Cover Story

Guidelines for Solids Storage,

Feeding and Conveying
Shrikant Dhodapkar
The Dow Chemical Co. (U.S.)
These observations and recommendations
Lyn Bates — reflecting decades of experience — can help
Ajax Equipment Ltd. (U.K.)
George Klinzing
operators avoid a lot of headaches and heartache
University of Pittsburgh (U.S.) when it comes to handling bulk solids
Peter Wypych ��������������������������������������
University of Wollongong (Australia) �����

S
��
��� ������������� �� ����������� ��� ��������� ���
uccessful startup and operation of ����������� ������������� �����
solids-handling processes depend ����������� �����������

on myriad small yet fateful deci- �� ��

sions that are made during the �������� ����������������� ������ ��
various phases of the project. Many of �������� ������������ ��� ���
���� ��������������
these are not quantitative but qualita- ���������
tive in nature, and are largely based on ������
��� ��� ��
experience and broad-based knowledge ��������������
��������� ������� �������
of solids handling. It is just as impor- ��� ��������� �� ��� ��������� ��
tant to know what not to do as it is ������� ������� �������
��� ��������� �� ������� �������
to know what to do. Since many engi- �������
��������������
��������� ��
��� ���������������
neers receive very little formal training �����������
����������� �������
on solids handling, their first instinct �������
is to draw an analogy between solids-
���������� �������� ������
handling systems and fluids-based ���������������� ���������� ������������ ��������� �������� �������
systems. This should be avoided. The ����� ����� ����������� ������������ ������������� ������� ������������ �������
���������� ���� ������������ ������ �������������� ���������� ���������� �����
behavior of solids (powders, pellets and ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
granules) is often counter-intuitive to ������������������������������������������������������������������������

the behavior of pure fluids.
The guidelines presented here draw
upon the collective experience of the
authors and highlight key issues that
need particular attention. These rec-
ommendations are by no means ex-
haustive, but merely provide a start-
ing point for a thoughtful discussion.
STORAGE
Material Testing and Evaluation
Get a representative and traceable
sample. Make sure that the sample
is stable over time. If large variabil-
ity is observed, understand the source
(nature and range) of the variability,
and collect multiple samples to estab-
lish the bounds on physical proper-
ties. Proper documentation of sample
source and history is helpful in trou-
bleshooting if the hopper does not per-
form as expected.
26 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM
FIGURE 1. Consider these guidelines when selecting hopper geometry
Variations in product condition arise
for various reasons, most of which fall
into the three general classes: unifor-
mity, consistency and stability. Mate-
rials that initially have uniform com-
position may change during handling;
for instance, if segregation occurs, the
material may demonstrate different
bulk properties. Meanwhile, supply
inconsistencies may result from sea-
sonal or process variations, or the need
to secure materials from alternative
sources. The product may also change
with time, temperature, attrition, or
through natural degradation or other
mechanisms. All these changes must be
considered in combination, taking into
account the complete range of operat-
ing and ambient conditions to which
the material may be subjected.
JANUARY 2006
Use shear testing for evaluating
material flowability and wall fric-
tion characteristics. The Jenike flow-
factor tester [1] and Schulze Rotational
Shear Tester (RST) [2] are typically used
for such measurements. Shear testing
is the domain of specialists, but expe-
rienced personnel can usually make an
assessment of the degree to which such
testing may be necessary. Critical arch-
ing dimensions, stable rathole diameter,
hopper angle required for mass flow and
feeder load can be calculated using the
proven theories of Jenike and other re-
searchers. A very important note: Some-
times the material’s angle of repose is
incorrectly used to calculate bin design
parameters. The angle of repose should
only be used to estimate the volume of
material in the bin.
 �����������������������������������������������
��
��
�� ��
����������� �������������� ���������
������ ������ �����������
������
Perform a wall-friction test on
a representative wall sample ob-
tained from the equipment fab-
ricator. For example, a mill-finish
aluminum sample from one fabrica-
tor may differ significantly from an
aluminum sample from another ven-
dor. If the material being handled is
highly abrasive, consider the effect of
wear on wall friction. Some wall ma-
terials become more polished (smooth)
with wear while others might become
rougher. Similarly, the effect of poten-
tial corrosion and oxidation must be
taken into account.
Be sure to measure the appropri-
ate bulk density. This critical mea-
surement should reflect the circum-
stances of the application. For instance,
a rapidly filled hopper may require
the holding capacity to be based on a
“loose poured” density, while one filled
slowly may be better assessed using a
“settled” density value. On the other
hand, “aerated” bulk density should
be used if aeration devices are used as
flow aids. Care should be taken when
dealing with a product that exhibits a
wide range of density values according
to how it is handled.
Selection, Specification
and Design
Establish the range of moisture
content, additive content and op-
erating temperature. The design
basis should reflect the full range
of conditions in which a material is
going to be handled and not just “typ-
ical” operating conditions. For out-
door applications, consider the con-
sequences of temperature cycling and
whether there may be condensation
in the headspace (silo weeping) or on
walls that may be in contact with the
material.
