INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

ME312

LECTURE 2:
CHARACTERISTICS of MEASUREMENT
SYSTEMS

Dr. Riaz Muhammad

 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

✓ Every system has its own characteristic and one needs to

know the characteristics of the system in order to be able
to use it
✓ The performance characteristics of a systems can be
divided into two groups:
1) Static characteristics ‫خصائص ثابتة‬
✓ Refer to the steady state or constant relationship
between input and output of an instrument
2) Dynamic characteristics ‫الخصائص الديناميكية‬
✓ Refer to the relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity (measurand) is
changing with time. 2
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS(‫ ) الصفاة الثابته‬OF A
SYSTEM
Static characteristics are generally obtained by a process called
static calibration ‫التقويم فى حالت الثبوت‬.
Factors that define the static Characteristics are:
✓ Accuracy & Precision ‫الدقة‬
✓ Range ‫ & مدى‬Span ‫امتداد‬
✓ Linearity & Sensitivity ‫حساسية‬
✓ Resolution ‫القدرة على االظهار‬
✓ Environmental effect (Zero drift(bias) and sensitivity drift
✓ Repeatability ‫ القدرة على تكرار شيء‬Reproducibility ‫قابلية إعادة اإلنتاج‬
✓ Threshold
✓ Dead space
✓ Tolerance

3
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
1) Accuracy and Precision ‫دقة‬
✓ Accuracy is the ability of a system to show the exact
reading.
✓ Accuracy is shown in percentage of error of the full scale
reading percentage. Relative
errors ate full
For example : A pressure gauge with a range between 0-2
bar with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale) has a
maximum error of: So
(5/100)x2 bar = ± 0.1 bar error;

Then the measured value will be between 1.9 to 2.1 bar

4
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Accuracy:
More Examples :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 – 10 bar is found to have an
error of ± 0.2 bar when calibrated
x70 2%
=

&

Calculate the followings :

3 x2
1) The error percentage of the gauge.
2) The error percentage when the reading obtained is 3.0 bar.
Answer:
1) Error Percentage = ± 0.2/10 bar x 100 = ± 2%

2) Error Percentage = ± 0.2/3 bar x 100 = ± 6.6 %

Therefore, the gauge is not suitable for low range measurement.

Look for another gauge with a suitable range.
5
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
from zero or
any value
2) RANGE of SPAN sss
↑

9
✓ Defined as the range of reading between
minimum value and maximum value of the
-

measurement system
✓ The range of span has always a positive value.

For example:
A system which has a reading range of –100°C to
100 °C, has a range of span of, 100C-(-100C)=
200 °C. I

A system which has a reading range of 25C to 200

C, has a range of span of,200C-25C= 175 C 6

imum
value Minimum salve -
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
me mux
Range of Span example & I
A temperature sensor has a range of span of 50-300°C. A
measurement results in a value of 50°C for the temperature.
Find the error if the accuracy is
(a)±0.5% of the Full Scale, (b)±0.75% range of span, and (c)±0.8% of
-

reading. sel IBR a

full scale =300

Answers
a
lininess -36;
precession -

si
-
201

the error
↑

(a) Error = (±0.5/100)(300°C) = ±1.5°C. Therefore, the actual

-F

temperature is in the range of 48.5 to 51.5°C.

(b) Error = (±0.75/100)(300-50)°C = ±1.875°C. Therefore, the actual
temperature is in the range of 48.125 to 51.875°C.
(c) Error = (±0.8/100)(50°C)= ±0.40°C. Thus, the temperature is in
the range of 49.6 to 50.4°C.
7
I
full scalebein
300 - > X ,jg"
X =
300x0.5 -

B ↑ oo E 8.75
250 -> A

ts
x
=2

⑥ 100 - 0.2
so X
 for ex

>

aremiere
-At I

f
desilence eet.
Ideal case

↑ STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
3) Linearity
✓ Linearity defines how well the measured and calibrated data will fit
to a straight line.
✓ This can be done by fitting the measured data through the
following linear regression equation intersection with
A 3 axis
y=mx+c
Where y = output; x= input=measured value; m= slope and
c= intersect of y axis. for ex

