industrial Electronics N 2 The key to successful studying is to understand rather than memoriss concepts. Itis, therefore, imperative that the material in this book js worked through in the order in which itis presented. i Each unit of the book starts with a list of cuicomes and ends with a ! self-evaluation exercise, itis designed los see if you have reached: specified outcomes. en | AppLoa ogical M. Arnold 1. Industrial Electronics N1 \ \ | * — Series: Industrial Electrc Industrial Electro . Industrial Electro aN i" 079-8 S 7 ca » Ise sreaserisers 9 gpo0s8223°418 SS cg 1 i 33a soli | eerie orator1 Direct Current Theory TD) onto Aer you ha cempleed ths uri you stl be sete ‘nerd the bass principles of electacly understand, define and apply Rirehhols firs and second laws 4.4 INTRODUCTION be introduced to Kivetos's Laws.aqamsey oxy a paso 04 HPD HEL MTT ‘epcinysyns on omeqsoond Goseaiag pro (Ajadonen pond 210 of Maint co Tea sy nna © mp Sunwoy () wezsrn fo none? 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Pyne gmaags wade ue wy poses y9 ve OTN Feqwod omy woe, Osan ~ \4 Diseet Goren Tresey ‘his expression oan be reannuigod a VeIKR tnd is sel fo cateute the voltaget V9 if the cussent sets ce tage(V) ifthe current) and rovstence(R) ie known, oF it “Ret T ‘e-calaulate dhe resistance(R) if the voltage (V) and the cusront(t) is known, Sanne {po kao ny tof he quant, fo OD LeLigne ot manta ae x Se 4.34 Solving for curcent t) EXAMPLE 1.4 " se = : . 122, Sowing for rexistance EXAMPLE 1.2 M ‘The Voltage appliod to the eizcuit given in figursis ae HY Toscana wssrtieca sa 1 ay Gis beret case vat need, rae Fig a 13.3 Solving for voltage EXAMPLE 1.3, Ait sng este of 500 atom 24 tofow Delrane tvlingeaaeas vena ii) ‘ VeIxR=2x50-1004 “desta Electoics NEA aga Approach 8 move than one load, it i possible to connect dhem wither i series with one parallel. Also, if tere are more taut two loads, some could be canuected in series, olher sn parallel, an some could be connected es ser es-parallel combinations. Kaowledge of the cheractorstice of series and psvaliel eicuits will enable you to undesstaed how cireults work and how they are used. 48 SERIES RESISTOR CIRCUITS Resistors are said (o be “ut series” when. they are connected in such o way that one end of ‘one resistor (2) is connected fo one end of other resistor (Ry), The otter ed of resistor (Rips then connected to one end of resistor (R.) avd so an, as shown in Fig 1a ‘When rosators are connooted in serie, their combi resistance is equal 9 the sim of ‘he individual resistances, Pig tat Rota "The total vesistanos of the oat in Fig, 1 i Ry=Ry FRR, holly ~ he voltage aczoss a esstor 20 the exrent remains the same Vy~ Ry Ve MeN HY =IR, 4IR, +18,gq pm LL an jo pd Jy ato: paypawTen9 WOM Jere seo ux SEN zou Jom ‘papainico s(°4) 2088 810 J ie a ek yon payouson a” HN “pred a, 099) PRS 8 STEAL gunduin SUOLSISAU TATIVE OF Bug mos He HO 08 PE ogi roci+ aot ses OS= WORX mS ota conor SEL spy BD A09= 008 ot cf ots -anores eA pure PUP pos ore SE tp EE ~ ‘at = ome _nn pred ain pene ng NPED "HOHE ASAT Y 1g woud ota al fh ree Bee eur ty A {Bo wee Be aden PN seo dy sore PO a sy pe ES nee TTA 7 ‘Greedy poe ¥en sEOHOA PHOT ‘up psp om sm, “SHEA se om ayo oad: aBiyjas omp yeMT $F SOLS UT PaIDs st oy Sm Sia eee sopiaig abeNOA BL = FSF NOG = TORT VSO f N09 =THOEDLVS'O™ ‘Aas = o01% Vs'0= t= 'A yoy a yutos io yoo= PE = WSO Roo | fgets tye be somauy se woe st ip poe Swatsne Blog omy “oouRISTE 0 suas 3 poqoews09 aI THOSE PUR TOLL TOOL ssnEA Je SOsHaT eeALL, sastusta Sa Th Kt ‘eoune uy soqsmes Tp BNO WOE OW STF HID AN OTS & —_—EE———overerrere— “oceans HK 9 rio ays 0} Sy oayodn pum yon An yt8 Diese Curent Theery ‘When two resistors are connected in poraiel ollowing equation cau also bo opp¥ied: RXR, _ product Re TTR SR, sum eof total rosistmee in a pavllel creuit ig always less thatthe value of tbesinaflest resistor, ireuit remains the same soress all resistors © tame os Hae volage acroms Re, whic the Rs ldes praportdonalty— the cument through e resistor depend on the value of Tat resisior sine te voltage resins the same. + Since he veltage isthe same across tl resistors WeMe%=y, 7 spaverel Eleerares Nes A Logis Approach 2 __ —r——rarav—vasrsavarv— EXAMPLE 1.5 Three es 18002 are connacted in patallel {0 2 200 ¥ Tc ies Taurent, and the eartent threngh each resistor. 500. Be te b 2000 Re Te 2000 Ry Fa 200v vets Ye 200, 2M Ee togwre poe ea, waa yo woneurgno fogemed amy CH are y(t) nioneaomiame peeiden (0) snopes 1p sean m9 0a ev aduer seat May DEL gpg, AL pg sot d = rt a= se-+001 4H ty, ‘Sq ur tons rota oes WOE Sexo WEE peleators art es U orto HE yy pxoT KT uB. pap 30 S0UEStsE HOY STR ITAL sp oriwexs “poo av 2N FREER ETO Ulst= st91sole Mart Sys More Dp 2 pam a go aaTgsND SBS MDP HON _ peor aa = Oreo! EE 28" pot pT ereremn9y Us, wots ste aa Path y py 4 oven wat RE Raz] Sle OF L-By sr mors women’ you sp 30 Same} OI SIN BHO cy eduerg ‘appa wes wry sroytsa! suI88 {gous & p24 da pee prow nod ‘quop toER sex sty €8UD “TONES puopeame OHNE ‘1 mmouto sOyesos PYBIEG oi Sonal Ky WHO] Jo;TUNS mq poqeabs re Oy UOUIED ‘3 aonpar 01 509 Sf ‘SeOuE|SA JO uOHKELIgU Tears UFO OURAN YOLK ‘muntnes9p 04, symarp orev pe soLOs yjog Jo ComLeU7quIED w ale AepOn SIO 350 SUINDUID HOLSISTY TATIVaNESaNaS Zt oct on, wo z+01 vee weaex aap EH ae O sober jog uoan mo TP WeNRD aM SHIAOK-V £8 Ap mateo yor 4p pu Apayrodsas 50% PMO TIOL Je soTEA one “GT “Sa WI PY PUB LITT IS aco dmg ea obIndustriel Clecreret N2: A Login Appraech 13 12 . eect Curent Theory =e Se ee Solution Roxy _oxts f) Ry = eR ORES _ mw RXR 1A © Ras Bek, "10440 