Received: 27 March 2019 Revised: 17 June 2019 Accepted: 18 June 2019

DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12461

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The microstructural, melting, rheological, and sensorial

properties of high-overrun frozen desserts

Samantha R. VanWees | Scott A. Rankin | Richard W. Hartel

Department of Food Science, University of

Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Abstract
Air incorporated during dynamic freezing influences the development of the micro-
Correspondence
Richard W. Hartel, Department of Food structure and the final texture of frozen desserts. Frozen desserts were man-
Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, ufactured with 100–175% overrun from a constant ice cream mix formulation.
1605 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706.
Email: rwhartel@wisc.edu Microstructural elements (fat, air, and ice phases) of the frozen desserts were then
investigated and related to the melting, rheological, and sensory properties of the
Funding information
Hatch grant product. Mean ice crystal and air cell size were found to decrease with increasing
overrun, and the extent of fat destabilization increased. Frozen desserts man-
ufactured with higher overrun had slower drip-through rate and better shape reten-
tion after melting at ambient conditions, demonstrating that fat destabilization and
the interplay of fat, air, and serum phases affect the melting behavior. Structural ele-
ments also influenced the rheological behavior, as measured by oscillatory thermo-
rheometry. Frozen desserts had similar rheological properties at temperatures below
the freezing point due to the presence of ice, and the values of G0 and G00 (solid-like
and viscous-like character, respectively) increased with increasing overrun above the
freezing point, corresponding to a more solid-like structure. Slight differences in sen-
sory denseness and breakdown were detected, but sensory texture was not signifi-
cantly different for the frozen desserts studied. This study provided insights into the
role of air in ice cream and frozen desserts, and its influence on product texture.

KEYWORDS
frozen desserts, ice cream, microstructure, overrun, rheology, sensory

1 | I N T RO D UC T I O N of frozen desserts, including but not limited to product hardness,

In the United States, frozen dessert is a broad term that describes
confections similar to ice cream that do not adhere to the legal stan-
dard of identity (Food and Drug Administration, 2016). Ice cream and
frozen desserts are multiphase systems that contain ice crystals, air
cells, partially-coalesced fat clusters, individual fat globules, and an
unfrozen serum phase. The microstructure of frozen desserts is deter-
mined by the ingredients used, formulation and processing variables,
and the conditions under which it is stored, and influences the texture
This article was published on AA publication on: 28 June 2019.
scoopability, creaminess, or iciness (VanWees & Hartel, 2018).
Overrun is defined as the percentage increase in volume as a
result of air incorporation relative to the original volume of mix
(Goff & Hartel, 2013). While the overrun of a product is not defined
in the federal standard of identity, most United States ice creams con-
tain less than 100% overrun to ensure that they weigh no less than
539.2 kg/m3 (4.5 lb/gal) defined in the standard of identity. In general,
products containing greater than 100% overrun (50% air by volume)
are thus commonly considered frozen desserts in the United States.
High-overrun frozen desserts have gained popularity in recent years
as a reduced-calorie alternative to ice cream (Goff & Hartel, 2013).

92 © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jtxs J Texture Stud. 2020;51:92–100.