For example: ·
✓ linear regression can be used to fit a predictive model to an
observed data set of y and X values. Once you know the model, then
additional values of X are then used without its accompanying
value of y, the fitted model can be used to make a prediction of the
measured data.
8
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dynos."9s*
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
-

4) SENSITIVITY
Is defined as the ratio of steady state change in
output ↳towards the change in input. Variables
-

Scriab'c
Sensitivity (K) = Δθο/Δθi
Δθο =change in output; Δθi =change in input

in
chans and
ene
For Example :
 The resistance of a Platinum Thermometer changes
when the temperature increases. Thus, the unit for the
sensitivity for this equipment is Ohm/°C.

9
 < c.5 /</99
STATIC CHARACATERISTIC
Sensitivity Example:
The output of a platinum resistance
thermometer is as follows:

Input-T(C) Output
R(Ohm)
0 0
sensetiriby
50 100 e

100 200
150 300 *
Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.
Answer :
 Draw an input versus output graph. From
that graph, the sensitivity is the slope of
the graph.
-

 K = ΔR/ ΔT= graph slope = (300-100) Ohm/

- i

(150-50) °C 10
= 2 Ohm/°C
means the output increase twise
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
5) RESOLUTION f-ig's, si
✓ Is defined as the smallest change in input reading that can be traced
·

accurately and is given in the form % of full scale (% fs).

For Example -

-
S
A force sensor measures a range of 0 to 200N with a resolution of 0.2% of
-

full scale. Find the smallest change in force that can be measured.

Answer/solution
961.8, s
The smallest resolvable and measurable change in force =
(0.2/100)(200N) = 0.4N.
esse is force Resolution
,
Resolution
5
LOON
--Resolution
is
200
X 8.2
X
11
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
!is is
6) Environmental effects
-Se I
03
The calibrations of an instrument is only valid under certain
;

✓ >

environmental conditions such as temperature, pressure, and

-$
relative humidity. 6 8 65
✓ These conditions are defined in the instrument manual.
✓ As changes happens on these conditions, then certain
-
static
-;0-6
-- 81s
characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a
35' 9.5"
measure of the magnitude of this change.
-92
✓ These environmental changes that lead to the deterioration of the
-s
-

instruments is known as zero drift and sensitivity drift.

✓ Zero drift is known too by the name of Bias.
✓ The changes in environment leads to variations in instrument’s
parts over time resulting in increased stresses and change in the
chemical structure of the parts. 12
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
error

smiles , Giving, cult

Environmental Effect

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zero drift in input

13
 STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
;g
7) Repeatability: -4. IS = I=
✓ It measures how well the output returns to a given
value
-I
when the same value of the input is applied
=S

several times.
✓ More over, it is the ability of a test system to
is
↳it
reproduce the same reading with a given accuracy.
-
-

-yes 2451s -

:↑ I

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
8) Threshold 81 d.
- -
✓ It refers to Input below which no output can be detected.

✓ In additions, it means the smallest measurable input.

--

⑤.-
-5 ↳ Here called
full scale value

For example
✓ If a device/system has a threshold of 50 V, then only inputs
greater than 50 V will have a detectable output 15
&".
In design:The allowable charge in salve that to
acceptable
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
9) Tolerance: 5:
&

✓ is defined as the allowable range of variation, or the max./min.

