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List of Figures
Table Description Page
Number Number
1 Sensor Classification 10
Contents
Description Page
Number
Abstract 1
Introduction 1
Robot Components 2
Robot Locomotion 3
Sensor Technology 9
Embedded Systems 15
Photovore Robot 22
PC Controlled Robot 25
Sumobots 32
Conclusion 40
References 41
Abstract
In this project, six different robots were assembled, programed and tested. They are: PC
Controlled Robot, Photovore Robot, Obstacle Detecting and Avoiding Robot, Basic Line
Follower Robot, DTMF based Mobile Controlled Robot and Sumo Robot. This report contains
the basics of automation in manufacturing processes, the robot assembly procedures and the
programs that were encoded in them.
1. Introduction
Until the early 1950s, most operations in a typical manufacturing plant were carried out on
traditional machinery, such as lathes, milling machines, drill presses, and various equipment
for forming, shaping, and joining materials. Such equipment generally lacked flexibility, and
it required considerable skilled labour to produce parts with acceptable dimensions and
characteristics. Moreover, each time a different product had to be manufactured, the machinery
had to be retooled, fixtures had to be prepared or modified, and the movement of materials
among various machines had to be rearranged. The development of new products and of parts
with complex shapes required numerous trial-and-error attempts by the operator to set the
proper processing parameters on the machines. Furthermore, because of human involvement,
making parts that were exactly alike was often difficult, time consuming, and costly.
During a typical manufacturing operation, raw materials and parts in progress are moved from
storage to machines, from machine to machine, from assembly to inventory, and, finally, to
shipment. For example, (a) workpieces are loaded on machines, as when a forging is mounted
on a milling-machine bed for machining, (b) sheet metal is fed into a press for stamping, (c)
parts are removed from one machine and loaded onto another, as when a machined forging is
to be subsequently ground for better surface finish and dimensional accuracy, and (d) finished
parts are assembled into a final product. Similarly, tools, moulds, dies, and various other
equipment and fixtures also are moved around in manufacturing plants. Cutting tools are
mounted on lathes, dies are placed in presses or hammers, grinding Wheels are mounted on
spindles, and parts are mounted on special fixtures for dimensional measurement and
inspection. These materials must be moved either manually or by some mechanical means, and
it takes time to transport them from one location to another. Material handling is defined as the
functions and systems associated with the transportation, storage, and control of materials and
parts in the total manufacturing cycle of a product. The total time required for actual
manufacturing operations depends on the part size and shape and on the set of operations to be
performed. Note that idle time and the time required for transporting materials can constitute
the majority of the time consumed, thus reducing productivity. Material handling must be an
integral part of the planning, implementing, and control of manufacturing operations;
furthermore, material handling should be repeatable and predictable.
The word robot was coined in 1920 by the Czech author K. Capek in his play R. U.R.
(Rossum’s Universal Robots). It is derived from the Word robota, meaning “Worker.”
An industrial robot has been described by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) as “a machine formed by a mechanism including several degrees of freedom, often
having the appearance of one or several arms ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool, a
workpiece, or an inspection device.” In particular, an industrial robot’s control unit must use a
memorizing method and may use sensing or adaptation features to take the environment and
special circumstances into account.
The first industrial robots were introduced in the early 1960s. Computer controlled robots were
commercialized in the early 1970s, and the first robot controlled by a microcomputer appeared
in 1974. Industrial robots were first used in hazardous operations, such as the handling of toxic
and radioactive materials, and the loading and unloading of hot Workpieces from furnaces and
in foundries. Simple rule-of-thumb applications for robots are described as the three D’s (dull,
dirty, and dangerous; a fourth D--demeaning-should also be included) and the three H’s (hot,
heavy, and hazardous). As described further in this section, industrial robots are now essential
components in all manufacturing operations and have greatly improved productivity at reduced
labour costs.