VANWEES ET AL.
By incorporating more air into the microstructure of the frozen des-
sert, the fat, sugar, and calorie contents per serving are reduced.
Air is a unique component of frozen desserts, as it is both a formu-
lation and a process parameter. It is incorporated during the freezing
process, and ultimately influences the final composition and weight of
the frozen dessert. The overrun, as well as the size distribution of air
cells, influences the physical properties and the sensory texture of a
product (Warren & Hartel, 2014).
The complex microstructure of frozen desserts develops during the
dynamic freezing process, during which air is incorporated as overrun.
As the unfrozen mix is churned in the scraped surface freezer, some
water freezes to ice, fat globules interact and partially coalesce, and air
cells are trapped in the viscous matrix. The air cell size is reduced as the
mixture continues to freeze and plays a role in the development of
additional structural elements (Chang & Hartel, 2002a).
Frozen desserts can be described as a solid foam, and contain both
solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. The ice crystals, fat and serum
phases, and the air cells influence the viscoelastic behavior of the fro-
zen and melted frozen dessert. Wildmoser, Scheiwiller, and Windhab
(2004) showed that when frozen, the viscoelastic character is primar-
ily dependent on the ice phase, whereas when melted, the air and fat
phases govern the rheological behavior of frozen desserts.
The sensory texture of frozen desserts is one of the most charac-
teristic features of the product yet is very difficult to characterize.
Freezing the product leads to the development of structural elements
that influence the sensory properties of the product, but the formula-
tion and storage conditions also play a critical role. In general, a desir-
able frozen dessert has a smooth texture created by a fine dispersion
of many small ice crystals and air cells (VanWees & Hartel, 2018).
The role of air in frozen desserts is understudied in the literature.
Studies have shown that overrun influences the structural elements,
such as ice crystals and air cells (Sofjan & Hartel, 2004; Warren &
Hartel, 2018) as well as the melting (Muse & Hartel, 2004; Sakurai,
Kokubo, Hakamata, & Yoshida, 1996; Warren & Hartel, 2014) and
rheological properties (Goff et al., 1995; Wildmoser et al., 2004) of ice
cream. With an increasing number of health-conscious consumers
seeking dessert alternatives, high-overrun frozen desserts may be a
valid option. To date, there have been no studies exclusively on high-
overrun frozen desserts published in the literature. The objective of
this study was to evaluate and understand the structural, rheological,
melting, and sensory texture of high-overrun frozen dairy desserts.
2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 | Formulation
Ice cream mixes were manufactured from cream, nonfat dry milk pow-
der, and sugar (Babcock Hall Dairy Plant, Madison, WI). Nonfat dry
milk powder was supplied by Dairy America (Fresno, CA), and sugar
was supplied by Domino Foods (Yonkers, NY). Ice cream mixes were
formulated to contain 12.0% fat, 11.3% milk solids nonfat, and 16.9%
sucrose. Ice cream mix also contained 0.2% Germantown Premium Ice
Cream Stabilizer, a proprietary stabilizer blend of carrageenan, guar
93
gum, and locust bean gum (Danisco, University Park, IL), 0.12% mono-
and diglycerides (Grindsted PS 211; Danisco, New Century KS), and
0.03% polysorbate 80 (Avapol™ 80 K sorbitan monooleate; University
Park, IL). The total solids content of all manufactured ice cream
mixes was 40.4 ± 0.1% and the freezing point depression was
2.77 ± 0.01 C. The same ice cream mix formula was used to manufac-
ture all frozen desserts.
2.2 | Processing
A jacketed mixer (Stephan Food Processing Machinery, Hamelin,
Germany) was used to combine the ice cream mix ingredients. Nonfat
dry milk powder, sucrose, stabilizers, and emulsifiers were added to
cream and water and heated until the mixture reached 85 C, ~12 min.
The ice cream mix was homogenized on a two-stage homogenizer
(Manton-Gaulin MFG Co. Inc., Everett, MA), with 13.8 MPa (2000 psi)
on the first stage and 3.4 MPa (500 psi) on the second stage. Ice
cream mix was then immediately cooled to 10 C in the jacketed Step-
han mixer before being aged overnight at 4 C.
A laboratory-scale continuous freezer (Hoyer Frigus KF 80 F, Tetra
Pak Hoyer Inc., Aarhus, Denmark) was used to manufacture high-