range of variation that we would allow.
-sid
✓ For Example
If one want to slide a shaft/pipe with a nominal diameter of 10 mm in a
hole with nominal diameter of 10 mm too. Then the actual dimension
for both Shaft and hole must be designed with tolerance limit
The shaft must be designed diameter of 9.975 to max. 10mm with lower
tolerance of 0.025 mm
And The hole must be design with diameter of 10.05 to 10.1mm upper
control tolerance of about 0.05 mm.
This way the design will be robust and meet standards.
->I =
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 -1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
10) Hysteresis -58
✓ Is referred to the non linear relation of output to the direction of
i

input. Input and output are not aligned

-is

✓ Hysteresis is most commonly found in instruments that contain

springs, such as the passive pressure gauge and other systems
with friction force.
-
✓ Generally, expressed in percentage of full scale Reading

Reasons:
Looseness, Friction between parts, Material characteristics, such as magnetic 17
materials. And mechanical-manual system
ot
desia
I
in
det zemetic
E

heat
By treatment se Remove it
 STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
11) Dead Space:

✓ It refers to a range of different input values over which there is no

change in output value
Sha
-

This mechanism is generally seen in a system with Hysteresis behavior

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 DYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS
✓ Dynamic means that something is changing with time
-

✓ Defines the behavior of system when the input signal is

changed
✓ We use differential equations to explain the behavior of

something system such as oven temperature that is

changing with time
✓ Dynamic Characteristics of a system are defined by
three types of standard input:
-

1) Step input

2) Ramp input

3) Sine wave input

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 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
1) Introduction
▪ A measurement system takes an input quantity and
transforms
-:ig
it into an output quantity that can be
observed or recorded. I
->

▪ The shape and form of a signal are often referred to as

Is

its waveform.
▪ The waveform contains information about the
magnitude, which indicates the size of the input
quantity, and the frequency, which indicates the rate
at which the signal changes in time.

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 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
1) Introduction -I
▪ Two important tasks that engineers face in the
measurement of physical variables are:
1. selecting a measurement system and
-

-I
2. interpreting the output from a measurement system.
-

▪ A simple example of selecting a measurement system

might be the selection of a tire gauge for measuring
the air pressure in a bicycle tire or in a car tire, as
shown in Figure 2.1.

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 GENERALIZED BEHAVIOR
S
1) To examine further the generalized behavior of measurement
systems, we first examine
❑ the possible forms of the input and output signals.
- 2
❑ We will associate the term “signal” with the “transmission of
information.” -
-
❑ A signal is the physical information about a measured variable.

22
 CLASSIFICATION OF WAVEFORMS
SS:is;
➢ Signals may be classified as analog, discrete time, or digital.
➢ Analog describes a signal that is continuous in time.

23
Easi GENERALIZED BEHAVIOR
1) Discrete time signal
➢ This format represents a discrete time signal, for which
information about the magnitude of the signal is available only at
discrete points in time. & is

➢ A discrete time signal usually results from the sampling of a

continuous variable at repeated finite time interva
-

24
 GENERALIZED BEHAVIOR
1) Digital signals
-

➢ A digital signal has two important characteristics.

➢ First, a digital signal exists at discrete values in time, like a
discrete time signal.
➢ Second, the magnitude of a digital signal is discrete, determined
by a process known as quantization at each discrete point in time.
➢ Quantization assigns a single number to represent a range of
magnitudes of a continuous signal.
➢ As an example of quantization, consider a digital clock that
displays time in hours and minutes.
➢ For the entire duration of 1 minute, a single numerical value is
displayed until it is updated at the next discrete time step. As
such, the continuous physical variable of time is quantized in its
conversion to a digital display.
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 GENERALIZED BEHAVIOR
1) Digital signals
➢ Sampling of an analog signal to produce a digital signal can be
accomplished by using an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter, It is a
solid-state device that converts an analog voltage signal into a
binary number system representation.
➢ For example, digital music recording technology relies on the
conversion of a continuously
➢ available signal, such as the voltage signal from a microphone,
into a digital form such as an MP3
➢ file. However, because headphones and the human ear are analog
devices, the digital information is converted back into a
continuous voltage signal for playback.
➢ Broadcast of digital signals makes possible high-definition
television service in our homes and satellite radio in our vehicles.
26
 -?
Different between avoloyes
-
and digitils
is ↳
= , se..wen's sed
-
-

=1
-

5,61
 SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
input output
-
-> I
->

➢ Signals can be classified as either static or dynamic.

