetric, graphical, mathematical, mechanical,
photogrammetric, and electronic distance measurement or a combination of
methods.

Distance by pacing.
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance. A
pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured from heel to
heel or from toe to toe. In surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps;
and if the steps are counted, distances can be determined if the length of a step is
known. Counting strides instead of paces is sometimes preferred by surveyors. A
stride is equivalent to two paces or a double step.
Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking measurements taken by other
methods. It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where a
low precision of measurement is sufficient.
To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace. This
is referred to as the pace factor. There are two methods that can be used to
calibrate one’s pace. One method is to determine the average length of an
individual’s normal step. The other method is to adjust one’s pace to some
predetermined length, such as 1 meter.
The length of a pace varies with different persons. This can be determined by
walking along a line of known length on level ground at a uniform gait, and
counting the number of paces it takes to negotiate the stretch. It is advisable to do
this in at least five or more trials in order to determine the average number of
paces. The pace factor is then determined by dividing the known distance by the
average number of paces required to traverse it. It is expressed in meters per
pace. Any known distance may then be approximately calculated by determining
the number of paces (preferably the average) one takes to negotiate it and
multiplying this by one’s pace factor.
The length of a pace will vary with the speed of pacing, the roughness of the
ground, the weight of clothing and shoes used, fatigue on the part of the pacer, the
slope of the terrain, as well as the age and gender of the individual. The pace will
also differ when going uphill or downhill.

Distance by taping.
The use of a graduated tape is probably the most common method of measuring
or laying out horizontal distances. Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape
between two points and reading the distance indicated on the tape. It is a form of a
direct measurement which is widely used in the construction of buildings, dams,
bridges canals, and many other engineering as well as non-engineering activities.
Distance by tachymetry.
Tachymetry (or tacheometry) is another procedure of obtaining horizontal
distances it is based on the optical geometry of the instrument employed and is an
indirect method of measurement. A transit or a theodolite is used to determine
subtended intervals and angles on a graduated rod or scale from which distances
are computed by trigonometry. Tachymetric measurements are performed either
by the stadia method or the subtense bar method.
1. Stadia method. The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a
telescope with two horizontals hairs called stadia hairs and a graduated rod
called a stadia rod. The spacing of the stadia hairs is so designed that at a
distance of 100 meters their intercept on a vertical rod will be about 1 meter
and 2 meters for a distance of 200 meters and so on. It is important that the
line of sight is horizontal and intersects the rod at right angles.
The process of taking a stadia measurement consists in observing through the
telescope the apparent locations of the two stadia hairs on a vertically held rod.
From the observed interval read on the rod, the distance from the telescope to
the rod is found by proportional relationships in similar triangles. The equation
D = Ks + C is employed in computing horizontal distances from stadia intervals
when sights are horizontal. The stadia constant C is the distance from the
center of the instrument to the principal focus. Its value is usually equal to zero
for internal focusing telescopes. K is the stadia interval factor of the instrument.
Most instruments are so designed that this value is made equal to 100. The
stadia interval, s, is determined in the field by observing the difference between
the upper stadia hair reading and lower stadia hair reading.

2. Subtense bar method. The subtense bar which is precisely 2 meters ling,
consists of a rounded steel tube through which runs a thin invar rod. At each
end of the frame the target marks are housed. It is mounted horizontally on a
tripod and placed perpendicular to the line of sight by means of a sighting
device on top of the bar.
The procedure for determining the distance between two points consists of
setting up the subtense bar at the distant station and measuring the horizontal
angle subtended by the distance between the two targets. A theodolite, set up
at the other end of the line to measured, is used in measuring the subtending
angle.
The subtense bar method is often used in obtaining distances over very rough
or inaccessible terrain such as across canyons, wide rivers, ravines, and even
across busy city streets.

Distance by graphical and mathematical methods.