overrun frozen desserts. The conditions inside the freezer were
controlled for every condition; the only change in processing was the
volume of air added during processing. Dasher speed was set to
500 RPM, cylinder pressure was set to 358.2 kPa (±10.55 kPa), and
products were frozen to −6.0 ± 0.3 C. Frozen desserts were packaged
in 473 mL containers and hardened at −29 C for 2 hr before being
stored at −29 C until further analysis. Ice cream mixes were man-
ufactured and frozen in triplicate.
2.3 | Overrun measurements
The overrun was measured at the beginning, middle, and end of freez-
ing to ensure consistent product output. The overrun was found by
weighing a fixed volume of mix (177.4 mL) and frozen dessert
(177.4 mL) and calculating the percentage of air incorporated to the
fixed volume of mix (Goff & Hartel, 2013). Frozen desserts were man-
ufactured with overrun values of 100% (100.2 ± 1.26%), 125%
(125.3 ± 1.02%), 150% (149.9 ± 1.35%), and 175% (175.4 ± 1.18%).
2.4 | Microstructure analysis
Instrumental analyses of microstructural elements were conducted
within 7 days of manufacturing and were conducted in triplicate.
2.4.1 | Ice crystals
Ice crystals were observed using optical microscopy in a refrigerated
glovebox previously described by Donhowe, Hartel, and Bradley
(1991). The glovebox was set to −15 C and an optical microscope
(FX-35DX, Nikon, Inc., Garden City, NY) was used to take photos of
ice crystals at ×40 magnification. Frozen desserts were tempered for
12 hr at −20 C and then 2 hr at −15 C before observation. A small
94
piece of frozen dessert from the center of the container was placed
on a chilled slide and one drop of a 50:50 mixture of pentanol and
kerosene was added to disperse crystals. A cover slip was place on
top of the crystals and images were captured using computer imaging
software (OPTIMAS v6.1 Optimas Corp., Meyer Instruments Inc.,
Houston, TX). Approximately 20–30 images were captured for each
container. At least 300 ice crystals were traced using Microsoft Paint
and enumerated using Image Pro Plus (Version 7.0 Media Cybernetics
2009, Rockville, MD).
2.4.2 | Air cells
Air cells were measured using the same refrigerated glovebox noted
above according to the method of Chang and Hartel (2002b). Frozen
desserts were tempered at −20 C for 12 hr then 2 hr at −15 C before
observation. Two 25 × 25 mm coverslips were glued 2 cm apart on a
glass slide to create a well (125 μm deep) and the slide was chilled to
−15 C. A small piece of frozen dessert from the center of the con-
tainer was placed in the center of the well and a 25 × 25 mm coverslip
was gently placed on the sample. The temperature of the glovebox
was slowly raised to −6 C (1–2 C per minute) to melt some ice crys-
tals and allow air cells to raise to the coverslip for enumeration. Air
cells were visualized at ×40 magnification using an optical microscope.
Approximately 10–15 images were captured using Optimas computer
imaging software for each container. Approximately 300–400 air cells
were traced and enumerated using Image Pro Plus.
2.4.3 | Fat particles
The fat particle size distribution was measured using laser light scat-
tering (Malvern Mastersizer 2000, Malvern Instruments Ltd.,
Worcestershire, UK). Samples were stored at 4 C for no more than
24 hr prior to analysis. Deionized water (refractive index [R.I.] 1.33)
was used to disperse the milkfat in melted frozen dessert and ice
cream mix (R.I. 1.46). Liquid samples were added dropwise until the
laser obscuration value reached 13–15%.
The extent of fat destabilization in the sample was calculated from
the peaks in the light scattering curves (Goff & Hartel, 2013). Homog-
enized, aged ice cream mix exhibits two characteristic peaks: one rep-
resenting casein micelles (0.2–0.4 μm) and one representing milkfat
globules (0.6–1 μm). Ice creams and frozen dairy desserts exhibit a
third peak (10–50 μm) representing partially-coalesced fat clusters.
The percentage of destabilized fat was calculated using a ratio of the
volume of destabilized fat (third peak) in melted frozen dessert to the
volume of fat present (second peak) in the aged mix.
The presence of destabilized fat was confirmed using optical
microscopy (Nikon Labophot-2 microscope, Tokyo, Japan). Liquid
samples were diluted with deionized water and placed on a chilled
glass microscope slide to prevent further melting. A cover slip was
placed on top and samples were viewed at ×400 magnification.
VANWEES ET AL.
2.5 | Melting behavior