➢ A dynamic signal is defined as a signal that changes with time
➢ .

-
sibrations]

27
 DYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS

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1) Step Input:
✓ Is a sudden change in the input signal, from steady
State, that results in transient output signal as
shown below.
✓ Example: A thermometer is moved from a cold water
bath to a boiling water
-

SssSI s

10, -
,
0

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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC

2) Ramp Input:
✓ The input signal changes linearly; therefore, the
output signal is a form of ramp response.
For example:
✓ Imaging the take off of the airplane as the input
changes linearly the airplane ramp up in the air

k canS
=

29
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC
e
3) Sine wave input:
✓ The input signal is harmonic in nature; therefore, the
output signal is frequency response.
✓ For example: sl, 888
-

Imagine the movement of a rollercoaster

-

Amplitude

-
I
ampilitate peach, peack
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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC
Time Behavior:
✓ In dynamic system input/output changes with time; therefore,
when we design a system it is very important to know how
quickly the system respond.
For example:
✓ 1) If you have a system that is controlling a temperature or
pressure, how long it takes the temperature/pressure to reach a
the steady state is important because the longer it takes the
more changes on the material’s property could occur.
✓ 2) if you are trying to control a temperature to be
200o C. Then the temperature goes to 250o C before it settles
out, you'll want to know this and how long it takes or the temp.
to settle out because, again it could have affect in your
processes
31
 SIGNAL ANALYSIS
How we can solve this system:
Static Solution: Calculate Mean of the output signal
in output

8
change - &

un -

85 -3
C
W -

ises
deta
->
in time
-> change

Y
5 dt
=

32

discrete:"I
anoloy :continues
certain value
Butitmay be have
 SIGNAL ANALYSIS
Dynamic Solution:

For a certain time interval

average
Signal Root-Mean-Square Value:
-

▪ Consider finding the magnitude of a constant effective current, Ie,

that would produce the same total energy dissipation in the resistor
as the time-varying current, I(t), over the time period t1 to t2.
▪ Assuming that the resistance, R, is constant, this current would be
determined by equating (Ie)2 *R(t2 − t1) with above equation to yield.
RMS?
9:why we use

33
 SIGNAL ANALYSIS
Discrete Time or Digital Signals:

34
 E. 1s,19 SIGNAL ANALYSIS
Problem 2.8: Determine the average and rms values for the function
y(t) = 25 + 10 sin 6πt

edt
over the time periods e
(a) 0 to 0.1 s,
3 i
=

(b) (b) 0.4 to 0.5 s,

(c) (c) 0 to 1/3 s, and

(d) (d) 0 to 20 s.

(e) Comment on the nature and meaning of the results in terms of

analysis of dynamic signals.

35
0 5 =

xd

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=

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Note:Sinx-2X
2

a
-d coix 1
=

$2x 36
1$1
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 SIGNAL AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY
The method of expressing a signal as a series of sines and cosines
- - -

is called Fourier analysis

The Fourier Function is like a prism to convert complex signals

into simple signals for analysis.
38
 PERIODIC SIGNALS
As per newton Second Law of Motion:

This linear, second-order differential equation with

constant coefficients describes the motion of the
idealized spring mass system when there is no
external force applied. The general form of the
solution to this equation is

39
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
✓ Many signals that result from the measurement of dynamic variables are
nondeterministic in nature and have a continuously varying rate of
change.
✓ These signals, having complex wave forms, present difficulties in the
selection of a measurement system and in the interpretation of an output
signal.
✓ However, it is possible to separate a complex signal, or any signal for
that matter, into a number of sine and cosine functions.
✓ In other words, any complex signal can be thought of as consisting of
sines and cosines of differing periods and amplitudes, which are
✓ added together in a trigonometric series.