Using the pees iid re © Gepoenta irene acess fy Ge Va) R 2 Kyat = yea RR Tg Ue potentia difference across R, Gi. Vaz) : Vg = cB nt = Sao t6Y Ran Fayre ©) Re =R +k, 248-100 Using th ourentaider ule Using te voltage sos at Re ae Bara Ry Ry HR AR ys a bo =64644 taf, x2=044 Ree joes R 40 fafxt ao erga Rak Tea? Example 1.40 fhe potental dfforonce across R, Ry and Ry the euents drove Ra Read i TF Pie ma PIB [P| iP CH 7oui and 0} No =n ny REE ATOPA wre a oe tH x0 a eee + meets oe nestet) ” a x0 © cyte ¥ atts . . ppp Sy ary vane = (ney queung) meTsnd FET Sr resonant ye uo ofp Jo mS oA fon ror] Koad SEIWOH THased TOY spon serena, Suywog 198529 ACH HL ea =SONOL=IKAR A aig oxpddne ust 9p 4.021 ¥ sy Laux en pep HHI AMA WAHL OH oy “soja si w pardisep zane omy ore |ROR “AOOT ssONTSSETTOL # SHOE ON AL, ze a 1diwxXB oem Joysan1 omy ‘argolOK, areyOfeo ee 9 PINON Dr pean ropes dra jo Fuel omod oa gps 8 yuanaid OY, Sumer tonog = CSL Aistem0rx 0) = UT soqeson 93 ‘hq poyedisap somod oi) amen “Vs"O # JOR ENE T5OL ® HMONG BOY Wwesmo SUI, eb aduiwxa, a A Ae nkgan onus macdoseg ow ay 1 Suamasers por Wx I= ‘pany om epinto} ood opsog oth UF T= A SusMIRARNS Sosa ur umm O51] ‘fou! sBeyf04 944 sna uy 40d 9638 ony ward sow om aimnoye0 02 ejname; 218 OM, EOE > ap v tt peso aoaod om “tamod jo nogeeyee aaoge ey WORT ayes semed = Tb “hg ‘wet a1p jo sonst pre wan oeaaq dnjsuoess e ssp eT=TR HN 516 Diese Curren Theery 18.2 Second Law (Voltage Law) In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the emis acting round the toop is eqal ro the algebraic num of the potestial tiferences around that oop i.e, the algebraic sum @F all the emf ar the voltage equal 27, o oO We : 4.40 APPLICATION OF KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS EXAMPLE 4.14 (Caleulate the value ofthe cueat ly The current tH total eurront F 2A flowing towards = flowing sway from ‘a junetion that junction tA os JAA ~ GA EXAMPLE 1.15 L+1A8 28 1=2A-1A=1A fA “nds! Elcrarict N2x A Loge Approach a EXAMPLE 1.16 ~ a yaitde2ed Ltde2es L=2td-4 =2A EXAMPLE 4.17 ‘the smn of the ‘voltage drops = ie ir wa ‘The sum of ne emnt’s Ey =1R, +IR, +R, S2AKI0+ 2A x30+2Ax50 a4 s6V +109 =nv EXAMPLE 4.48 3, =IR, +R, 25V n 2AXIQ42AX20+2AXR, o za ’ =2V+4V42A2R; a a A z © = =6V#2AxR, aa 2AxR, =25-0=19V 1 {|b 2R, =950 ae. 4 = ‘ a neh eee Te oa | sae wee vs < 7 a h48 4 Te { : ‘4 ee [yl tl eo onqyersver vat feso:¥s0TT 7 na ope on] Wate SONATA 6E TREE (2 01 pve au nie8s ‘ avamhon woinsarFSt ee om remom, | £8 ist Coca saresm sim at EEE forge owes Ly oa oy0F BT mursesare 02 concn podeny ede tt TET oe go uasne dee emg mH AEE fuse HEL gesgsorow a pe Y aed sare omy a predtom somed ivoea} sst31 Cz am HSH MO MeHTO S et tsar 9 -premoys pax ¢ Aug 01041 TT ne sani] agmemmuesnarnese nerf a tverv'ah wine plO}euL 7st fescroi} vst soto} 94) SUMED pL SL fevseoF “panmnioaja-itod st Taoct] Sq paunsioe s Jonod yams Noy Earee sd “ty a par (yeor‘l 'T _symynare9 "ogcm!a pur ‘oxr~H U OOE-*a VOLS ~HLSH"E Sif MT TAM AA IO Las6'0 30081 200081 Co00E Ade ‘2097 "a Ae pans mod om pun Hy By A Jose ‘upann9pe veo'd = pu Vso'o-H ‘ADE"8 ‘efy TONNE “EL Lavorssincn tisco rear o'vzs00 “i "Ey pure ty ITA “SEA TA opeoTwO “Ty seo ‘sen Ag 30 Boa 51 OO—RH-"A PED OL YAN" Ts OLA feooiot oye" pw e000=4Y fcoosi Ua=Ay Pe BNOEL {J prey eonog souINRAS OT sR HEHA;ES TyOIEAHINNE LHL Ul VEL e] vo eae yaioqrodow op ap | ut Speondioud sora 4 BRIO ON,“ how soubS wt no peed » ur m8 "ojssa) oqfous aM 30 CHA sone srynoup paqqerad e uy sourisses P01 Jo oneA aL oq ay son} 2m 30 908 -sfaay st ous coun © ur outer jai Joana 2,“ “sore: oy) puopzodord pac aPajon oe quan 2 Eunos -wratme po} 19 pe pau ‘1p snoop 8 surges om sommes op mR arg ap of fousqtodoad > weno jo nour aL, (ie w pomsaoatstyung < (Oe crsmog ram 1 tacoma nouvnivaasas A] ‘ay aD wm ah20 Direct Curent Teary = aay Hes 1A 280. B ref wd FEE wo] | 0 hon m6 eon wa wa ae wa or 2 Alternating Current Theory 9 ‘Omeonnes ‘After you have corapled this wit, you soul fe Understand how au alternating cusrent ‘Understand, define and perform caloctatior ame, avemge, pea ad peaicto pea valucs Understand and perform ing the wid-ondimateruie Use te information given RC or RLC series civuit oF the information diagram of a series RLC creat 10 calcaete, ogra for RL, RC ond RIC series cnet 1 diagram for Rb, RCanel RUC ciate cuvdrstand te tera resemaece frequency caleuits the resonant frequency for series RLC ci 2.4 INTRODUCTION with direct earents and direct voltages. Thess were voltages Ut gd crests thal flow in one direction only w nange oe foo fo temstng curents and voligs aki, caren a age its droetion are voltages tit change polsity 22. ALTERNATING CURRENT 224 AC powersource ‘We have seen cartier tat with ado power: ‘yollage or cxrent rever changes, We not the ather alway positive, This meant tat sy or souree, the poarity of te output fone lecaizal is ales agativa, ond ent Slowing in always i one dreetio,0) spad sageSous pu sannod 1) pad sageBous pus. a ag soja preg ane noe oN econ aaee-oun woeg “nppaszued ss poppe sy umogonen 270 IEA IEE ampatmmmpeers0qmd TTS — — Wag) voneioge am 28 PIT. pee ey 5 rage ae “booayseqo dps ana Ure nodia am RM soRswADER PURI se AL 1 poyeset anos poxirarap Loess 2 am ap Ag oaeposs monje, prety onpuiew fa pares «typo doop ais ean €2 2B) (on 1 sUEREE Mod m payONDS st SaenpUT sgperenipap iter rev anid f asi OF TERS pa ce L¢ Le ihe Ee tg Woy vow (oy 2 Bn wero 9 uoey01 ae Fe¥09 AU sonora sum poe snes andio pasanR vit, guano Ramsay oe % Sat ioe sere aungesss om pa anf aaccaoe Dugway oe £8 ase 6 TOSSHD rao sake adeaye Sande Sy nace joo aong posing a. une way PY ash