By graphical or mathematical methods, unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known distances geometrically. However, before
any distances are determined, the scale must first be established.
Distance by mechanical devices.
Mechanical devices could also be employed in measuring distances however
its application are for those of low precision surveys only.
1. Odometer. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to a
wheel for purposes of roughly measuring surface distances. The wheel is
rolled over the distance to be measured and the number of revolutions of
the wheel is directly registered by the device.
2. Measuring wheel. A measuring wheel is very similar in operation to an
odometer except that it is a more portable and self- contained measuring
device. It basically consists of a small wheel which is attached to a rod and
handle, and can be pushed by an operator. As the wheel of the device is
rolled along a line to be measured a built-in calibrated recorder
automatically gives a distance read out in meters and decimal of a meter.
3. Optical rangefinder. An optical rangefinder operates on the same principle
as a rangefinder on a single-lens reflex camera. This device, which is
usually hand-held or mounted on a small tripod, can be used to determine
distances approximately simply by focusing. In using the device, the
operator looks through the eyepiece and sights a distant object such as a
flag or range pole which defines the other end of a line to be measured. The
object is then brought into a sharp focus by a focusing knob. When the split
image, as seen through the eyepiece, is brought into coincidence ,the
corresponding distance is then read on a graduated scale on the
rangefinder.
Distance by photogrammetry.
The term photogrammetry refers to the measurement of images on a
photograph. The type of photographs used are those taken from an aircraft
with the axis of the camera pointed vertically towards the terrain
photographed. When very precise cameras and photogrammetric
equipment are used, distances can be measured on photographs with a
precision of about 1/3000 to 1/5000.

Illustrative examples.
1. A 45 m course, AB on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the
purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each of
six trials were 50, 53, 51, 53, 52, 53.
a. Determine his pace factor. (0.865)
b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces
in walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the
line? (666.05 m)
c. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0 m, determine
the relative precision of the measurement performed. RP= (TD-
PD)/TD
2. In five trials of walking along a 90 m course on fairly level ground, a
pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides
 respectively. He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four
trials which were recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88, and 87 strides.
Determine the following:
a. Pace factor of the pacer. (0.869)
b. Length of line XY. (153.16 m)
c. Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY
is 150.5 meters. (150.5 – 153.16)/150.5 times 100%
3. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up
at A. The upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.300
m and 0.900 m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor is 100, and the
instrument constant is zero, determine the length of line AB. (40 m)
4. The following subtended angles were read on a 2 m long subtense bar
using a theodolite; 0º54’13”, 0º22’20”, 0º32’6”, and 0º19’46”. Compute
the horizontal distance from the theodolite to each position of the bar.
(126.81 m, 307.86 m, 214.19 m, 347.83 m)
5. A subtense bar 2 meters long is set up near the middle of a traverse line
PQ. Using a theodolite set up at P, the angle subtended reads 0º20’14”.
When the theodolite was transferred and set up at Q the corresponding
subtended angle was observed as 0º23’47”. Determine the horizontal
length of the line PQ. (628.90 m)

Breaking tapes.
It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to plumb at
one or both ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain surfaces.

Slope taping.
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the ground is
of uniform inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few meters.
The measured slope distance is then reduced to its corresponding horizontal
distance by simple computations. To perform the computations, either the
difference in elevation between the two ends of the tape (or terminal points of the
line) or the angle of inclination of the slope measurement must first be determined.
In slope taping, a check is made by measuring once up the slope and once down
the slope. The average of the two measurements is reduced to the equivalent
horizontal distance and is taken as the final value of the measured distance.

d=sCos ∝
d= √ s2 −h2

Corrections in taping.
Taping operations could either be of the following: taping to determine an unknown
length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length.
Regardless of which of these two categories is involved there are some
corrections which are applied to the original measurements to determine the
correct and more accurate length. Corrections to taping are applied by the use of
the following rules:
1st Rule: When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.
2nd Rule: When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is
“too long” the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.
3rd Rule: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.