40
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
A function y(t) is a periodic function if there is some positive number T
such that:

The period of y(t) is T. If both y1(t) and y2(t) have period T, then

also has a period of T (a and b are constants).

A trigonometric series is given by

41
 FOURIER SERIES AND COEFFICIENTS
A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function in terms of an
infinite sum of sines and cosines that are integral multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
A periodic function y(t) with a period T is to be represented by a
trigonometric series, such that for any t,

The trigonometric series corresponding to y(t) is called the Fourier series for y(t), and the
coefficients An and Bn are called the Fourier coefficients of y(t). When n = 0, the
coefficient represents the average or mean value of the series. When n = 1, the
corresponding terms in the Fourier series are called fundamental and have the lowest
frequency in the series, termed the fundamental frequency. Frequencies corresponding
to n = 2, 3, 4, … are known as harmonics, with, for example, n = 2 representing the
second harmonic.

42
 FOURIER SERIES AND COEFFICIENTS
▪ Fourier Coefficients

43
 FOURIER SERIES AND COEFFICIENTS
▪ Fourier Coefficients

44
 FOURIER SERIES AND COEFFICIENTS
▪ Special Case: Functions with T = 2π

45
 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS
▪ Special Case: Functions with T = 2π
▪ A function g(t) is even if it is symmetric about the vertical axis, which may be stated,
for all t, as

▪ If y(t) is even, its Fourier series will contain only cosine terms:

▪ If y(t) is odd, its Fourier series will contain only sine terms:

46
 series function

$bw
2 int

30) D0
=

if wild

31) Do
=

E Busining
 FOURIER SERIES
▪ Example: if we combined infinity tragoimitric function-will have this

▪ Determine the Fourier series that represents the function shown in Figure 2.13.
add
↓
↑ Nob summetric about y

f( 1) -
=
-
f(b) Because
old
as cs 0
=
(Anso) I

3)Businig
-

n 1
=

(x6
.,
.
gie

47
 -
= 3 -
sxt0

y(x) -
↳ +
-> 0 S
412

dt
Ao
if,
=

+12
x(x)

Ao
i(,
=
dt
f,dAI

A
(
= -

!, +
+

!s
A
i(-(0
= +
s) 5) i[0]
+
=
0
=
 t 18s
=

Old f(st) =-f(t) so only sin

G,axes
-
set o
-

3(x)
=

Ao =
tof
 Bu =

S3) dt
sin

in =

(-sin(Ydt-Isin ( dt] ⑧

(s(t)! !] 18
S
-

-(1-cos(n) -(0s() 1)
-

-
in
12 =

cos(in) -
cos(a))
Nobe Coss(in) css
=
(- wn)

in 12 - 2 cos(in))

B
=(1 -

cos(n))
B=
B2 2 Br =
=

y(t) sin( +sin (6)sinh""

=
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 sinware a
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DYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS will

spe
have this

Understanding Fourier Series

-

50
 FOURIER TRANSFORM AND THE FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
▪ The fundamental mathematics required to develop a method for
analyzing measured data requires taking the limit of a Fourier series
as the period of the signal approaches infinity.
▪ In the limit as T approaches infinity, the Fourier series becomes an
integral.
▪ The spacing between frequency components becomes infinitesimal.
This means that the coefficients An and Bn become continuous
functions of frequency and can be expressed as A(ω) and B(ω) where

51
 FOURIER TRANSFORM AND THE FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM

✓ To further develop the Fourier transform, consider the complex number defined as

52
 FOURIER TRANSFORM AND THE FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
✓ the inverse Fourier transform of Y(f)

53
2.48:
Show that this even signal can be represented by the Fourier
series

y (t ) = ( 4C T ) t + C −T 2  t  0
y (t ) = ( − 4C T ) t + C 0t T 2
FIND: Show that the signal y(t) can be represented by the Fourier series

4C(1 − cos n )
y(t ) = Ao + 
n =1
( n ) 2
cos
2 nt
T

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