aye od a 3 use STL, posta EPP a a oe eagrod op oper one eos PUTER: sansa any mo pnow aL CORDA Frit oung a wont prim on Hou goat poacag eens et semana deol oF 3 a pine oo % ped PIECE ZI ARONA PUA. Tran amg aan os2h Alteatng Chovert Thesry 232 Pealctonpea value ‘The value measined between the postive and the negative paak values is elfed the peak- tocpeaie value of te sive wave (fig 2.5), This value i tice the maximum or peak value of te sine wave. 2313 Amplitude ‘This ter wees to Une eight of the wavelomm (ig 2.5) 2344 Cycle ‘You have seen how an ae voltage fest increases in value to a maximmass, then decreases ‘through zero to a macimum in the opposite direction, ae the merases back to zero, This sequence is known ona complete cycle (fig 25) ie 2315 Period Bo ‘The unit of measurement forthe perio isthe second and the mathematical symbol to enste peri i shown as. One complete revolution or rotation isa cycle ‘The time required 19 complete one cycle af a waveforms called the period. 2316 Frequency ‘The number ofeycles completed in one second is called the Frequency ofthe waveform. “Induct Eleeranee M2: A Lone Appreech 25 _EOTE—Eee——— “Tio andtof mons remont for tie Gequerey is hertz (Hz) andthe mafhesuaticel syexbot weds. ‘Thc ac voltage in our homes is given 220, SOHZ 10 nerf eyelevoesond ES EXAMPLE 2.1 “Amvaltemaling curtent waveform has a period of 100ms. Caloulate the frequency: L 109x107 1 at =i 10K. Tap fag 2.3.2 Instantaneous values ; ‘Tho emf and current waveforms i fig 2 Ab may be described by the sinusotdat equatioss: e=E,Sind or e=E,Sinat and fal,Sind oF 1 = IySinc i) 0" = angle of rotatc @ = angular velocity, radians por second 1 = time in seconds Instantaneous cmf or current AOS. Attentive gale eat ie 2324 neasicinesoevysis's= 20S XORZ)ITS OTF sperms"i= t xessu=1 zHags 5 VoT= "Ema jenn ong Jo ome ME ‘aame SROwIoT WY oe wIaNWS -sugteod ute pr loz erenaqep 40s f0 Zao 2 pe y 9} Jo onea ANE -sposs pu, stu enn ao el orf POM RTBOCY fs most a Ann Sng 0m soe mo 20 sae OL BSANEY ony syamevot ype ay ma eo SENET Seg HEHE OSHA ‘somgua snoaweruersmy BapeimaqeD PTET 9st pea 400 = 09 Mons 09 yo entseotn UeIpas oR PELL szatavra ost 1o’axsaaston = Styesoaifop = see mayen “ot An Ado sonsp 1 seorfop DADO CI. sa saiBop Bupsaanoy CTT Do aD wee Seg ry oetos scarp uy pes gym ease eu ataMvNs pe eens = 2 yasper = sai) stusxsmper= emp e my ox 3081 gun *sasop oy eT BH 1°98 easop i soyode 3) st 940 NPS <0BT A soy) ReLARTEIAEN STO sani Seta £4 TIPE ET 9 TIE AWSAE STL BL 7 STE Pea ub sump A JOSE AEH eap OF sap Hone : aoidep oy supra fepsoawog CUCT z pond poor y AN ORLA PHEMPAT pas penne woope-0 eons fypojpn syns ofp sue ZONE HT UOREIA sooo eto eM Dp wacus it se ¢wonocho pue [grrr wusa=e se Kouarlbay Jo mio} poesardx 0g uno ‘aoqe *T women, Ey eel i youre 0 jo des ony ct ‘syoa gtigooi=9 440 2 SAZONI 189 03 sonTea ove|OGEI, yqetNYe We Jo ouyea HOKU! ev araWuxa arene oag'oxoe= eamgaz = aya =e 09 poypees sen joo aly naps oto exp Jo HA OST coup avemose “Aor 30 AHEM Hoy sysuSUDL ov ve Ae paonpoat OS OTL womens ‘aur ssi oo ye ys pum mo o4p yo sonyea ates yas smagzrynongsy 20 lo SHoDTIMHaSA SIL es airy Baooinay ot28 Suet stance 2: A Logit Agpree 2 es © =30xsin(628%00000%57,3)volls Ene O(697 Eons ad Tae 0687 servos 234 Root-mean square value of a sine wave exami 2s an eee yg vn ie crane A a ty eat A inno. suply of oye Sohizie asaximum value of 240 Celexa tho SRS ‘value oF S sing in a cron, bit Pov? does this compare with 5 A of do cma staenane Soren fog 4 ot nem eee cabinet a ne ae eu oa ee Te eet ov rv of an elernatngvolage oF A NC ei ion pet Sfectinaronsuance atest eine of ect Coie ven caren wt have on te sane revere TaN? you lun thet when ciment flows Gwongh 2 i ee cua ofA hows Ie eestor of he aot. ‘eorical power covered ino heat eas FR als 233 ‘Average value of a sine wave 4ig2.5, above, the average value of ll the ‘catnip eyele is zato because the positive hal eyele ‘Neca ona emer owing ough er ius, bt a esa le 1 ef ae’ et woUle Seow ma vave can Seow by. rage vlue ofan acvollage or current te he average of il the Figg 0707 Xone inteantarceous values during on half cycle “pan or = TIT X Le ~ so tices EXAMPLE 2.9 “Aavaltemating curent has & mau vale Of SA and a oquenoy of 30K, Cleclate me {a} itszms value (b) average value and (cits pesiodic tte TN ecee sotion mone te () lege = 050g, OTOP AS = RISA Woy O68 Tg = 46RD 31858 Pyzse aves iterofaanevase aomar pom _¥ uct ampantineat We apt ena aa svar" zt = 000 spay 00 ve penny poibery NSIS PSN ope en (6) sop auog (8 series oe ©) seneg'o= xuoro= syonnaz= “a (2) wonmos oe a yg 94 30} SYA GOT SPRAY OEE PIMA I UT SH “Ayoanpsod usswasout ote saye spuonosr MZ Jue acy JO-on|eA sNOOLUEE OH pound ap smiojeatis om Jo Sounnbast om ‘Sones oBerove pur so oF jo 0x3 30 ae UMNEEE o -sunmoreg “A104 1g2'yLE te 99g = UoENba ayy Aq pamssoudersrrApSARA Y ore aTaWWxs, qenbo ase cenyea eBeroae poe suns on e8 fap gntbo og are sions uo pu uN og aA snp DAL B04 fo $068 ropa 1099 11 = 22 — sojsop me: wtp eee aon au um 10 ‘nea sur ‘yea uaiaipe 772A ‘onyen sean ayeesuat ‘smote se pena ase wie ENO PU HL LL, PIPL Motn SST soFOmf p84 npr [UT Mog SSTT 40pMf teas v IBY $2¢ HEFT Mtg ASL VSLED Lona RI. D PUD savas son so ay sna pepo 2 Pe ‘osu stmearoce Jo Eo] ae aus @30 ada ay SaNBGOD 9 "HOPDAEAA ‘xg jo ads xp fo noMerpur ie aa usuajonzan 8 Jo SO}ee] WaNn pu HE] ST, 4s0y2e) 45919 pus oypejuuos — SET sues o'o= Enzo ©) ‘ova, woaeo amNY 0832 236 Mid-ordinate rule ‘The method we use in the previous seclion to caleulate the values for average and ms ‘valuoy is Gated Ute mathematical equation method, This we