A mobile robot is an autonomous system that exists in the physical world, is not fixed to one
location, can sense its environment, and act on it to achieve some goals. Mobile robots can be
classified in two ways. The first way of classification is based on the kind of environment that
they work in. Unmanned ground vehicles work on the land, unmanned aerial vehicles work in
the sky, or in the air, and autonomous underwater vehicles operate underwater. The second,
and probably more common way of classifying robots is based upon how they move. So for
the land, wheel based robots, tracked robots, biped, quadruped, and hexapod robots. These
three are legged robots. In the air, quadcopters, drones, and unmanned aircraft. And
underwater, propeller driven robots, and swimming robots.
2. Robot Components
Four common components of a robot are:
2.1 The manipulator: The manipulator is the body of a robot, made of a collection of
mechanical linkages connected at joints to form an open-loop kinematic chain. The manipulator
is capable of movement in various directions and does the work of the robot. It can conveniently
be compared with the arm of a human. At the joint, the individual link can either rotate (revolute
joint) or make translatory motion (prismatic joint) by means of electric motors (servo or
stepper) and hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. Through a combination of motions of the joint,
the manipulator can achieve different desired positioning and orientation. A manipulator can
have many joints up to 8, and a robot manipulator with six joints (six degrees of freedom) is
considered quite versatile for most the robot tasks. A manipulator generally has three structural
elements: the arm, the wrist and the hand (end effector). The end effector is individually
designed to grip individual tools or jobs, and simulates palm of a human arm.
2.2 Sensory devices: These elements inform the robot controller about status of the
manipulator. These sensors may be (i) non visual or (ii) visual.
Nonvisual sensors provide information about position, velocity, force etc. Connected with
manipulator motion. The visual sensors are used for tracking an object, its recognition and
grasping.
These are comparable to senses like kinesis, touch, vision etc.
2.3 The controller: Robot controllers generally perform three function which are:
(i) Initiation and termination of motion of different joints at desired sequence and specific
points.
(ii) Storage of positional and sequence data in memory.
(iii) Interfacing the robot with outside world through the sensors.
Generally a microcomputer or minicomputer acts as the robot controller, and acts as the brain
of the robot.
2.4 The power conversion unit: This component provides necessary power for movement of
the manipulator for doing work. It can be electrical power source with amplifiers to feed servo
motors or compressor or hydraulic power pack. With proper programming of the robot
controller, the manipulator can be made to undergo desired sequence of motions of linkages of
the manipulator, repeatedly and accurately and thus make the robot to perform its desired task.
Another advantage of a robot is that by changing the programme, the manipulator can instantly
change from one set of task to another, thus making it a flexible and versatile equipment.
3. Robot Locomotion
3.1 Wheeled Robots: Using wheels on a robot is the most common way of propelling a robot
around, and it also only requires two motors, so it's actually a really efficient way of moving.
But there are also limitations of using a wheeled robot, and these include the kind of terrain it
can handle. For instance, a typical wheeled robot can't really handle rough terrain. It often gets
stuck on the carpet when you drive it around at home, so you can't really run it outside, either.
In fact, they're quite limited to only flat surfaces, and they tend to only work inside. Another
problem is the type of obstacles that can be handled. The type of obstacles that a robot can get
over is typically limited to the size of the wheel. If the object is higher than the radius of the
wheel, then the robot just won't be able to get that wheel over it, and so it will get stuck. Another
problem is with holes in the ground. If a robot is travelling along and it's driving wheels get in
such a situation that they're no longer touching the ground, there's nothing, actually, to propel
the robot to go forward, and so it also gets stuck. One solution is to use bigger wheels, but this
soon becomes impractical.
There are many different ways of laying your wheels out on your robot. The first requirement
when you lay out your wheels is that when you put your wheels on, not one part of the body
remains touching the ground. Robots typically have two, three, or four wheels. They don't tend
to have many more than that, and even having a two wheeled robot is pretty unusual. The
reason that it's unusual to have a two wheeled robot is that if we had two wheels, we'd have to
line them up like a bicycle, and we would end up with a very unstable robot. If we do use two
wheels, we tend to locate them on the same axis, so the wheels will share a common axis
between them. This means it can drive forwards and backwards quite easily. But, much like
the bicycle style, it's also wobbly. So what we often do is we use another wheel at the back,
and that just allows the robot that extra degree of stability that it needs.