Include discharge rate expecta-
tions in your design criteria. The
discharge rate of a powder can be se-
verely limited by its lower permeability
as compared to a granular material.
Test the material for flowabil-
ity changes resulting from con-
solidation over time. Try to antici-
pate problems that may arise from
extended periods of storage, such as
FIGURE 2. Shown here are five of the
most commonly used hopper geometries
for bulk solids
�� ��
��
�������������� ��������������
�������������� ������
those occurring during normal opera-
tion, and from plant shutdowns, pro-
duction cycles or weekends.
Choose mass flow mode. A bin is
set to operate in mass flow mode when
all material in the bin is in motion while
the material is being discharged. When
this does not occur, the bin is operat-
ing in funnel flow mode. In general, a
mass flow pattern results in a smaller
required outlet size, more reliable flow
for cohesive materials and some re-
mixing of segregated materials.
The first-in, first-out nature of mass
flow also helps to prevent fluidiz-
able powders from flushing straight
through the hopper. It should be noted
that the first-in, first-out flow pattern
in mass flow can only be achieved if
there is at least one diameter head of
material in the cylindrical section of
the hopper. This is a requirement to
get a uniform draw of material during
discharge.
Mass flow hoppers are typically
taller than funnel flow hoppers (for a
given hopper geometry, such as those
shown in Figure 2), due to a steeper
cone angle. There are applications
where a self-cleaning funnel flow de-
sign will provide comparable duty at
lower cost; therefore, careful evalua-
tion of all factors is essential.
Be aware that choice of hop-
per shape is a multi-factor deci-
sion (Figure 1). The decision largely
hinges on whether the flow benefits of
plane flow, which occurs in a V-shaped
flow channel, are justified over the
poorer flow behavior associated with a
conical or pyramid construction.
Flat walls and rectangular cross-
sections allow easy construction and
maximize holding capacity but gener-
ally have the worst flow characteristics
and pressure capacity. Cones contain
internal pressures well, but require
simultaneous flow convergence in two
directions at 90 deg to each other.
By comparison, plane flow allows the
use of less-steep walls and permits flow
through smaller outlets, but normally
requires the use of a well-designed
feeder to extract product from an ex-
tended slot. Such a feeder must extract
product from the total cross-sectional
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
area of the outlet for mass flow appli-
cations. The critical arching dimension
in a plane-flow channel is half that of
the diameter of a circular outlet, pro-
vided the slot length is greater than
three times its width. For example,
a 12-in.-wide slot that is 3 ft long is
equivalent in flow terms to a 24-in.-dia.
outlet and the walls can be less steep
(about 10 deg shallower). Remember,
flow aids can also be used to encourage
flow for hard-to-handle materials [3, 4],
but getting the wall slope wrong is far
more difficult to correct.
In retrofit situations, have struc-
tural considerations re-evaluated
by a trained solids-handling ex-
pert. For example, when a funnel flow
bin or silo design is converted to oper-
ate in the mass flow pattern, the cylin-
der-cone transition may have to be re-
inforced to withstand highly localized
peak stresses. On the other hand, if a
silo that was designed for mass flow is
operated with a more cohesive material
that forms large voids and ratholes, the
additional dynamic loads, due to erratic
flow, must be taken into account.
Don’t overlook the value of
close cooperation and collabora-
tion with the supplier or vendor.
To ensure success, it is important to
have agreement on the following is-
sues upfront:
• Definition of operating window,
along with extreme bounds of oper-
ating conditions and material prop-
erties
• Sampling techniques and definition
of representative sample (including
handling instructions)
• Test methods to be used for prod-
uct evaluation and eventual perfor-
mance evaluation
• Expectations on performance vali-
dation and financial terms associ-
ated with it
• Degree of freedom available to the
vendor to optimize total cost of the
project and share the reduction in
cost with the purchaser
Installation, Operation and
Performance
Keep the wall surface smooth. Sur-
face impediments on the hopper wall
such as weld splatters, offset flanges
protruding gaskets, poke holes and
badly installed liners prevent the
27

Cover Story
material from sliding along the wall.
Remember the humorous adage: “Pro-
truding lips sink powder ships”
Avoid using a slide gate to throt-
tle the flow because this will result
in preferential flow at the outlet.
This preferential flow problem can be
alleviated by using a vertical transi-
tion piece (H > 1.5 D) at the outlet.
Slide gates should only be used in
the open or closed position. The inner
diameter of the bottom flange can be
slightly oversized to avoid any lips or
protrusions in the flow path.
Avoid asymmetric stresses. Do not
cut into the walls of a hopper to create
additional discharge outlets. In most
cases, they will disrupt the mass flow
pattern and create high wall stresses.
Protect the wall finish and lin-
ers of the cone from the weather to
prevent oxidation (rust) and corro-
sion. The internal surface of the hop-
per must be protected from fabrication
until the time it is installed in the pro-
cess. Make sure that all the protective
liners are removed before commission-
ing the hopper. Avoid welding on cones
with liners and wall coatings since the
heat can cause delamination.