could apply only te puresine “Phe mid-ordinate rate method is used to calculate the average and ems vaives focnion-sine atbernaing neem Thesry ‘ap into a maiber of smal, equally spac ‘height of each ordinate is oasored and recorded, These values nso than applied ts the following formtee ete te te tet ‘auiaber of ssid — exlinates EAMPLE 2.11 Am altemaing ez hes th following volues monsured over ong hal-cyele, ‘Angloin dees” [0 | 30_ [60 [90 [130 T 150 [iso Indued omf(V) [0 | § [is fas [20] 9 | o poinls by means of smacth curve, rom your graph determing the folowing, © @ Solution le le le le edu Berenice N2 A Lai AparRch (0) Be Simin of mid oratn 6 =14667 [Fete revel he {) Fea = ‘numberof mid - ordinates _ (Pa Ve = 18088 ET ae +2 6 ams value or fick = ee ‘Bronage vane 18088 4687 1233 () xin ase (2) crate =momy eae ronda eee! @) saute owe) exevenapisomeana co urnsSiyp usafosna vy s0 voponisasy ums ang igus sn sopsoad umndinyy sosmrd ® panozioy say oy nosey cp 46 ave am A powteszdos sj toZonNA ays ofun ONT NY (®) sossqa oth pnyou ety swosesdes umooAwM ci 0 ongeA weMpeA I ad 0) pT -sowdls 1g noppanp 501 pwns “randy toansost soon ®t ODATE ® paw aprgnuiou soy yoy Swen’ sy aosingd “pn toss 30 joa xpd nay tes cy pas am oan Ypnes suman ani 9c) HORA aa SD Oe pms pan won ej ony of ons aes 9 KnSO2E TS TPE Mun soo a ot Bue ear 98 vo SOMMER HAT WK ueiGwip Josey 10 uowewiowoidassoseld = SY7 05 ¥ on sve 088 DUEL igus poe a6, 260m 8m) 98s (OL By aL HOHE Se ani stngonon sonore! 8 pOER 526 a) THE 9-449 anon Sy pms atojonst sty OnE PIO en Maprt a O1 06 £1 atm PA OHH AIO, seston ss angen umn; sypean Y axes (OT BY 8 ‘sojBue aseyd Gey pue pee HVT 38 poniddy poe aN HDT PESTS cena ummm st my ¥ aan DW ‘EL any ‘21s 99 72 ame00 suas poe sturusROW aypaodsoNeD JL yoRr st afSue seh on ‘ejay ‘asad yo sno ‘agmeuo ou wi oeyyon pue yaus9 2 40 dupes coed ip pm 1800101 ATO. PHD! eM 98.61 1UNBINATED AE SLI WAHL 4O 310 Trina oso oa in 0 ota sea pin aa on spe 2008 HL ® Seranpur assoc papacy one " sBeqi04 Atdes sp wows soo NON ARTIS V ‘lee srs oyun PUR NOES con atop opnpun we xnanp soy EID A -9Le Hy wNOMS AEE Has AL ee cpoomly pose QN27KEADM PETIT “acoug wnura fuse ay ekeri ect ce NA Leslee Apres a 40 Alternet Crean Theory — | _ 2 rance neat Capseltive reactance ‘We lave seen eatlior tha resistors, capacitors and induclows oppose the low of a ‘The opposition or “ac resistance” offered by « capacitor to the current is culled its curent Many ac eicuits contain a combination ofthese components and therefore, ‘capacitive reactace and ca be calculated by ‘te tfal opposition to the flow of alternating current = prising ofresstors an reactances is @O syeuiomes (0), Because of Wee different agces arthmetically ‘Impedanceie given the symbol Z nd is ‘eurent-veltage phate relationships, you =TKX, ‘ee Velie aa te ap | = current flow through the capacitor in amperes uy R ® xf ‘Me alc oft psec aris Terence ote : * @ [hs= zen Bren samen oter ® .@ 4 ‘and af the frequency de * * | ‘T mse nn x Kettuensy proprionttefequncy eae T EZR Cosel verentmcees ony ig22t: Coobmulonsef Xan Neer ueleipetene 2.6 SERIES ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS fered by on indctor to the cuitant is called its 2.6.1 UNDERSTANDING RL CIRCUITS in the Requeney, As the frequency increases the reactance increases and ax the frequency decreases the reactance sdectenaae 0, eis directly proportional to frequency. {ee he curzent hrough the ndctor it apres r is the earreal through the tesistor in amperes igo: sete recom genwere soupoder in ep poms fide panne nou mS ie 2rd ho ap foo yt 1930 STB NE foo eo pc pound aD NUE ye) Ans 38 20S ong # a pease sy an. 59 ates E PEE SEHD EY eve sTanixa hu ool S87 © 60} prs ETHAN SLL (adaeconn Store) spores 4,3) sonny a a8 ao 1 $7 FONT NE ong 8219 here Zz a xn) aaj= 420) 2 geod wie Ben TET? ins thos wraps x Z seaoBoyphg Jo wsst00n, 8 6 aaihe'n ce ty so mbmy soot 9 uae Lh Ba eae cvs aap go nnnn TL 06 £5 ipwey "a paw Mee asward a a SeBENON MIA TEE yates eee lee are uae ah ahem ee jyono Te saues zo Areuuing COS wre wrest L x ® ey ows erie xsseanmne postman ed CER p s = R 2 \ n ‘ soapy —— ont z sssigpa np jo um pan oe 1 ‘Sporn si.06 2999 a? 3 pus dng dgsnuptosocey eta em OU ye 1M0z9 9010 TEND “SONOH 9 ype am 018 fds A ob 8 he tampon agJom OF TepICNee IMAP H1GE9P SU “6 1 oy pe) as yun Uses any 2 5 soronpat ag 280898 EHDA ep ses ap 90300 3BET}94 2 -aavyd pn spud ® spa sopas ey sobeyon pue swuesind ZO sn poogmpy 220 Hr Pa sea D MY SBUBLATE PL neu w Toasty op y aI somrtbors BSAA Fanny wosano bamunay ow4a Abereciy ven Theory “usa Electrenice NBA Logica Aproae 8 Souation The cvons besos RC cir arc ide In fa) X, =2mf. = 2xxxsoHexsH amplitnde anu phase. seat fom fg 213 that the valage ax Vp) sin phase wih the and fof 214 he velage eres rags te entet 7 vena niga cram fort seties RC cre of bo dra as shoo i ig ews and Vs lagging 1 90” The olla i 99 28a sys) mse “The pate angle € between ne supply voliage Vr athe euren fs given by Me RR = Xe, awe Be Xe ow aoady now tha te ume caret fom zsh every componetina test cota SMe ZEST R sate cen tn eT zezcor{) 20 so-te(%) ‘where Is the arent throw the capecitor in amperes, z. R© a ats =(5790}, $007 OF (OT 2 peaniay se90= Spey OO natr'eg ~osezaixset osu'st=osixszro= a=" ® saat oceustooncne OX _ T osetusixonnere ‘wounies synaats om Jo uresBenp rose oat esp G pu ‘ye ose oi (6) odin te ST “oBerjos aug (p) sonfoale> sage anjea a (2) ‘saupent xp () SOUrPAL (@parvinoys SHOU VSLO go ume owostetzon ain sss08 poresuane SAT ousninayy Jo ApUanS AOE © Shun onoedes usm we put 20205 OST ESP sysisu0o 89 OR SOS W we adieXd “ny oibeyy BN AMES PHL aw (Ge acend Sigpnay © ones ope SHIMON SEL iim wf 24 Trp ap ss0ne Banos oy gpee7 1 soHoedso # TEMaAY THN AH axe pip=2 pariah" mee unoys oy souasso Auewung = FZ pup cee ty ean pio NT 97. ANS poe 18) cer G80) sense n ome wong soso4s Py eae woop mete % 2a casoworny ye Renee) . x 5 « " % qynayo oy souss eu soBeyonpuesuaung — S'8% “away mon SauAY oF48 Alteration Cavant Thesey 26.7 UNDERSTANDING SERIES RLC CIRCUITS. A series RLC civeuit is shown ix fig 2.27. gz auc Since the caret on serio crt thea tong ll components, cen is nsed as the reference phasor and the voltages: = ” ° " w et a ve (2) Volags! by 90° (0) Vi teods by 90° t % va % & i 1 we (2) Yyisin opposition to Ve ©) VurVe @ Vee vectorsumor (SV) and Ye ‘To find the total voltage, Vs we need to apply Pythagoras es follows: +¥.