There are also lots of different kinds of wheels that can be used. They are: standard wheel,
caster wheel, omnidirectional wheel or spherical wheel and mecanum wheels. In our present
project all the robots have two standard wheels and a spherical wheel (or a ball caster). Standard
wheels are just a tyre on a wheel, with a mounting hub for the shaft to going through it. The
standard wheel has two degrees of freedom: rotation around the wheel axle and free rotation
around the contact point.
4. Sensor Technology
In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device that produces a signal in response to its detecting
or measuring a specific property, such as position, force, torque, pressure, temperature,
humidity, speed, acceleration, or vibration. There are two types of sensors used in robots:
Proprioceptive and Exteroceptive Sensors.
The robot measures a signal originating from within using proprioceptive sensors. These
sensors are responsible for monitoring self-maintenance and controlling internal status.
Common uses of proprioceptive measurements are for battery monitoring, current sensing, and
heat monitoring.
Examples of Proprioceptive Sensors:
Global Positioning System (GPS) - The drawbacks of GPS sensors include a slow refresh rate
and sensitivity to blackouts.
Inertial Navigation System (INS) - The drawbacks of INS include the tendency to drift over
time and with temperature.
Shaft Encoders - A shaft encoder, also known as a rotary encoder, is an electro-magnetic device
that works as a transducer to convert the angular position of a shaft or axle to an analog or
digital code.
Compass - A compass sensor is used to detect direction and accurately correct motion.
Inclinometer - An inclinometer sensor measures the tilt or angle of an axis.
Exteroceptive sensors determine the measurements of objects relative to a robot's frame of
reference. These sensors are categorized as a proximity sensors. Proximity sensors enable a
robot to tell when it is near an object. These sensors keep the robot from colliding with other
objects. They can also be used to measure distance from the robot to another object.
There are three main types of exteroceptive sensors.
Contact Sensors: Contact sensors are typically simple mechanical switches that send a signal
when physical contact is made. Contact sensors are used to detect the positive contact between
two mating parts and/or to measure the interaction forces and torques which appear while the
robot manipulator conducts part mating operations. Another type of contact sensors are tactile
sensors. These measure a multitude of parameters of the touched object surface.
Range Sensors: Range sensors measure the distance to objects in their operation area. A range
sensor can also be a distance detection devices that provides a simple binary signal when a
particular threshold is detected. Range sensors are used for robot navigation, obstacle
avoidance, or to recover the third dimension for monocular vision. Range sensors are based on
one of the two principles: time-of-flight and triangulation
Vision Sensors: Robot vision is a complex sensing process. It involves extracting,
characterizing and interpreting information from images in order to identify or describe objects
in environment.
Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is naturally available are called passive
sensors. Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy
is available. Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own energy source for detection.
The sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation
reflected from that target is detected and measured by the sensor.
Sensor Proprioceptive Exteroceptive Passive Active
Contact Switch, Bumper ✓ ✓
Shaft Encoder ✓ ✓
Electronic Compass ✓ ✓
Inclinometer ✓ ✓
Accelerometer ✓ ✓
GPS ✓ ✓
Active Optical or RF Beacons ✓ ✓
Ultrasonic Sensor ✓ ✓
Laser Range Finder ✓ ✓
Photoresistor ✓ ✓
Camera ✓ ✓
Table 1: Sensor Classification
4.1 Light Sensors: The light sensor measures the amount of light in the environment. One of
the simplest types of light sensing is called a photoresistor. A photoresistor will have a different
kind of resistance depending upon how much light is hitting it. Resistance is a really important
property in electronics, and it's a measure of how difficult it is for the current to pass through
a component. The more light that hits the photoresistor, the lower the resistance becomes and
vice versa. Photoresistors are a really good way of measuring light, and they can actually
measure a lot of light that we can't see. For instance, we can't see ultraviolet or infrared light,
but light resistors can. Reflective optosensors use reflected light to operate.