Melting behavior was measured using a drip-through test, similar to
the method described by Bolliger, Goff, and Tharp (2000). Frozen des-
serts were removed from storage at −29 C and were tempered for
12 hr at −20 C before being analyzed. A slab of frozen dessert was
cut from the middle third of a 437 mL container using a chilled knife.
The slab (height: 2.8 ± 0.1 cm, diameter: 8.5 ± 0.1 cm) was weighed
on a scale and then placed on a wire screen (3 openings/cm) and
allowed to melt at ambient temperature (21.8 ± 0.3 C). Due to the
influence of overrun on product weight, a slab of constant volume
was selected to evaluate the samples. Preliminary evaluation deter-
mined that the height of the slab may influence the drip-through rate
(data not shown); therefore, the melting behaviors of frozen desserts
of constant volume were evaluated.
The sample that had dripped through the mesh was collected and
the weight was recorded automatically every 5 min for 480 min. The
relative amount (%) of frozen dessert that had dripped through the
mesh was plotted as a function of time and the slope of the linear por-
tion was used to measure drip-through rate (% min−1). The relative
amount that had dripped through is shown to account for the effect
of overrun on the weight of frozen desserts in a constant volume slab.
Melting behavior of frozen desserts was conducted in triplicate no
more than 7 days after manufacture.
2.6 | Oscillatory thermo-rheometry
Samples for rheological analysis were prepared in a refrigerated
glovebox at −20 C. A chilled cylindrical cutting tool was used to cut a
disk of frozen dessert with a diameter of 25 mm and height of 3 mm.
Samples were conditioned at −20 C for 2 hr before measurements.
A rotational rheometer (DHR-2, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE)
with parallel plate geometry (25 mm diameter) was used for rheologi-
cal analysis. The stepped bottom Peltier plate and upper plate were
cross-hatched to prevent slip. An upper heated plate element and a
moveable hood covering the parallel plate geometry were used to
ensure uniform temperature during measurements. The upper heated
plate was connected to an external cooling circulator (Fisher Isotemp,
Fisher Scientific, Hampton, NH) during low temperature analysis. A
modified solvent trap was used to prevent evaporation of the frozen
desserts during extended analysis.
Oscillatory strain amplitude sweeps (10 s−1 angular frequency)
were conducted at −15, 0, and 20 C to confirm that samples were
within the linear viscoelastic regime (LVR) for oscillatory measure-
ments. Within the LVR, the test may be carried out without
destroying the structure of the sample.
A temperature ramp test was used to evaluate the rheological
behavior of frozen desserts. The measurement temperature was con-
tinuously increased from −15 to 40 C and the storage (G0 ) and loss
(G00 ) moduli for the samples was recorded using TRIOS software
(TA Instruments, New Castle, DE). The storage modulus, G0 , describes
the elastic or solid-like properties of a material, and the loss modulus,
G00 , describes the viscous or liquid-like properties.
VANWEES ET AL.
The gap width was set to 1.8 mm for all measurements. Frozen
desserts were analyzed at a frequency of 1.59 Hz (angular frequency
10 s−1) and 0.01% strain from −15 to 0 C. To remain within the LVR
for melted frozen desserts, strain was adjusted to 0.1% strain from
0 to 40 C. Measurement temperature was increased at a rate of
 −1
0.5 C min . Measurements were recorded every 4 s for a total of
1,725 points. Frozen desserts were analyzed in triplicate.
2.7 | Sensory
Descriptive sensory analysis was used to understand the texture of
frozen desserts (Lawless & Heymann, 2010). Panelists from the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Madison (n = 14) were screened for interest and
availability, then trained for at least 20 hr on evaluation procedures
and an established lexicon (Appendix, Table A1). Frozen desserts were
cut into cubes (1 cm ) at −29 C, assigned a random three-digit code,
3 The mean air cell size ranged from 12.6 to 14.7 μm and decreased
and stored in labeled 60 mL sample containers. Samples were tem-
pered at −20 C for 12 hr before analysis and stored in a −15 C
glovebox during sensory analysis. Each sensory attribute (melt rate,
denseness, iciness, breakdown, greasiness) was evaluated individually
(one cube per attribute) and immediately to ensure accurate measure-
ment. Two replicate, blinded samples were evaluated during each ses-