-VoF venir ve ndutre Elctonice NO: Late! Appecch 49 Oe err_s —————— Sac Oars cer aoe on naa wy coo-S jsouit of fig 2.29 ean Since VyH1Z; Vie=tR and VieVe “(KX the phasor di triangle as an fig be represented as in fig 2 28a and and the correspond ase w my * o ° pe 7 z = : ee “ 2 8 ? ? “ % rnesamsucplnoe ag een From fig 2.280 XP aR, 268 THE EFFECTS OF FREQUE! ‘We have soon earlier tat the frequency affect 2684 Wroquency affects inductive reactance From te formule, = 2. Af the frequency f i increased, the eactonce, %, will, increase, Sinasay wa. oar noun 51 p80 asd ay, "gia oan wo apo Ae Waa pina sowaeer i, AUeHased 2 ol YER 1 YBOND OW EX KUN emang sommes ss cnueyne ata mmeRe FLAS : -acez Sy uns a8 Ards on spot josie Ss san 31 of oseyd Supe © 8 Dod? Aygo mI AEN <°K MMM # > one ce 8y upbeat a Bo a dis ihe ago je any Bd 0 pe ser nme EHD HC =TSCHI * pasa won Sy Tl {arc fay wrimone ons FRE suONIPMOD o|gETO sea, wanes oes IR eminyinmengyerna — 5 i sm, sTMPneE asHEID 217 eH PO ‘ooo cman oeiorpia 33, OH TOK YD WIR OF CPA Sow pie ‘seestoap pHON coum SAAD oy 7H Joma oF PInON aouyPeAT eALONUL Oy) “POAESIOUT St Aouonlsoy ap 82 “ROIS TA We UL THR SE ‘expres saniondoo xp 0 ponsedond SPOEOALE SE & soupjovas oan omy euoRtodoad poms St = a) 00 199]50 0850 ‘pos © ur POPs Soe 8 ro onpt we ete pes SEO w JO URS mS SSPE soueuosay saues 69% nse oes ToL penta mete o1e gL NOE © stage amor apne eT -fouonboay om a ‘ i rupeint cc’, © ah : i : ig at aye oven wo Os f_4 25 a a a toi ee ig OH gE AEM, “BHBRHON Banipedue off "POseRWT st cere y uy anoye om evonmuon aay aacge a9) SIP sonal OL, SE cox gmmuey meg Bonn fins amos you sop on 200! > hE seoe sourpeosaupsedea spoype Sononbagg 289% Se enaospm aoe eyes nsec ween MW EAN —— Trad aro ay 0s 8 pony posi NIRA PEAT62 Alternating Garant Theory ithe resonant frequency, reactance, their effects the voltage acreas the capa ihe inductive resclaneo is equal (o he eapacitive reer, Tole aes Usa) eg. Wee IX = Me AN eXe t ae = ae 1 fontF =o om =! Vie ret Tie Also fe sequen © ergy iy npesce vonage riga.sscuin vont oy “Induct Eestmica NE: ALowel Aryeh 53 connected i series witha coll ofinductanes YG and resniaace ota Grequenay of 12KH. Caloualst (0) the capacitive reactance (@) the supply extent (D the voltage aeross the oo. 1 resonant frequency ray the phasor diagram for the coil and the impedance diagram that represents the above circuit Solution (a)%, Ball, = Dea 12 "ATOR? = 153,982 1 =759,9590 poL= 21. -o9na OR 26MA Z. 759955 5B cog S00 ° @) 8 =Cos"S Cost 48,85 (6-005 = cos" e555 HSHsong ago es am ose st go suey 9 aes _gernewes exp eps ne pom os yore se GNSS TE © Mp gna ae jog am suaaonen mee preva sues oy, oaey fom aya eoguran expres dps premveanO | #% “dng senso Aven on 6 petanguragy HEPES © ogiue 296 30 ypearsorepecseanedsa yO nos yoaums Runewayp Oo ye oy somes commons CS eben cen UGE] © uN] OURO & gonguam rasan yo Ts MOT} PANE NO PT ce samama ayy pes see © ‘Bean a5 & eon & si anycedes Sposuepastermone Tue mH TE socusumestZ 2E=7 foumeemesi 77X27 remaae sty wurcarows ast Z2K=TE sazea suammpana Buoy om won aRensensaws eet UZ 32) ypoq seasve mod urvonserh g}0 ARMS ay gies wana 90 pha yr soe ess ap aTeTp seo FARMS sapyo ts 1 oso sagoepos vem sonenbay se PTFOUS 8 coumgewos ancyvapur at. 08 sFeab yo aeaage we ancoe An wed seUORe LY ‘Soumyeodes po aouesnNpaT sR yo sanz ‘kj aumo sg puro Bey sera pores SRA aginst sped? a, “gps abe STE TSS m2 ys Sones esse sea BB TN 3 * = Saati Apledns sig 0 eaygeumye oe By steeds YoH9e 2 ‘quam aug eon cae pedi 3) A503 OTH #ANGE aro, pt ogee a 39.248 simon a ay ateneTLL gasiouaxa NOLL YN TAR-STAS fa ompumop aah STV 9 EMBL AF 38 polly pati an HAS BHO RIG erd Teepe NST] _ Suen TZ Wei Oa =821 sews ster BATT A POEL, ‘AspealT aaSARUTENTRS [___Bvsa! 81 WAND | “SAAOgED sl wrest TeieUoEal SAO aateiiosar iy | Ssuewoser Marea, ‘yinalip gTa Sous Jo sastiodsay jo Aruung 01°97 ~ * en Me w ALOTEIE= BES'OPXLOII = OXHI= 2A Azot ELE = 81697 %L999= TRIS "A Aoot=stxia'9= wxI= tA B © o5 2 ore mo=gemore 0 si ‘remomeg son ont soon Aulées ey, sone gs # ovis uy psseuoo of gz Jo PRE ITU PEE 3G] JO SOMRTESE TN 19 Y sez aT EE “hy simp UY anc Elcranics NBA Loge Approach 7 56 Alvemting Curent Theery a —— rarer capaeiiive east, b) always increases 2s the apyliad frequency increases . ©) any dacreees a th aesray ” average valno asa} ©) ismuninu tte seam gions Fons eet Fors uses: 70 27 When assries RLC seit operating ais recat frequency 9 waves (A and B) ad tte whi one leading an vhioh 2 iversooiane is rote tha io east rata, cgeblaeg compete wag ttn er hn 1) capacitive reseane in greater nn the inductive rentanee Serene Agree wt ty Q ve reaoianes is equal lo the capaci ©) thedifference between incutive and capacitive reactance is eqal to the sesistnce, 3. Assine-vaveis represented by the equation e = 22 Sin 942,61 volte. Use the equation to determine: (2) theamuplinde of the wave moximura value frequency in He 90H ‘yale of = at 2ms and Sms, (eossty, 177780) 50" MEBB6Y, 1 (©) Bevalva of eat a5* an ‘Two ac voltages ¥ ond v; have maxiimusa values of 10V and 20V eespeetivey. 