Figure 7: IR Pair
4.2 Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors relies on echolocation to determine the distance
that the centre is from an object. Bats use echolocation to determine where they are in a dark
cave. And dolphins use echolocation to find out where they are underwater. Ultrasound works
by sending out a pulse of noise. That pulse then bounces off an object and is reflected back.
Depending upon how long the reflection takes to come back will tell the robot how far away
the object is. The human range of hearing goes from 20 hertz, which is a very low sound, to 20
kilohertz which is a very high-pitched whistle. Ultrasound occurs above that high-pitched
whistle range. Ultrasonic sensor sends out a ping or a chirp, and that then gets bounced off an
object and returns back to it. The ping or the chirp is actually a sound wave, that sound wave
occurring at a much higher frequency than we can hear. The sound wave bounces off an object
and then is returned back to the sensor, which detects it. If we start a timer the instant that the
sound wave is sent out and record the amount of time it takes for the sound wave to travel back,
we can actually calculate how far away the object is. To do this, we need to know the speed of
sound. The speed of sound is about 340 metres per second, and we need an equation to calculate
how it works.
D = ct
Where D is the distance that has been travelled by the sound wave; C is the speed of the sound
and t is the time. The speed of sound depends on many things like humidity in the air, the
temperature, the amount of dust particles that are in the air, etc.
Now we've calculated the distance that has been travelled, but now we need to divide it by 2
because when we send the signal out from our sensor, it goes to the object, it's reflected, and
then it bounces back. That means it's actually travelling that distance twice.
So the equation now becomes: 2D = ct or, D = ct/2.
Figure 10: Schematic of Inaccuracies arising from using Two Ultrasound Sensors
(Courtesy: Swinburne University of Technology)
The ultrasonic sensor 1 sends out a chirp. It bounces off an object, it bounces off another object,
and then it comes back to a different ultrasound sensor (ultrasound sensor 2). This makes for
some pretty confusing signals for the sensor. This phenomenon is called crosstalk, and it means
that the signal from one sensor is being received by another. This makes for some very strange
results, and it's not a good way of using ultrasound.
Another thing to consider when you're using ultrasound is environmental noise. Environmental
noise is noise that's caused by things like electric lights, arc welding, electric beaters. These
kind of things cause signals to come to the ultrasound that cause it to receive a signal when
there isn't actually anything being sent out.
So overall, we can see that ultrasound is a great method of detecting distance, but it's prone to
error. We use it mostly as an indication of what's going on around it. Or we use it in
combination with other sensors to get a feel for the space that's around the robot.
5. Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger
mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as
part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems
control many devices in common use today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are
manufactured as components of embedded systems.
Arduino is an open-source prototyping platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software.
Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter
message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing
something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino programming language (based on
Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing.
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday objects to
complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students, hobbyists,
artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source platform, their
contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can be of
great help to novices and experts alike.
8. PC Controlled Robot
The robots that are controlled by interfacing with a personal computer are called as computer
controlled robots. A computer is an integral part of every robot system that contains a control
program and a task program. The control program is provided by the manufacturer and the
controls of each joint of the robot manipulator. The task program is provided by the user and
specifies the manipulating motions that are required to complete a specific job.
8.1 Application: Computer controlled robots can be used in different fields such as medical,
military operations, industrial, agricultural, and so on.Implement uplink communication from
the Robots to GUI Application through the Base Station (Wireless PC Controlled Robot).
8.2 Items Required: Two BO2 Type 60mA Motors, Ball Caster, Plastic Chassis, Two
Batteries, Two Standard Wheels, Double Sided Tape and RoboBoard 1.
8.3 Souce Code: The following program was uploaded into the RoboBoard 1:
9. Obstacle Detecting and Avoiding
Robot
The project “Obstacle Detecting and Avoiding Robot” deals with detection and avoidance of
the various obstacles found in an environment. Obstacle avoidance is a primary requirement of
any autonomous mobile robot. Obstacle avoidance Robot is design to allow robot to navigate
in unknown environment by avoiding collisions. Obstacle avoiding robot senses obstacles in
the path and avoids it and resumes its running.