The following conditions which could exist during a taping operation may require
the application of corrections.
1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their
manufacture, or damage caused by kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when “breaking tape” along
inclined or rough terrain surfaces, or when undertaking slope tapinng.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line during the measurement or
in laying out of lengths.
4. Tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in temperature prevailing
during the actual measurement and the temperature for which the tape is
standardized.
5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due to the application of a pull on its
ends which differs significantly from the pull applied on the tape during
standardization.
6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported length of tape is less than
the specified nominal length due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side
wind.

Correction due to incorrect tape length.

Manufacturers of assorted measuring tapes do not usually guarantee their
products to be exactly their correct length. These tapes rarely corresponds exactly
with its specified nominal length since they may actually be slightly shorter or
longer. This is often due to imperfections in their manufacture, stretching or wear.
Also, due to constant use, tapes become worn, kinked, and may be improperly
repaired when breaks occur. The net result is that tapes may vary by a few
millimeters or centimeters from their correct lengths.
The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr) is determined from the
difference between the true or actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of
tape (NL) or Corr=TL−NL . This discrepancy is normally assumed to be distributed
uniformly throughout the tape and is directly proportional to the fractional segment
of the tape used. When the resulting difference from the above equation is a
positive value, the tape used is too long; and is too short, if negative.
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape
that is too long or too short can be determined from the following equations,
ML
C l=Corr ( )
NL
CL=ML ± Cl

Where: Cl = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be

laid out
CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape

Illustrative examples.
1. A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of
15º25’ as measured using a hand level and clinometer. The slope
measurement is 756.52 m. What is the corresponding horizontal distance?
(729.30 m)
2. A horizontal distance of 325.75 m is to be established along a line that slopes
at a vertical angle of 13º06’. What slope distance should be laid out? (334.45
m)
3. A line XYZ is measured on the slope in two segments. The first segment XY
measures 824.45 m and the second segment YZ measures 1244.38 m. If the
difference in elevation between points X and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y
and Z is 6.47 m, determine the horizontal length of the measured line. (2068.80
m)
4. The length of a line AB measured with a 50 m tape is 465.285 m. When the
tape is compared with a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016 m too
long in almost the same conditions of support, tension, and temperature that
existed during measurement of the line. Determine the correct length of AB.
(465.434 m)
5. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50 m steel tape which was found to be
0.025 m too short. If the recorded length and width of the lot are 180.455 m
and 127.062 m, respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot. (180.365 m, 126.998 m)
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape. (22.979 m2)
6. A building 38 m x 45 m is to be laid out with a 50 m long metallic tape. If during
standardization the tape is found to be only 49.950 m, determine the following:
a. Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building shall
have the desired dimensions. (38.038 m, 45.045 m)
b. Using the same tape what should the diagonals read? (58.957 m)

Correction due to slope.

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance
may correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
 2
h
C h=
(s+ d)
For gentle slopes, it is safe to assume that the slope distance (s) is approximately
equal to the horizontal distance (d) or
2
h
C h=
2s
The slope correction should be subtracted from the measured slope distance to
obtain the equivalent horizontal distance.
A slope is classified as gentle when it is not greater than 20%. This means a rise
or fall of 20 units in a horizontal distance of 100 units. A plus or minus sign must
be given to indicate if the slope is rising or falling, respectively.

slope= ( hd )100 %
For steep slopes ranging from between 20% and 30%, the slope correction is,
2 4
h h
C h= + 3
2s 8s

For very steep slopes such as those greater than 30%, the slope correction is,
C h=s(1−cosθ)

For any classification of slopes, the equivalent horizontal distance (d) is

determined by subtracting the slope correction from the slope distance.
d=s−C h
Correction due to alignment.
The correction due to alignment, Ca, can be calculated by employing the slope
correction formulas.

Correction due to temperature.