Avoid improper selection and
installation of a feeder, which can
destroy the flow pattern in a well-
designed mass-flow hopper. Reli-
able flow out of a mass-flow hopper
requires the material to be discharged
across the whole cross-section of the
outlet. For example, a screw feeder
with progressively increasing pitch of-
fers a proven option for drawing mate-
rial across the entire outlet.
Some common installation issues
discussed in this section are summa-
rized in Figure 3.
FEEDERS
(PROCESS AND ADDITIVE)
Material Testing and
Evaluation
Conduct trials under realistic con-
ditions. Materials that are sensitive
to heat and moisture may appear to
be well-behaved in air-conditioned
labs. This can produce false confidence
based on test results.
Establish feeding accuracy re-
quirements. It is important to know
whether feed rate control or totalized
weight is required by the process. The
28 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM
�����������������
��������������������
�������������
��������������
�����������
��������������
time basis for calculation of ����������������
feed rate accuracy must be es- ������������������
�����������
tablished. Make sure that ac- ���������������� ����������������������
���������������������
ceptable accuracy is achieved ����������� �������
at the lowest feed rate. ����������� ��������������������
Run extended trials (1–7 ���������� ���������������
����������� ���������������������
days) on new materials ��������������������
or critical applications.
��������������������������
Many problems do not ap- ������������������������
pear in short-duration (< 1 ������������������
������������������
day) tests. Consider renting
a unit for longer-term pilot- FIGURE 3. The most frequently encountered issues
associated with hopper design and installation are
scale testing. summarized here
Be sure to test representa-
tive materials. Often times,
offline tests are done on ma-
terials that do not reflect flow ���������
������
properties of actual material
in process. Such tests may be
misleading. �������
�������
�������
�������
Selection, Specification
and Design
Define operational re- �����
����
quirements. Does the pro- ���������
������
cess require the material to
be fed at a target rate (e.g.,
in a continuous blending op- ���������������������������
eration), or to deliver a target
totalized weight in a batch FIGURE 4. Improper design of the hopper-feeder
operation (e.g., in a packag- interface will lead to preferential flow channels in a
mass flow bin
ing operation)?
Choose between gravimetric and Plan for sufficient flight tip
volumetric feeders. Gravimetric feed- clearances. Make sure that flight tip
ers are recommended when feed rate clearances for screw feeders are large
uniformity of better than ±2% is re- enough to avoid particle trapping or
quired, especially for sample collection wedging, which can result in material
times less than 30 seconds. These feed- degradation. On the other hand, ro-
ers are also required for feeding fine tary feeders require the clearances to
cohesive powders with erratic flow, or be less than the particle size to avoid
powders with unpredictable bulk den- smearing inside the housing.
sity that are prone to aeration. Determine whether the feeder is
Be sure to design the feeder and required to provide positive pro-
hopper as an integral unit. The tection against uncontrolled flow
feeder is not merely a “discharger;” that might result from flooding
therefore, reliable flow out of the or flushing of fine powders. For ex-
hopper is essential for proper feeder ample, a screw feeder will not restrain
operation. A feeder is designed to a fluidized powder from flushing out
modulate the flowrate of the material of a hopper. If the product is prone to
that is reliably fed into it. Material flushing, install a valve on the dis-
discharge must take place over the charge port. The valve should be inter-
entire outlet for a mass flow hopper locked to be open only when the screw
to work (Figure 4). For some hard-to- is running, and should have an emer-
handle products (such as those that gency override switch to close it.
are cohesive, caking, fibrous, stringy, Consider system-integration is-
time consolidation sensitive or hygro- sues that may arise when feeder
scopic), a discharger may have to be electronics are integrated with
installed upstream of the feeder to plant network and process com-
ensure reliable flow [3, 4]. puters. The ability to seamlessly in-
JANUARY 2006
 TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF FEEDERS FOR PROCESS AND ADDITIVE FEEDING
Feeder Maximum Mode of opera-
type particle tion (gravimetric
size vs. volumetric)
Rotary 1/2 in. Volumetric(1)
Vibrating No limit Volumetric(1)
Screw Up to 1/3 of Volumetric(1)
min. pitch
Belt 6 in. Gravimetric
(1) Can be run in gravimetric mode if the feed hopper is set up in a loss-in-weight configuration.
tegrate a feeder control package with
the plant network and share data and
diagnostic information will result in
smooth operation.