4. The euent equation fore cient isi ~ 120 Sin 628. Detemine the: wo. (©) Frequency foot ©) emwewrent (oaeeas () value of after 2p from the start ofthe cycle pres07a) @)Trovalus of ot 108, 90" and 120% (40,8384:120K103, 923A) Ive junds v by 120° 5. A sine wave has a maximus value of 20 votts at a hequeney SOElz Use this valage n by 135 information to determine: 41. A22072is connected in series with a 200mEl across a 240, S0Hz supply. (2) tha offecive value 138500 Cateaate: (©) theavaregs value uote {@) theinductivereastanee (se,s320} (©) theequatonin ie ome = S_Sinot (220803H4 161) theampedance eeea} * ; uent 4. The fallesing we give vals meas over on al le {2 oun gene esarahtoon Sf aT Site nn sober tas 12 A 600 resietr i connected in series with. eee = ‘800, Ths cambineion is connected to 100¥ {Use asuitable scale to plot the wave and dotrmine the following © (@) Thetotal mpadence and dre che imped © theaveroge value 143174) (©) Thetotal euent 700A) (©) Thevellage weroas soak camapanen al cw ihe peso degra joey e1eor) fu017 me Caleulats 1B. A So,P is eoancotd in ones witha 2208 across e MOV, SoH supply. ‘7. ‘The following re values ofan aerating ea tale at 1° intervals over one hall Me copivevcalaee 16386212) ysl: (229,026 2) Hosea} 6530:7%, 55 95,74; 58,38, 22, Ls: 0 fe30,06 66,7160) (2) _ the voltage actess each component Plot the graph and detecnine the rms value and form factor, (7124316 4467 8 weegays 20 a8 ye Goon) pal © 60) PNG SM ‘Goat soy, soos, UES snyou yo SuspuEISPES ‘ue samy oy moan 1 ar ‘SE AxpuHooT? 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AL the ecaue ofthe alo is ates thal en appear hs changed, around tie auclous are elects, Bloons ve hg a Hats ven charge eon 0 planets move around the sun. Tho any aon equal the nmber of protons se. ll alam xe electrically mera ‘Alscoorsar ite al po fe, Ata dir fom one soos oy ie “The ub of protons in the niches 3.2.2 Elements ‘Tite universe is mode of fend ld elements, These sce the ba known elements, Silver, Gol and Uraniuny ers al example ‘maleticls that meKe up all matter, Coppes, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Germanium, of eleasente, At elements @ subst thai carinot be reduced or changed. 3. ELECTRON ORBITS OR SHELLS — ‘All elections wove around tre niles SeuurPmnnmenennenernmnee en ot ‘oi the Kael i Everything we see around us is made frow elements, The elements Aernselves cannot te #%2Pated K to Q. . produced by chemical combination ar separstion of other elements. : svenes sell, 3.2.3 Compounds Combinations of gfferent elements can corsbine to form compound. Water, sugar eal shell = meets @ sucew rst ore examples of eospounds. We can separate woler into ils original element, hydrogen and oxygen, But that is os far os We ean go, fr Htydragon ane oxygen ate bo “ laments, pape = 324 Molecules simliest paricle that 2 compound cun Ue reduced to YS? Sitdsgsaen fae ‘Boe found thal he eleetror: closest to che nucleus (inthe frst orbit hd the lx fore 3 break anes, For example, ifwe teks a grin of sugar and kept breaking Bt a8 small es it possibly could and yes stilt be sugar, we would th ‘ger. If we thes broke {inal again, the gar meleenie would change ‘Maximum number of cleetrons = 2x” svherea = abel , Me et). A molecule & @ smaltest quantity of matter thet can estat by ist Bg and sit retain all the propertias of the otiginal subutance (compar, A motecule consists of one or more atoms, 33 THEATOM ‘The ator is the smallest parole tht an element can be reducod to and atill Reape the ropertics ofthat element. 3.3.1 Structure of An Atom 1 eouduetors. These alms give ‘umber of electrons doerease. Shelroit sectors wes Pipe uct ofenatoncae sonny myn 1 SORES? ION ory Hos29f9 290% rt gamoaie a | unas TS SUT suome9|9 N28 9 vm gepurafopnonopanoseregn ore 5 TAS vet sag pots spas 2oUsTe8 HD 2 adoup si pat uaBAxo omy eo i ‘Banas ‘sven so0aIe4 DSL sm 0, lalla shal alalapshelatalels lalate] | wae O seed rom ua eS a a quouiora jeimen auc ones FYE if eat pam Apaysod at ot SEH 2 ane ' eae foal 82 nm fet gy news ye cans ra vecmngmaae NouLOE TS ONLLIEO NY NO ONLOW g30u0s 9 8 Tahag sneer eS “pons payer aN e208 PHTeh “nds letroles N24 Logical Apracch cp a olive valence shells. The valence shell of all lectrene g8 Comicon 4 jrfsctnitr etn mle ie lef i 3.7 IONIZATION «the number of electrons equ the ase an electron it heve:nes 1 3.8 ELECTRON MOVEMENT 3.8.4 Free Electrons Senianducrr Pryce 65 sane dirvoton, ‘se ampate of ourent is flow three amperes. Cuvent (yrnbal = 1.2 Direction Of Current Flow te clear fiom the atomic theory studied thus far ‘One ampere of current i defined ax the one coulomb past a given palat in one seco isis known as electron slow. When electrons move they cary their charge During the early days of electicalscienes it was positive to the nogat has fong, bean aceapte diestion of eatrent fom. ow. jeuly stated whieh convention is used. on oy Negev carpe GQ go B postive cage Bleck ‘Conventions Dow gh? Brest ofc toe 3.9. CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS ‘You have lezrat that all materials can bo cordutog am inset, or asemi- ccondoeter. They ate classifind so because of thei silty 1o conduct clecmnasty. Insaators are wvatetils that do not ccondul electricity. Seuuiconductors are mazarials that fell somewhere midway