sion (four samples per hour), and unsalted saltine crackers and water
were provided to prevent sampling fatigue. The sample preparation,
size, and sensory evaluation protocol were selected based on previous
research and recommended practices for descriptive sensory evalua-
tion of dairy products (Amador, Hartel, & Rankin, 2017; Lawless &
Heymann, 2010; Warren & Hartel, 2014). Sensory software (RedJade
Software Solutions, LLC, Boulder, CO) was used to assist in collecting
sensory data. Sensory analysis was conducted in duplicate.
2.8 | Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using statistical software (JMP Pro
14, SAS, Cary, NC). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests with
Tukey's honest significant difference (HSD) post-hoc analysis was
conducted to elucidate differences based on overrun. A confidence
level of 95% was used to denote significant differences. Regression
analysis was used to determine correlations between responses.
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 | Microstructure
The microstructural elements of the high-overrun frozen desserts are
displayed in Table 1. Overrun was seen to affect each of these struc-
tural elements to some extent.
The mean ice crystal size ranged from 24.9 to 29.2 μm, and only
frozen desserts manufactured with 100% overrun had statistically
larger mean ice crystal size. At higher overrun, the air phase volume is
larger and the serum lamellar thickness decreases. The lower ice crys-
tal size at increasing overrun levels may be due to the thin serum
lamella present between dispersed air cells. Serum lamellae that
95
T A B L E 1 Mean values of microstructural elements of high-
overrun frozen desserts
Mean ice Mean air Fat
Overrun (%) crystal size (μm) cell size (μm) destabilization (%)
100 29.2 ± 2.8a 14.6 ± 1.4a 68.2 ± 7.6a
125 25.1 ± 1.6b 14.7 ± 0.6a 72.3 ± 2.3a
b a,b
150 24.9 ± 1.4 13.3 ± 1.3 76.8 ± 2.6b
175 25.9 ± 1.7b 12.6 ± 1.0b 80.2 ± 2.9b
Note: Values in the same column not sharing the same letter are
significantly different at α < 0.05. Mean ± SD are shown.
separate air cells are concentrated with proteins, sugars, and polysac-
charides that may limit the mobility of water, preventing ice crystal
growth during hardening.
slightly with increasing overrun. The diameter of air cells in frozen
desserts manufactured with 175% overrun were significantly smaller
than those manufactured with 100% and 125% overrun. The mean air
cell sizes in all high-overrun frozen desserts were much smaller than
previously reported in the literature for ice cream (Amador et al.,
2017; Sofjan & Hartel, 2004; Warren & Hartel, 2014, 2018; Wild-
moser et al., 2004), though it is worth noting that the freezing param-
eters were modified to achieve very high overrun levels. While there
were observed statistical differences, the mean size and distribution
of air cells in these frozen desserts were very similar. This suggests
that there were a larger number of air cells present in 175% overrun
products compared to 100%, resulting in a larger number of air cell
interfaces that disrupt the continuous serum phase.
The percentage of destabilized fat increased with increasing over-
run. While there are numerous factors affecting the extent of partial
coalescence in frozen desserts, the presence of many small air cells
aids in the disruption of the milkfat globule membrane, which pro-
motes partial coalescence of discrete globules (Goff, 1997; Sofjan &
Hartel, 2004; Wildmoser et al., 2004).
Air cells are also known to increase the shear force in the freezing
barrel, thus increasing the likelihood of fat destabilization and reduc-
ing the size of air cells (Chang & Hartel, 2002a). The very high volume
of air incorporated during freezing resulted in increased shear force
and very high fat destabilization in the high-overrun frozen desserts.
3.2 | Melting behavior
The melting behavior of the frozen desserts was affected by the over-
run (Table 2). Previous studies have evaluated the melting properties
of ice cream and frozen desserts for only 120 min, but due to the
extensive fat destabilization and many thin serum lamellae between
air cells in the matrix, the time of the test was extended to 480 min to
fully elucidate melting behavior.
The melting behavior of the high-overrun frozen desserts provided
insight into the structuring role of air and the co-development of struc-
tural elements during freezing. Many microstructural elements are
known to influence drip-through properties, including stabilizer
96 VANWEES ET AL.