Be aware that rotary and screw
feeders are prone to pulsations in
feed rate. Pulsations can be mini-
mized in a number of ways:
• Rotary feeders:
• Use a reduced-capacity rotor and
increase the number of vanes
• Screw feeders:
• Install wire mesh at the nozzle
outlet
• Provide a slot (1.5 times the pitch)
on the side of the nozzle
• Install a wedge at the outlet over
which the material must flow
• Reduce the pitch near the outlet
��� • Use a twin-screw configuration
��
Feeder selection considerations
The following issues must be consid-
ered during feeder selection:
1. Material properties
a. Particle size distribution and
maximum lump size
b. Flowability and cohesion
c. Air-retention characteristics and
their effect on bulk density
d. Flooding or flushing characteristics
e. Abrasiveness
f. Friability
g. Sensitivity to temperature
2. Operational requirements
a. Process temperature and humid-
ity conditions
b. Feed rate (typical, maximum,
turndown ratio requirements)
c. Feed rate uniformity versus accu-
racy and sampling requirements
d. Volumetric versus gravimetric
feeding
e. Need for dust control and contain-
ment
f. Sealing requirements against
pressure
g. Ease of cleaning (frequency of
cleaning and acceptable effort nec-
essary)
h.Sanitary requirements (for in-
stance, in food and pharmaceuti-
cal applications)
i. Ability to handle unexpected ma-
Sealing Dust con- Ease of Ability to han-
against tainment or clean- dle abrasive
pressure spillage out materials
Good Good Fair Fair
Cannot Fair Good Good
Poor Good Poor Poor
Cannot Poor Good Good
terials (such as tramp metal or
nuts and bolts)
j. Headroom constraints
k.Vibrations in the process area and
isolation techniques required
l. Controller interface protocol and
control system integration with
existing plant network and pro-
cess computer
m. Data and parameters that need
to be exchanged, namely, instan-
taneous flowrate, setpoint, total-
ized weight, bulk density, alarms,
system reset and PID control pa-
rameters
n.The location of the controller box
vis-à-vis the feeder
A concise comparison of various feed-
ers, shown in Table 1, provides a good
starting point. An in-depth review of
various feeders can be found in Car-
son et al. [5] and Thomson [6].
Installation, Operation
and Performance
Always confirm that the outlet
will not be blocked or obstructed
or admit a reverse gas flow. Un-
vented rotary valves often pass back
air by leakage, and via returning vane
pockets. With no means of escape, this
air can inhibit flow from the hopper.
Allow a gas-bypass route to ensure
that the material will flow freely into
the feeder. Fit a torque limiter or a
level detector to isolate the drive if
there is any prospect of backup from
downstream equipment.
Verify and minimize the starting
load on the feeder. It is not uncom-
mon for the starting load to be five
times the operating load. During ini-
tial filling conditions, a peak stress
field is generated in the bin where
large loads are transmitted to the
feeder. With flow initiation, an arched
stress field is developed in the hopper
where most of the load is supported by
the hopper walls (further discussion
on arched stress fields can be found in
Jenike, [1]). The arched stress field is
retained even if the flow is temporarily
stopped. Feeder loads during startup
can be significantly reduced by creat-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
Ability to Ability to handle Ability to
handle friable tramp metal or handle sticky
materials hard chunks materials
Fair Poor Poor
Good Good Good
Poor Poor Poor
Good Good Fair
ing an arched stress field; for example,
by withdrawing small amount of ma-
terial during filling. Leaving the hop-
per partially full before refilling will
also achieve the same result.
Provide a slide gate (or some
other type of shutoff valve) above
a feeder. This is especially important
for situations in which the feeder fails
and must be removed for maintenance
or repairs when the overlying silo or
bin is full of materials.
Make sure that the seals are ad-
equately purged to prevent fine
powder from entering and destroy-
ing the seal. Seal and bearings must
be inspected and maintained on peri-
odic basis to avoid premature failure.
FEEDERS FOR PNEUMATIC
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
Material Testing and
Evaluation
Feeders for pneumatic conveying
systems are rarely tested on a stand-
alone basis. Rather, their effectiveness
is typically tested while conducting
conveying trials. The following issues
must be looked into during testing:
1. The effect of gas leakage or aeration
on the bulk density of product. Re-
duced bulk density can result in lower
feeder capacity.
2. The abrasiveness of material and its
impact on feeder performance
3. Stickiness of material and any re-
sulting reduction in feeder capacity
4. Ease of cleaning and unplugging
Selection, Specification
and Design
Give careful consideration during
the feeder selection process. Feeder
selection depends on the mode of op-
eration (pressure versus vacuum),
operating pressure, mode of convey-
ing (batch versus continuous), space
availability and material properties
(such as abrasiveness and cohesion).
See Table 2 for more details.
Match feeders with the charac-
teristics of air movers. For instance,
feeders that create large pulsations
in the feed rate should not be used
29
 TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF FEEDERS FOR PNEUMATIC CONVEYING APPLICATIONS
Feeder Suitable For Operating Pressure Suitable Materials Unsuitable Conveying Comments
System Types Materials Mode
Suction nozzle Vaccum Up to 0.5 bar All free-flowing Caking, large Continuous dilute Feed rate control is dif-
vacuum chunks, sticky, phase ficult
cohesive
Rotary feeder Vacuum and 0.5 bar vacuum to Wide range of ma- Abrasive, caking, Continuous dilute Most common feeder.