9.1 Applications: Obstacle avoiding technique is very useful in real life, this technique can
also use as a vision belt of blind people by changing the IR sensor by a kinetic sensor ,which
is on type of microwave sensor whose sensing range is very high and the output of this sensor
vary in according to the object position changes. This technique makes a blind people able to
navigate the obstacle easily by placing three vibrato in left, right and the centre of a belt named
as VISION BELT and makes a blind people able to walk without outside help. On top of
obstacle avoiding robot temperature/pressure sensors can be added to monitor the atmospheric
conditions around. This is useful in places where the environment is not suitable for humans.
9.2 Items Required: Ultrasonic Sensor, Two BO2 Type 60mA Motors, Ball Caster, Plastic
Chassis, Two Batteries, Two Standard Wheels, Double Sided Tape and RoboBoard 1.
9.3 Working Principle: The ultrasonic sensors continuously emits the frequency signals, when
obstacle is detected this signals are reflected back which then considered as input to the sensor.
The ultrasonic sensor consists of a multi vibrator, which fixed at its base. The multi vibrator is
combination of a resonator and vibrator. The ultrasonic waves generated by the vibration are
delivers to the resonator. Ultrasonic sensor actually consists of two parts: the emitter which
produces a 40 kHz sound wave and detector which detects 40 kHz sound wave and sends
electrical signal back to the microcontroller.
1: Standard Wheel
2: Jumper Wires
3: 3.5mm Audio Cable (Plugs on both sides)
4: Mobile Phone (On board Chassis)
5: DTMF Decoder
6: Robot Chassis
7: Uploader Unit
8: RoboBoard 1 (Manufacturer: Skubotics)
9: Battery
11.5 Source Code: The following program was uploaded into the RoboBoard 1:
11.6 Testing: The DTMF based Mobile Controlled Robot has successfully fulfilled all its
objectives that were planned at the time of planning. To watch the robot follow the link:
https://youtu.be/3fQpNdhyfFA
12. Conclusion
Today we are in the world of robotics. Knowingly or unknowingly, we have been using
different types of robots in our daily life. This project had the goal of manipulating different
parts of the robot to make it react according to our desire. The objective of the line follower
robot was to make the robot follow a black track just by programming it to use the sensors
attached to it. The photovore robot successfully followed light. The PC control robot was easily
maneuvered by the commands from the keyboard. The obstacle avoider skilfully averted the
hindrances. The sumobot attacked other robots as programmed. The DTMF based mobile
controlled robot successfully executed all the commands given via the remote mobile phone.
The sensing range can be efficiently be increased by increasing the sensor quality.
References
[1] Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”,
sixth edition, “Automation of Manufacturing Processes”.
[2] Dr. Siddhartha Ray, “Introduction to Materials Handling”, New Age International
Publishers, 2013 ed.
[3] Dr. Michelle Dunn, “Mobile Robotics”, Swinburne University of Technology.
[4] SS Ratan, “Theory of Machines”, McGraw Hill Education, Fourth Edition.
[5] “What is Arduino?” and “Why Arduino?”, Arduino,
https://www.arduino.cc/en/Guide/Introduction
[6] M. S. Islam & M. A. Rahman, “Design and Fabrication of Line Follower Robot”, Asian
Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 2, No 2 (2013), Pages: 27-32
[7] Pravin Kumar Singh, “Arduino Based Photovore Robot”, International Journal of Scientific
& Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 4, April-2013, Pages: 1003-1015.
[8] Kirti Bhagat, Sayalee Deshmukh, Shraddha Dhonde and Sneha Ghag, “Obstacle Avoidance
Robot”, International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR),
Volume 5, Issue 2, February 2016, Pages: 439-442
[9] Dhiraj Singh Patel, Dheeraj Mishra, Devendra Pandey, Ankit Sumele, Asst. Prof. Ishwar
Rathod, “Mobile Operated Spy Robot”, International Journal of Emerging Technology and
Advanced Engineering Volume 3, Special Issue 2, January 2013, Pages: 23-26.