between conductors and insulates. Thiey dont conduct rs well as conductors, but can cay current. ‘heli. Good conducions of electricity ave 1 valenoe slectron, good| | -poxany g1'¢ omg ut tO ATONE ti “ann oo ind w FERRY = "OHNE 2 WOR wapaaied © euayeas soyanpuoaes adArn VY suosiooy9 2aue[24 pS SOS Toxpoue se an 91 WORE! ADH a8 o1 pasoyes sf amas ony, ouRIER ap MuTORE pot xumap 8 souLoue ago Ys Plog Apngaase smny (Ensue 0) SumoggSiou om) jo 240 0 poptog st ‘suono9|9 2ST pal “SERA HO poo (stra sina av 1 pangs) HE Soir ayanaco | above 7 wun PUES =H spoon sy 29d cons soronpe 40 ofA OP erate axl oy # pT BLE DEPHSPRICS | guOLONGNODINAS OISNIELKS FFE opot 0 uae sp ewe we gp un conn Hap ony Trader LENG A S| 2 FF an sonnorsa8 Moe pit Boo 3 “ Mea of (ool us we 1) spent hepa so soe we 1 ‘onidog Fe nog aout ur wonompue so 914 HL wm oe nn ed ip ws pet a rpaben i) WOU, TRE As so eH 30 “B04 wew men Tes WinINVERIZO NW NOOIS JO SUNLONYLS OWOLY OF + pao ssjanpon 2 asatag Sep) suonagaanagEA 7 aA SIAAPHODH AS “pmo af) svomDopp ASUByAA yaaa, OTOLleft unbound. This y available a5 ¢ curier of electron they ave known 2 ‘since the ilrinsic sexiconduotor has been doped with a controlled amenat of pentavalent stoma, thoce exists charge of an clecison is negative, fhe pe of matedal this formed is called Nozype moreria! whore N i for the negative charge of un leetron} “The purpose of Nye doping ist prodioe an abundance of electrons inthe miter and conduction is maialy bocause of tise eleotrens Oe RR AS ‘The Neype material is sll electricaly neutral No elvetrons have ‘een fost or gained but thay are available for condnction. ES P-type semiconductor materiat valent ator, like Boren, is aclded to a pure silioon exysta, the orp structaxe ‘The thrve boron valence electrons will form covalent bonds with theee neighbouring his, Hea jcon alom valencs electron lsewhere These srtvalent atoms are werefore fatrinsie semiconductar is doped with trivalent atoms, holes created far eect Pye es Task tw name of dearean Since the cage on a leis postive, this pe of tne eflned oa Pty mater QD eeroseergertg ites tet cont s ‘he pupor of Pape doping tw protic at ebunasey of Ble Shy mate end Condacdonis ain eons of taro ea @ meearaard 0 eciat entra No elocons shave bet lost or gine 3.45 CURRENT IN SEHICONDUCTORS ial position. Henes, lorem. This concept direction apposite to that o strated i figure 3.12 OLD el Pp Ge eee ep EP ee GPP rg Su2 cerns ow “apparent” movement ‘A moore in depth ane that source tothe postive terminala te reed sige eens pO eyowar od ej ep 05 Young) aioe ag pe soyen a suoy ausod hae den @ gone ul pojeotdoe st scans soya oy nae snes pr yuaens af op 0 soon eon IN age uy ne 1 Bon og fuss a yO 32es} Oy, yard 298d ‘tp o} paride seq premised ZANE pea amy on poten yas jo 88s POUAP soy 8 PT $f UONATINN OU URL wonounf Nd © pandde Seid ON F2h'E spare sso our a p29] 91°F WoNODS oy 9 ZO} PHN -qnosta 30 sag # 0 prquayed go won yosorx9 om Sf FEEL NOLLONTE-Nd HOLONGNOOMWES SHL ONISWIE Ze ue Tal oyun a ova mnovcimaing ATER ort eer poeamniy uromous 30179 worn mnt sood W, 2ouDteTFP seqjoa Vv soup pavsjed og, togeumb a BOOMS] ALO ArostNON Pay Ago Aprocnoudde = pum rag porored © Sn, Sioucey ons Hp WOMEN SIS UTA ‘needa pam yeabo aan sr977m GH ‘SdAieN 2th say paged jo JonEeg omy AG pa Qe Apes uogoop asm spedat yor “wor exqaou Sr pemqem add omc) TRuBVEM adA-N emf War} HOPS pe com mong] gumeueis eau ey, wo auou e sa0ceg pus nome exo cf iD (esa) sondoon woos “musta oo MY OL Pip Sourav Loss oem sour ABN Wor sased © DUNN SM PAE OP Tey puajoncywed) arore aovcop yous ‘ssn ond “pamtz9soon SP, TO! Tome Jo woea: au soey 0 Ayldns xe os) Jaq) PSHE) vf eompunt sp Yee os AY Bem? & mc) PaLIaK FTE S| peucoy SAIN LOAOUNENA eM {Po met optus « yo apis oun ont pS2npom NOLONAI-Nd YOLONGNOOINSS AHL BE vey py ¥ NO PT OL4 Semiconductor Diodes {onto Aller you have completed this unit you stosle be sb to: © Tdsally and draw the symbol fora diode Explain the oparstion, draw the ci > Zener die » LED > Photo diode 4.4 INTRODUCTION ‘This vail eomlains very inpostanl and basic concepts of diodes, Tho concepts of how these diodes operate and how they we appliot are fundamentally important in your emleavour lo muster electronics. Therefore, you should be able to explain lee prinaiples instead of morely memorising them, 4.2. THE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE ‘This snears thatthe diode gots when it is revere-bissed, fp. asrve orn diode ‘The semiconductor diode Ws a two-terminal PN- Jinetion device It has a tow resistance when Porward-biased, and « high resistance when reverse. ‘biased ‘2 conductor wheu formusd biased and as an insulator ) shows the symbol and fig4.1f) the characteristic Senieanductor Oot 15 aay Pusan 0. esau oe gmt aa ign ee retest rede al rt anufactured fede. The diode points in Use crestion of ) flow, and therefore eleciton flow is Irom eathodo to anode Forthe diode fo be forwerd-biased and allow cuvent (erwaxd extent to flow, the anodes always be approximately 0,6 f0 0,7¥ (Si) or 0,2 to 9,3¥ (Ge) mere positive than iodo ‘oem the characteristic curve thal for cuvent to Now (fonvard bies mode), 03 ¥ la voltage) is needed to overcome the banter potent for geranium diode anc 06 ¥ fur silicon dodo. If the bias voltage is less then the tiveshold voltage, 20 ‘conduction will take place. Tn reverse biss, erly the leakage current flows. This euront GE the breakdown yotioge is reached, and itis roferred to a8 the 43° RECTIFICATION ‘The consumer electricity supply isin the foe of @sinusoidh! a Is the process af converting an voliaga to a