T A B L E 2 Mean values of melting behavior for high-overrun

frozen desserts

Drip-through Induction Total

Overrun (%) rate (% min−1) time (min) dripped-through (%)
100 0.30 ± 0.065a 33.1 ± 4.72a 43.8 ± 6.04a
125 0.29 ± 0.051a 37.2 ± 5.59a 39.2 ± 4.15a,b
a a
150 0.31 ± 0.059 34.3 ± 8.22 35.7 ± 2.54b
175 0.25 ± 0.055a 57.9 ± 14.1b 28.1 ± 5.53c

Note: Values in the same column not sharing the same letter are
significantly different at α < 0.05. Mean ± SD are shown.

F I G U R E 2 Fat globule size distributions of melted frozen desserts

manufactured with 175% overrun. Mean ± SD of distributions from
the dripped-through portion (Δ), remnant foam portion (□), and
melted frozen dessert (●) are shown

F I G U R E 1 Representative drip-through behavior of frozen

desserts manufactured with 100 (□), 125 (×), 150 (Δ), and 175 (○)
percent overrun. Mean ± SD are shown

selection and amount (Bahram-Parvar, 2015; Yuennan, Sajjaanantakul, &

Goff, 2014), fat destabilization (Koxholt, Eisenmann, & Hinrichs, 2001;
Muse & Hartel, 2004), and air cell distribution (Sofjan & Hartel, 2004).
In this study, the formulation of frozen desserts remained constant, so
any changes in melting behavior were influenced by the microstructural
elements, particularly partially-coalesced fat globules and air cells.
None of the frozen desserts studied fully dripped through the
mesh after 480 min (Figure 1). Light scattering and microscopy ana-
lyses confirmed that the foam remaining on the mesh contained pri-
marily partially-coalesced fat globules, trapped air cells, and serum,
while the dripped-through portion contained individual fat globules
and the diluted serum phase (Figure 2). The shape retention of the
frozen desserts was directly related to the increasing overrun, likely
due to the high fat destabilization and small mean air cell size.
Frozen desserts manufactured with 175% overrun retained their
structure and resisted dripping for nearly twice as long as other sam-
ples. The induction time (time elapsed before frozen desserts began
to drip) was significantly higher than all other samples, and the drip-
through rate was also slightly slower. The slower drip-through rate
may be because of the higher percentage of destabilized fat observed
in the frozen dessert manufactured with 175% overrun; however, the
influence of fat destabilization was not noted at other overrun levels.
F I G U R E 3 Plot of drip-through rate as a function of fat
destabilization for frozen desserts manufactured with 100 (□),
125 (×), 150 (Δ), and 175 (○) percent overrun (R2 = 0.4684)
The high volume of many small air cells in this treatment aided in the
destabilization of fat during freezing and disrupted the serum phase
during melting, thus affecting the melting behavior.
The drip-through rate did not singularly correlate with fat destabi-
lization (R2 = 0.4684, Figure 3), suggesting that other factors
influenced the drip-through rate of the high-overrun frozen desserts.
During the drip-through test, ice crystals melt and dilute the serum
phase. Diluted solutes, such as proteins, sugars, and polysaccharides,
as well as discrete fat globules must travel a tortuous path between
dispersed air cells and partially-coalesced fat cluster networks to drip
through the mesh. With more and larger fat globule clusters, serum
drips more slowly, less diluted serum is able to drip through, and the
foam retains its shape atop the mesh. The complex structure and
interplay of the serum, fat, and air phases contribute to the drip-
through resistance of the frozen desserts, affecting both the drip-
through rate and the shape retention.
VANWEES ET AL. 97