pressure 3.5 bars pressure (6 terials sticky, very co- and dense phase Wide variety of design
bars maximum) hesive features
Eductor Pressure 0.25 bar Free-flowing Abrasive, friable, Continuous dilute Special design for abra-
highly cohesive phase sive materials, high pres-
sure motive gas may be
required
Blow tank – Pressure 0 – 10 bar Wide range of ma- Very cohesive, Batch dilute and Poorly flowing materials
bottom terials, abrasive sticky or dense phase will require air injection
discharge materials compressible in the cone, hard-to-
materials control conveying rate
Blow tank – Pressure 0 – 10 bar Fine fluidizable ma- Geldart class B, Batch dilute and These do not empty
fluidization type, terials (Geldart class B/D, D or material dense phase completely upon dis-
top discharge A/C, A) with large chunks charge
Double flapper Pressure 0 – 0.5 bar Abrasive and free- Cohesive Continuous dilute Pulsing feed
valve flowing material phase
Screw feeder Pressure and 0.5 bar vacuum to 1 Wide range of ma- Sticky, compress- Continuous dilute Improper design will
vacuum bar pressure terials ible phase result in problems with
feed rate control. Rate
sensitive to material
properties.
Fuller-Kinyon Pressure 3 bar Fine powders Coarse materials Continuous dilute Typically used in cement
pump phase / dense industry
phase
Slide gate Vacuum Up to full vacuum Coarse materials, Cohesive, sticky Continuous dilute Simple to use; discharge
preferably free-flow- materials phase rate depends on mate-
ing rial properties
Other Pressure 0 – 0.5 bar Materials with high Sticky, cohesive, Continuous dilute
specialized air retention or low low air retention and dense phase
feeders: deaeration, prefer-
Diaphragm pump ably low bulk density

in systems that use fans as air mov-
ers. The interaction between pressure
variations resulting from feed rate
fluctuations and fan characteristics
can result in an unstable system.
Installation, Operation
and Performance
Design a proper venting system for
rotary airlock feeders in positive-
pressure applications. The upward
leakage of air through clearances and
returning pockets can impede mate-
rial flow and may reduce bulk density,
which can result in capacity limitations.
The vent always contains entrained
solids and therefore must be designed
as a pneumatic conveying system.
Consider the effect of pipe and
bolting stresses. Feeders connected
to piping system (chutes) that are ex-
posed to large variations in tempera-
tures either due to process conditions
or diurnal variations may experience
high stresses. This can affect the oper-
ational clearances and cause jamming
or excessive leakage to occur.
Consider relative expansion that
may result from hot product and
cold ambient conditions. Relative
expansion of feeder internals due to a
hot product can cause interference fit
and result in a feeder jam. The prob-
lem can be alleviated by heat tracing
the feeder.
30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM
Make sure that the feeder is ap-
propriately designed for quick
clean out for sanitary applica-
tions. Provide the necessary working
space in the process area.
Proper interfacing of feeders
with the conveying line is essential.
The feeders are attached to the convey-
ing line with a feed shoe or a feed box.
A good feed shoe design provides for
rapid removal of material from the bot-
tom of the feeder, minimal reduction in
local gas velocity at the feed point, and
minimal recirculation patterns.
PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
– DILUTE PHASE
Material Testing and
Evaluation
For materials for which there is no
prior pneumatic conveying experi-
ence, and for which no related data
are available, pilot or full scale testing
is recommended. Take the following
issues into consideration:
• Conduct tests at material tempera-
tures and moisture levels that are
comparable to the process conditions
• Conduct tests on off-grade materi-
als (not just the prime product) to
ensure process reliability across a
range of material properties
• Consider the effect of attrition on con-
veying characteristics if the material
is being recirculated during the test
JANUARY 2006
• If the conveying line is getting
coated (by materials buildup) dur-
ing the test, the data will exhibit
scatter and may not be reliable
Selection, Specification
and Design
In the project scope, clearly define
current conveying-rate require-
ments and plant layout, along with
plans for future expansions or po-
tential rate enhancements due to
improvements in process technol-
ogy. This should include potential
changes in the product slate due to
improvements in process technology.
Developing the project scope should be
a collaborative effort between research,
manufacturing and engineering per-
sonnel and the outside vendor.