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature
falls. The correction applied to the length of the tape due to change in
temperatures Ct is given by the formula;
C t=CL(T −T s )

Where: C is the coefficient of linear expansion or the amount of change in length

per unit length per degree change in temperature, L is the length of the tape or
length of line measured, T is the observed temperature of the tape at the time of
measurement, and Ts is the temperature at which the tape was standardized.
The coefficient of linear expansion of the tape must be known when computing the
change in length of a tape caused by change in temperature. If the tape used is
made of steel, the value of C is 0.0000116 per degree Celsius. This means that for
every 1 degree rise (or fall) in temperature, the tape will increase (or decrease) in
length by 0.0000116 times its length. The value of Ts is usually taken as 20 degree
Celsius.
The resulting sign of Ct will be either positive or negative and is added
algebraically to the length measured to obtain the correct length. As a general rule,
to obtain more accurate measured values, taping should be undertaken when the
temperature does not vary significantly from the temperature used during
standardization. Better results are usually obtained when measurements are made
on cloudy days, early in the morning, or late in the afternoon when temperature
variations are small.

Correction due to tension.

During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of
standard pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping, it is
elongated or shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it.
If the pull is greater than that for which it was calibrated, the tape elongates and
becomes too long. Correspondingly, it will stretch less than its standard length
when an insufficient pull is applied thus, making it too short.
The correction for pull is a function of the difference between the applied pull and
the standard pull, the measured length, the cross-sectional area of the tape, and
the modulus of elasticity of the tape material.
Since the modulus of elasticity of the material can be expressed as the ratio of unit
stress to unit elongation, the change in length can be determined as;
P
unit stress A ( Pm−Ps ) L
E= = =
elongation per unit length e Cp A
L
( Pm−Ps ) L
C p=
AE

and L' =L ±C p

where: Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the correction due to
incorrect pull applied on the tape (m)
Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement (kg)
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated (kg)
L = measured length of line (m)
A = cross – sectional area of the tape (cm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2)
L’ = corrected length of the measured line (m)

By measuring the thickness and width of a steel tape by means of a caliper, its
cross-sectional area can be determined. The cross-sectional area may also be
calculated by dividing the total weight (W) of the tape by the product of its length
(L) and the unit weight of steel which is approximately 7.866 x 10 -3 kg/cm3. This is
given by the equation,
W
A=
L(Unit weight)
The cross-sectional area of most light and heavy steel tapes which are 30 m long
vary from about 0.02 to 0.06 cm2. The modulus of elasticity of a steel tape usually
varies from 2.00 x 106 to 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2.
The errors due to pull variations can be eliminated by using a spring balance to
measure and maintain the standard pull, or by exerting a specific amount of pull
consistently and applying corrections for the deviation from the standard pull.
Illustrative examples.
1. Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m, respectively.
The difference in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and B and 10.85 m for
points B and C. using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle
slopes determine the horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that the line AB
has a rising slope and BC a falling slope. (991.15 m)
2. A line AB cannot be measured directly because of an obstruction on line.
Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB were measured as 2,400.850 m and
1,320.420 m, respectively. Point C was set at a perpendicular distance of 155
m from point D on line AB. Using the approximate slope correction formula for
steep slopes, determine the length of AB. (3707.134 m)
3. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/ºC is known to
be 50 m long at 20ºC. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to
be 532.28 meters long when the temperature was 35ºC. Determine the
following:
a. Temperature correction per tape length. (0.0087 m)
b. Temperature correction for the measured line. (0.0926 m)
c. Correct length of the line. (532.37 m)
4. A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20ºC, is used in laying out a
runway 2500.00 m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/ºC,
determine the temperature correction and the correct length to be laid out when
the temperature is 42ºC. (0.64 m) (2499.36 m)
5. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm 2 has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. if E = 2.10 x 10 6 kg/cm2, determine the
elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied. (0.0031 m)
6. A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5 kg,
supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55 m long
on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg. assuming E = 2.0 x 10 6
kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10 -3 kg/cm3, determine the
following:
a. Cross-sectional area of the tape. (0.06118 cm2)
b. Correction for increase in tension. (0.04 m)
c. Correct length of the line measured. (938.59 m)

Correction due to sag.