unidirectional voltage-uapounfxig 00 wotlos oyeydop pow sowreg egustod a wow eauaR HP 7p YowAE © Bete NL posog-ssmant (a) remy pear st yeu sorendo 9posp © Ay 90800 vonomhNd (2) go woe ou saxginns Jo PHP eG HK AALS idop sore pun Hop oN i core © awn Sano ‘yorsamdoue oxnoenq ose we woe SA, ‘seomana snddoo oarmongs SMUD OTR NIL wor aagyod 6 _noap peo psu woe pe wos oy Ayo. apg "ore PU SION 1 prm etonpuaoni38“Ie1oN p00 OE 5 SuayoRLAD oy SUM I MOA WE wy Tog ‘Fao woos tig oenpUORAS TTD RS aa Pee RPT | maT STINT | SOR TRI ON Seen opEM a TESA e “yas oSlyp Ajofout se paquasop uoztoiy pu vogonpace 9 sunans fous ap ane euaper EARN UT 81 rete payee sy sU039079 08a Hema go eT OL, “ETT pares reopen s0 soy nny Jo spun poanyao 30 wpe aeREP AL OTL san See Yeap UOTONPLOD isjoamns wekioand y “Sit pap 1 suauoFD 9OURRA “ae sojjesut uv pu srsnpuen ojo EN veaaae pogTSee USI), oO aegy SAO ABOU FOUDTTAALOD om ‘lous sessascod uot orm ¥ sposie Samo He UO we wR FOI SAD SON “eae fgpeouneaye ave LY 3 YDS UY 2 ge 9g oo Se sense gg pu" sayao90 ve Suse se DaUyeP eH =THENL 17 Jano ep Jo pony to feo upto Sosa ese OLIN V Ferre pa $f douj9f We poe £4 ONS WORE A pays us TET go saquasn 3 STA sess pu stots BuynoME) 9:9 aye4lusoD AyB=Ne PI $.391URKANOMWATVAESTES JE] sauna uogeonyes ome x0u oy a Wa HR BOO] Jour we eR! ue THD YN aTAD-HEA] moth yen ausenn9 Ago av, SM YORE 19g Jorserod ops aan odin my saan jo ape uy, poored aotciog oy spre EN rrutaps9 tg Jo Aramod 4 pemsley bey aN ee PMT @LIndustral terranes NZ‘ A Lgiel Appr 44 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION During the positive halFeyole of (Hig. 4.2) when A is positive with reapeet to B then SenienducreDreet a Operation positive with respect to B, diate Dis forward When ‘with respect to B, diode Dy is forwarde 1 The resulting oulpul voltage has a 482 Fe tek Bre ware cerca (ahve shen corer tag wasn ‘Phin Operation The cieuit in fig. 4.4 is called a bu ‘without ihe use ofa centre-tapped ‘When point © is positive with respect and condivet with euurent loving te and Dy are reverse-biased and non-conducting,cana sneer (er pom fyanum Jona op #8 9 paBG}O HE om 2 Paetpsaug ug veda oro Jou 1 OTP UOH-AMER HAIN Ae eee ayn dquo hy. apo wosodn yl TaNEeWoM Jo WH LIU VO SANS Sea Ager anaby vr unos a oper Seiaz © JO SEHLAPEP UN om, “sonsqayonsey> 1A aporp s9tleZ LP sroyepBax afeiroa 20 snounsrer Boye e# pa AIpatszons pu soponp sus suo ANDO SAPO NER! RI PH UAE ROS opm nnn yw sopoesgoxpaay 2 pasa Smad mining mone! ATE TE ho joy suspsppacy Mayes] OM a pcr Hon quesmo asvexen cB ARAL eee pry apo) UONDURENG SCOT IM OM UOREPUO SPONDS! ‘pun sao waNaz 27 pre nan oBreyoene ot SUEDTPOS ssoqod se po FUN fron soroede> op Ye, sarous sq, see Ane fap go aco aan ox) 30) OY TDA EOL seasafp uo YE Tajo poss a0) z9upoa abe gE 101) IE rang at Jo wound SL, e994 2 ee @ Tree angus pseire exo Soot angen ym rm sof wT PE a cs ee arse OS dows soysedes Sunpoouis - soynocs anemins Zoe peoyany see simon ci 3: emaden og © puso oss alton weno feuoHH940 soyststen dNe we jo uonesade aiseg FES somes an oan ou px sah sn SAT NO HRY SES eS nung note 9 3 es eae evowsnine 1 8 ‘soy yussano WoaPOTA ee aupinod conn ay awojzonp 24 m2 Sons nian? PINOT ED “xo nn pu (a s HTEN A San 0 pnd aBeyon amp 1 SONA FS panos wag 938 soy YD a) pe HD OT on Gowail 10 Ag Atpurxoxke) aayesod ‘apes St 84900 OFF. JO 0700 NAL oy yuo peHOLHOANOD aoysrsuey NaN we ouoneiada sea 9S ‘offen sens pam o8ee cron ain Buon antes om vd npn etm ey ATE ON Roy cae anger sev pm 3521p ot SAB pORaAD PERS fie yo eov28Ke 38 BepeDiL con o1 ap Aa. 386q a Jo WORHON HIDE PRE HH DEE UL yg SINT APE UOTE HE soa wt pus poonde foun Kaan a8 suo aunE vung xy svt emuesSelp JO peony pay aN anBHOHA NEP88 “nai lets Nes A tage Agere fl Trasistrs 29 5.62 Transistor as a switch ‘corresponiling inereass in collector et base current weuld cause a. nd the Leap would burs even ba 5.6.4.1 Common Emitter ‘The eirouit is called the common emitter, sines the ‘omitteris common le both impal avd output terminals 5 i “The common emiter configuration tas 2 780 phe Ghpe betwen input and ouput and the te, vy Ay va J tis psiton he tenors OFF (ealesaweaghand “eS commonly used ‘because it baa a reosonebly high | the lexop is off cent and olnge ieee ifference between a transistor used as a switch or as an amplifier, 32 oth an input and an ott uve. For our purposes we will sagt ehamucledisc curve only (Se three regions te transistor can canott regen restr region Is base-emitter janction ' Whan the transistor operates in | fe forward biased and hose col Ironsistorfurctions as an a | vary tom fow mili-volls wo 1 (forvardebiased and the transistor is turred fully"an”. The collector is sligvly leas (han O.6V, A coumistor is operated in the saluated reg slectzonis ite The transistor acts as a switch If the input base i @ current (Ig) ts verted over a wide range to cuuse te transistor ta site fully ON (saturated region) aud OFF (cutoff region). ‘malebing purposes.eat wereig pues Joma ig sf pau‘ SUNN SE we sung savonienpousnnsPurpues msn Atenus pos ap. Jo cosAEEI SL neyo} 5) drys ge 9 9 su ose sty on PUTS a Jo ATEN Tey ox joan eq 0 AYE HD Sea DUMOGo} Ne MEME wy Jo AUN HL ‘pot eyo spun oy on 5 6p oN A aE aan ea amare poudoow Nop pasts] yeuae pene ‘ASN “USHEAM GNNOS ONRENSVAN T'S 4B 28 npumos seo eo 5104 “aso yuma Aum 244 090"? 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AMA, sw sLOURRES FausoTHH AIPHBES APOIPUL camara nouvewnass El me ‘nopies 2000 ‘on 9 poswsado «7 21 form aso puis woyoanges ‘xojeq papmea 5] proamno osvg sm pire wo xa ‘propos aig fi smfyche wo 50 520 snsad — —TE ly Ry 2 SNE NL PSP 06