Allow a ‘reasonable’ horizontal
conveying length (15 to 20 pipe di-
ameters), before the first bend to
allow the bulk material to acceler-
ate. Use of flexible hose at the pickup
should be kept to minimum. Excessive
length of flexible hose, often in the form
of a coil, is the worst pickup pipe con-
figuration. Inability to provide proper
configuration at the pickup will result
in plugging condition at gas velocities
higher than saltation velocity
Consider stepping conveying
lines (increasing the pipe diam-
eter) to prevent excessive veloc-
 ����������������������������
���������������������������

��� �
�
solids flowrate. Safety margin • Incorrect rotational direction of ro-
���������������������
�������� must be allowed for non-opti- tary airlock/feeder or air movers
�����
�������� ����� mal line configuration at the • Conveying lines with directional in-
�������� pickup (such as insufficient ternal treatment (e.g., shot-peening)
������
������ ����� ��� acceleration lengths, back-to- that are installed backwards
�����������������������

���������
back bends, and so on). • Poor alignment of flanges or im-
�������� proper seating of gaskets (which
���
Installation, Operation can result in air leakage or material
���
and Performance degradation)
Avoid conveying line lay-
� � • Specialized bends or elbows (such as
out with bends or elbows blind tee configurations) that are in-
���
placed back to back. This stalled backwards
will inevitably cause excessive • No allowance for pipe flexing (which
pressure drop and premature can result in high bolting stresses
line plugging. on the components)
�������������� Be aware that conveying Always verify the control logic and
lines should not be routed the sequence of valve operation in
like utility lines (i.e., those the field. Follow these recommenda-
��������������������������������
carrying compressed gas tions to avoid problems:
FIGURE 5. This phase diagram shows the rela- or steam), which follow • For complex systems, run simula-
tionship between pressure drop, solids conveying the contours of a building. tions before startup to understand
rate and gas velocity along the various pneumatic When designing solids-han- unintended consequences. A soft-
conveying flow modes dling systems, minimizing the ware code is easier to mend than
number of bends or directional broken hardware during a startup
ity at the end of the line. Be sure changes will result in higher capacity, • Failure to include sufficient time
to maintain the minimum required lower degradation, less erosive wear delay between various steps may
Froude number at the step location, and more reliable flow. cause problems. For example, a large
otherwise the material will settle out Consider electrostatic effects. slide valve may take as much as 30
of the suspension (saltation). Properly Electrostatic effects in pneumatic con- seconds to close fully.
stepped systems result in more effi- veying systems can be minimized by • If control loops are being used for
cient systems with lower degradation increasing the relative humidity of the feed rate control, tune the param-
and wear. Using ISO pipes or tubes al- conveying air to more than 70%. eters and provide upper limits to
lows for more choices in diameters. Remember that ‘more air’ can prevent overshooting. This might
Be aware that proper venting of mean ‘less transfer capacity’ in result in overfeeding solids into a
the rotary airlock and feeder in a dilute-phase systems. At constant conveying line resulting in plugged
positive-pressure system is criti- conveying pressure, increasing gas condition.
cal for reliable operation. Upward velocity results in reduced conveying During startup, verify process in-
leakage of air into the feed hopper can capacity (This is shown in Figure 5, strumentation with field measure-
result in reduced discharge rates or an at the line labeled A ➔ B). Operating ments. Make sure that calibration
unsteady feed rate. This issue can be limits can be best understood using parameters, conversion factors and
addressed by using proper design of a the concept of operating windows (see units are correctly entered, calculated
vent system, either using a body vent Agarwal and Dhodapkar [7]) and communicated to the process com-
or a disengagement hopper. The vent Install sufficient ports or cou- puters. If possible, use local gages for
system should be designed much akin plings in the systems for pressure verification.
to a conveying system with sufficient measurement during trouble- More guidelines on troubleshooting
gas flow and minimal bends. shooting. Pressure measurement is a pneumatic conveying system can be
Be aware that product damage convenient way to measure the pulse found in Mills [8], and Dhodapkar and
and wear at piping bends is very of a conveying system. Take time to Jacob [9].
material-dependent. A blind tee generate baseline data for an exist-
piping configuration often has a lot ing conveying system. It will come in PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
of merit, but may also cause greater handy for future troubleshooting. – DENSE PHASE
pressure drop compared to long-ra- Always verify installation in the Material Testing and
dius bends. Mitered elbows may offer field. The technical guidelines of sys- Evaluation
a good compromise in some cases. tem designers and engineers, even if Conduct pilot-scale or full-scale
Remember that minimum con- well-documented, can be undone by testing on representative materi-
veying velocity is a function of con- contractors installing a system. Com- als, especially for new or differ-
veying rate. Make sure that the gas mon mistakes, such as those listed ent products where no prior ex-
velocity at the pickup is greater than here, can cause significant delay in perience or data are available.
the saltation velocity at the highest successful startup: Benchtop characterization tests (to
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006 31
 Cover Story
determine such characteristics as wall
friction, permeability and deaeration
tendencies) are helpful for prelimi-
nary screening of a material’s suitabil-
ity for dense-phase conveying. Dense-
phase conveying performance can be
sensitive to variations in material
properties (such as particle size, size
distribution, shape, density, moisture
and cohesion).
Selection, Specification
and Design
Ensure that the choice of a flow
mode (and system) is based on the
product properties (rather than
on some imprecise definition or
misleading solids-loading assump-
tions), and that the selected or sup-
plied flow mode is confirmed dur-
ing commissioning. The term “dense
phase” is often misused in practice. For
example, many so-called “dense phase”
systems are found to be operating in
dilute phase (or suspension flow). And,
many researchers and designers define
“dense phase” as a flow mode with sol-
ids loading (mass of solids/mass of gas)
greater than 10 or 15.
Many different types of dense-phase
conveyors have been developed over the
past few decades to take advantage of
certain product properties (such as air
retention, deaeration, permeability, co-
hesion, and particle-size distribution).