A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull
for which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two points
measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its own
weight. The tape takes the form of a catenary when it sags between points of
support just as an electric or telephone wire which hangs and swings loosely
between two posts.
When a stretched tape sags, the actual distance between the points is something
less than the reading on the tape. The magnitude of the error due to sag depends
on the weight of the tape, the unsupported length, and the tension applied.
The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by the
tape and the subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed
to be a parabola and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula;
2 3
w L
C s= 2
24 P
Since, W = wL or W2 = w2L2
 2
W L
C s= 2
24 P
Where:
Cs = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m)
w = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)
The effect of sag can be reduced by increased tension but is not entirely
eliminated unless the tape is supported throughout its entire length. When
conditions allow, it is preferable to measure on the ground where the tape is
supported throughout its entire length to avoid the effects of sag.

Correction due to wind.

A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the middle
and unsupported portion of the tape to one side of the line measured. This
introduces an error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is
usually much less. If it cannot be avoided and the measurement has to be done on
windy days, efforts should be taken to support the tape from being affected by the
blowing wind.

Normal tension.
The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening caused by
sag is referred to as the normal tension. Its magnitude can be computed for a
particular tape or it can be measured out in the field as follows:
a. Stretch the tape on a concrete pavement (or level ground) by applying its
prescribed standard pull, and mark its ends on the pavement.
b. Hold the tape above the ground by supporting it only at its ends, then, pull the
tape until the ends coincide with the marked points on the pavement.
The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points coincide
with the marked points on the pavement. A spring balance should be used in
measuring this value.
Theoretically, the elongation due to increased tension can be made equal to the
shortening due to sag by equating the correction due to tension to the correction
due to sag. The formula for normal tension is derive as follows;
C p=C s

( Pm−P s ) L W 2 L
= 2
AE 24 P

2
2 W AE
P=
24 ( Pm−P s)

√ 0.204 W √ AE
2
W AE
P= =
24( P m−P s) √ P m−Ps
Let PN = P = Pm
0.204 W √ AE
P N=
√ P N −Ps
Where:
PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of tape material (kg/cm2)
PS = standard pull for the tape (kg)

Illustrative examples:
1. A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg. if the
tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct distance
between the ends of the tape. (0.016 m, 29.984 m)
2. A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points and at
the 8-m and 25-m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the following:
a. Correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8-m marks, 8-m and 25-m
marks, and the 25-m and 50-m marks. (0.00095 m, 0.00910 m, 0.02894
m)
b. Correction due to sag for one tape length. (0.03899 m)
c. Correct distance between the ends of the tape. (49.96101 m)
3. A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.035 kg/m is constantly supported at mid-length and
at its end points, and is used to measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5 kg.
if the measured length of AB is 1268.256 m, determine the following:
a. Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape length.
(0.019 m, 0.038 m)
b. Total sag correction for the whole length measured. (0.964 m)
c. Correct length of line AB. (1267.292 m)
4. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm 2. The tape
measures exactly 30.00 m when supported throughout its length under a
standard pull of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity is 2.10 x 10 6 kg/cm2,
determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal length
when supported only at the end points. (16.75115 kg)
5. A steel tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.06 cm 2 and a modulus of
elasticity of 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2, weighs 0.03 kg/m. Its length is 30.00 m when
standardized at a pull of 5 kg and supported throughout its length. Determine
the tension at which the effect of sag will be eliminated by the elongation of the
tape due to increased tension. (17.786 kg)

Combined corrections.
The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature, tension,
slope, and sag may be combined as a single net correction per tape length. Each
correction is computed separately and it is important to identify which correction
tends to make the tape too long or too short.