3.3 | Oscillatory thermo-rheometry
The three zones of rheological behavior originally proposed by Wild-
moser et al. (2004) were observed in this study, as well as a fourth
zone above 20 C. Figure 4 demonstrates the rheological behavior of
frozen desserts manufactured with 100% and 175% overrun. These
two treatments were selected to represent the influence of overrun
(OR) on rheological properties for the entire range of high-overrun
frozen desserts studied (Table 3).
From −15 to −10 C (Zone I), the rheological parameters for the
frozen desserts are primarily determined by the ice phase, resulting in
0 00
consistently high values for G and G , and values for tan(δ) of
0.72–0.83 at −15 C. The steep decrease in both G0 and G00 from −10
F I G U R E 4 Storage (G0 , open symbols) and loss (G00 , filled symbols)
modulus of representative frozen desserts manufactured with
100 (□, ) and 175 (○, ●) percent overrun. Mean ± SD are shown
to −2.77 C (Zone II) represents the melting of the ice phase and sub-
sequent dilution of the serum phase. In Zone II, the tan(δ) values reach
a maximum then sharply decline as the ice phase melts. The rheologi-
cal behavior in this temperature range is governed by both the melting
ice phase, fat destabilization, and the serum and air phases.
At temperatures above the freezing point (−2.77 ± 0.1 C), the
structural stability and rheological response of melted frozen desserts
is determined only by the fat, air, and serum phases (Zone III). The fro-
zen desserts in this study were manufactured from an identical formu-
lation, so it is likely that predominantly the fat and air phases explain
differences in G0 and G00 above −2.77 C. These elements impart stiff-
ness and resistance to structural collapse, explaining the relatively
constant slope at moderate temperatures. From −2.77 to 20 C, the G0
values were consistently higher than G00 values for all frozen desserts,
corresponding to a more solid-like character in the product. In this
region, the tan(δ) reached a minimum at approximately 0 C (tan
(δ) = 0.19–0.22).
Above 20 C (Zone IV), a larger fraction of milkfat triglycerides
melt and air cells grow according to the ideal gas law, which disrupt
the structural integrity of the melted frozen dessert and reduce the G0
and G00 values. There is a larger decrease in G0 than G00 and a subse-
quent increase in tan(δ), representing the loss of solid-like character in
the frozen dessert. At 22 C, the temperature at which the drip-
through test was conducted, the magnitude of G0 and G00 increased
with increasing overrun and the tan(δ) ranged from 0.27 to 0.31.
At temperatures above 30 C, a significant portion of the milkfat
triglycerides are liquid and the G0 and G00 values of all products are
nearly identical, and tan(δ) increases as temperature increases. The tan(δ)
remains at a value below one at body temperature (tan(δ) = 0.44) due to
the stable fat network in the frozen desserts. The values of G0 and G00 of
melted frozen desserts above 37 C are primarily due to the behavior of

TABLE 3 Selected rheological responses of high-overrun frozen desserts measured at −15, 0, 22, and 37 C

Temperature ( C) Overrun (%) G0 (kPa) G00 (kPa) tan(δ)