In most cases, “dense-phase” can simply
be considered as some form of non-sus-
pension flow that occurs at some time
at any section along the pipeline. Using
solids loading as an indicator of flow
mode can be misleading (for instance,
solids loading is a mass concentration
parameter that depends on the mass
or density of the particles; some dilute-
phase systems are operating at a solid
loading rate greater than 40, while
some dense-phase systems operate at a
solid loading rate less than 10).
For materials that do not have a
natural tendency for conventional
dense- phase conveying, consider
specialized systems with con-
trolled and regulated gas injec-
tion or bypass pipeline technology
(Figure 6). Ensure that proper dense-
phase flow is actually achieved during
commissioning. Using a conventional
or “off-the-shelf” pipeline, not all ma-
terials can be conveyed reliably in
32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM
���������������������
�������������� ������������������������� ��������������
������������������ ������������������
���������������� ��������������
������������������������������
����������������
������������������
���������������
���������������
��������
���������
������
�������� ������
�����
������������ �������������
���������� �����������������
����������
���������������������������� ����������������������
FIGURE 6. As shown above, dense phase systems can be classified by the flow
pattern and mechanism of solid-air mixing
dense phase. Some materials can be sumption. The gas leakage at the feeder
conveyed in single- or multi-slug/plug (especially through rotary valves) must
mode, some in fluidized moving-bed be considered in design calculations
type flow, while others can only be con- and compensated appropriately.
veyed in dilute phase. Not selecting Use a gas-flow control system
the right flow mode for a particular for multiproduct and multi-des-
material, or the right operating condi- tination systems, to ensure that
tion for a given flow mode, can result the operating point is maintained
in excessive pressure spikes, system within the stable operating zone.
shutdown, unstable vibrations and Also, ensure that the gas-flow control
pipeline blockages. system provides a constant gas mass
Define the minimum and maxi- flowrate for the full range of operating
mum conveying rates in a process pressures and pressure fluctuations.
at the outset. Compared with dilute- Numerous control logic schemes are
phase conveying, the dense phase re- available from various vendors or can
gime can be more limiting and sen- be designed by reputable consultants.
sitive to variations in air flow and For systems with high pressure
conveying rate. For some materials, a drop (7 psi or 50 kPa and higher),
reduction in solids flowrate can shift consider stepping the line diam-
the operating point into the unstable eter to reduce the velocity and
zone, thereby causing severe instabil- maintain dense-phase conditions.
ity (evidenced as line vibrations and In dense-phase systems, gas expan-
pressure spikes). sion can be significant between the
Ensure proper venting at the feed point and destination. This will
feeder to avoid feeding problems result in a corresponding increase in
that may result from gas blowback. gas velocity, and a possible transition
Feeder gas leakage can be a significant from dense- to dilute-phase flow along
fraction (up to 50%) of total gas con- the conveying pipeline.
JANUARY 2006

�����������������
�����������������������
���������������������������������������
������������������������������
���������������������
��������
��������
��������������
�����������������������
���� ���
��������� ���
����
����
���
���������� ���
��������
���������
��������������
������������������������������
FIGURE 7. Shown here is a typical phase diagram
for dense phase pneumatic conveying systems
Remember that selection of op- changes (such as those that occur at
timal feeder is critical. Improper bends or diverter valves) results in
feeder selection can result in unreli- significantly higher stresses on pipe
able operation and high maintenance supports as compared to dilute-phase
costs.
Installation, Operation and
Performance
Make sure that the operating point
(gas flowrate, solids flowrate) falls
well within the bounds of plug sta-
bility at all locations in the system
and for all pipeline configurations
(if applicable). Coarse or granular
materials that can be conveyed in dense
phase (low-velocity slug-flow mode) ex-
hibit an unstable operating zone in be-
tween (high-velocity) dilute-phase and
(low velocity) dense-phase conveying.
The dense-phase regime is bound by a
high-velocity (unstable zone) boundary
and a low-velocity (blockage) boundary
(see Figure 7 for details).
A proper purge-control sequence
may need to be designed and tested
to avoid unnecessary product
References:
1. Jenike, A.W., Storage and Flow of Solids, Bul-
letin No. 123 of the Utah Engineering Exper-
imental Station, University of Utah, 1964.
2. Schulze, D., Flowability and Time Consoli-
dation Measurements Using a Ring Shear
Tester, Powder Handling & Processing, Vol.
8, No. 3, p. 221, 1996.
3. Dhodapkar, S.V., and Manjunath, K., Selec-
tion of Discharge Aids for Bins and Silos,
Chem. Eng., August 2005.
4. Dhodapkar, S.V. and Manjunath, K., Selection
of Discharge Aids for Bins and Silos— Part
II, Chem. Eng., October 2005.
degradation or pipe-
line blockage. To purge
a dense-phase line during
cleaning, a controlled in-
crease in gas velocity may
��������
������ be required. The dust col-
lector must be designed to
handle the peak gas flow
������
rates.
Work closely with
�����
an experienced vendor
to design and install
�������
proper pipeline sup-
ports, to prevent exces-
sive deflection and line
movement and reduce
the prospect of fatigue
failure. The motion of
slugs and stresses gener-
ated within the convey-
ing line during directional
systems.
In summary
The guidelines offered here provide
a good starting point for designing a
reliable bulk solids handling system
involving selection, installation and
operation of a silo, feeder and convey-
ing system. Each new project offers
unique challenges, especially with
ongoing innovations in polymer sci-
ence and fine (even nanoscale) par-
ticle production. The secret to success
lies in understanding the fundamen-
tal concepts of solids handling, using
material characteristics (real data) for
designing, matching hardware perfor-
mance specifications with the process
requirements and paying attention to
details during design and implemen-
tation. ■ I) degree in mechanical engi-
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
5. Carson J.W., and G. Petro, Feeder Selection
Tips, Powder and Solids Annual, Chemical
Processing, pp. 39-42,1999.
6. Thomson, F.M., Feeders: Smoothing the flow
of materials through the plant, Chem. Eng.,
October 1978.
7. Agarwal, A., and Dhodapkar, S., Debottleneck
Pneumatic Conveying Systems,Chem. Eng.,
April 2004, pp. 38-44.
8. Mills, D., Keeping Pneumatic Delivery Up to
Speed, Chem. Eng., June 1990.
9. Dhodapkar, S.V., and Jacob, K.V., Smart Ways
to Troubleshoot Pneumatic Conveyors, Chem.
Eng., March 2002.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006
Authors
Shrikant V. Dhodapkar is a
research leader in the Solids
Processing Lab at The Dow
Chemical Co. (B-1402, Dow
Chemical, Freeport, TX 77541;
Phone: 979-238-7940; Fax: 979-
238-0969 E-mail: sdhodapkar
@dow.com). He received his
B.Tech. in Chemical Engineer-
ing from I.I.T-Delhi (India)
and his M.S.Ch.E. and Ph.D.
from the University of Pitts-
burgh. During the past 18 years, he has published
numerous papers in particle technology and con-
tributed chapters to several handbooks. He has
extensive industrial experience in pneumatic con-
veying, silo design, gas-solid separation, mixing,
coating and the design of solids processing plants.
He is a member of AIChE and Vice-Chair of the
Particle Technology Forum.
Lyn Bates is managing di-
rector of Ajax Equipment
Ltd. (Mule St., Bolton, BL2
2AR, U.K.; Phone: (+44) 1204
386723, Email: lyn@ajax.
co.uk), a specialized, bulk-sol-
ids-handling company. Bates
has also served on numer-
ous U.K., U.S. and European
technical committees, and
worked alongside many of
the pioneers in the technolo-
gies related to bulk-solids handling. Bates has
presented papers at numerous conferences and
seminars, and has published articles in many
trade journals. He is the author of “User Guide
to Segregation (The British Materials Handling
Board, 1997) and “User Guide to the Design, Se-
lection and Application of Screw Feeders” (Pro-
fessional Engineering Publishing Ltd., 2000),
and contribued a chapter to “Characterisation
of Bulk Solids,” edited by D. McGlinshey (Black-
well, 2005). He is a member of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, and is a recipient of
the I.Mech.E.’s Solids Handling Award for Pro-
fessional Excellence in the Technology, and the
Australian Institute of Engineers’ Bulk Solids
Handling Award.
George E. Klinzing is pro-
fessor of chemical engineering
and vice-provost for research
at the University of Pitts-
burgh (826 CL University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
15260; Phone: 412-624-0784;
Email – Klinzing@engr.pitt.
edu). He earned his B.S. degree
in chemical engineering from
the University of Pittsburgh,
and holds a Ph.D. in chemical
engineering from Carnegie Mellon University. He
has been active in the pneumatic conveying re-
search community, and has published numerous
papers, books and book chapters on the subject.
Presently Klinzing is exploring pressure signa-
tures for flow analysis. He is a Fellow of the Ameri-
can Institute of Chemical Engineers, and a mem-
ber of the AIChE’s Particle Technology Forum, and
serves as an accreditation reviewer for ABET.
Peter W. Wypych is the direc-
tor of the Key Centre for Bulk
Solids & Particulate Technolo-
gies at the University of Wol-
longong (Wollongong N.S.W.
2522, Australia; Phone: 2-
4221-3491; Fax: 2-4221-4577;
Email: wypych@uow.edu.au).
He received his B.E. (Honours
neering and his Ph.D. from the
University of Wollongong. For
past 25 years, he has been involved with the R&D
of solids handling and processing technology, and
has expertise in pneumatic conveying, dust-fume
control and dust explosions. He has published
extensively in these areas. He is also the founder
and general manager of Bulk Materials Engineer-
ing Australia. Wypych is a Fellow of the Institu-
tion of Engineers Australia, and the Chair of the
Australian Society for Bulk Solids Handling.
Recommended Reading:
Klinzing, G.E., Marcus, R.D., Rizk, F., and Leung,
L.S., “Pneumatic Conveying of Solids – A Theoret-
ical and Practical Approach (2nd edition), Powder
Technology Series,” Chapman and Hall, 1997.
Rhodes, M., “Introduction to Particle Technol-
ogy,” John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
33