−15 100 4,550 ± 2030 a
3,710 ± 1,660 a
0.83 ± 0.034a
a a
125 4,830 ± 896 3,870 ± 831 0.79 ± 0.033a
150 4,310 ± 1870a 3,320 ± 1,390a 0.79 ± 0.073a
a a
175 4,530 ± 731 3,250 ± 563 0.72 ± 0.013b
0 100 0.352 ± 0.071a 0.076 ± 0.013a 0.22 ± 0.014a
a a
125 0.521 ± 0.134 0.11 ± 0.030 0.20 ± 0.014a,b
150 1.01 ± 0.317b 0.20 ± 0.054b 0.19 ± 0.009a,b
b b
175 1.35 ± 0.346 0.26 ± 0.056 0.19 ± 0.008b
22 100 0.14 ± 0.028a 0.044 ± 0.0068a 0.31 ± 0.015a
a a
125 0.20 ± 0.040 0.056 ± 0.0089 0.29 ± 0.016b
150 0.32 ± 0.041b 0.087 ± 0.012b 0.27 ± 0.005b
b b
175 0.40 ± 0.10 0.108 ± 0.024 0.27 ± 0.010b
37 100 0.042 ± 0.004a 0.018 ± 0.0016a 0.43 ± 0.023a
a a,b
125 0.041 ± 0.041 0.018 ± 0.0010 0.44 ± 0.025a
150 0.039 ± 0.0059a 0.017 ± 0.0022a,b 0.44 ± 0.003a
a b
175 0.045 ± 0.0019 0.020 ± 0.0014 0.44 ± 0.009a

Note: Values in the same column at a given temperature not sharing a common letter are significantly different at α < 0.05. Mean ± SD are shown.
98 VANWEES ET AL.

the melted fat and the serum phases. Some air cells remain trapped in
the melted frozen dessert, but it is not likely that these dispersed air cells
play a significant role in the stability of the melted product.
The values of G0 and G00 were not significantly different at −15 C;
however, the rheological responses of melted frozen desserts were
affected by the overrun. At 0 and 22 C, frozen desserts manufactured
with 150 and 175% overrun had significantly higher G0 and G00 values
compared to those manufactured with 100% and 125% overrun. The
rheological responses of melted frozen desserts are primarily governed
by the fat and air phases (Wildmoser et al., 2004). For the high-overrun
frozen desserts studied, G0 was slightly correlated with fat destabiliza-
tion at 22 C (R2 = 0.5483, Figure 5); however, other factors such as air
cell distribution and the size and number of destabilized fat clusters also
affected the G0 of the samples. The structural retention of frozen des-
serts after 480 min was also correlated with the G0 response at 22 C
(R2 = 0.6613), where frozen desserts with high structural retention had
higher values of G0 (Figure 6). The rheological responses and the melting
behavior of the high-overrun frozen desserts are influenced by the com-
plexity of structural elements and particularly the relationships between
the fat, air, and serum phases.

0 
F I G U R E 5 Storage modulus (G ) at 22 C as a function of fat
destabilization for frozen desserts manufactured with 100 (□),
125 (×), 150 (Δ), and 175 (○) percent overrun (R2 = 0.5483)
0 
F I G U R E 6 Storage modulus (G ) and shape retention at 22 C for
frozen desserts manufactured with 100 (□), 125 (×), 150 (Δ), and
175 (○) percent overrun (R2 = 0.6613)
3.4 | Sensory
The sensory texture profiles of the frozen desserts studied showed
some significant differences with overrun (Table 4).
Sensory denseness was the only attribute that was significantly
affected by overrun. As expected, the significantly lower scores for sen-
sory denseness at very high overrun levels corresponded to the higher
amount of air in the product. The decreasing density of the frozen dessert
with increasing overrun was readily perceived by panelists. The mean size
of ice crystals in all frozen desserts studied was below the accepted
50 μm threshold for iciness (Arbuckle, 1966); therefore, all frozen desserts
had expectedly low scores for sensory iciness, and no significant differ-
ences were detected among the samples. Previous studies have also
shown that high fat destabilization masks the perception of iciness in ice
cream and frozen desserts (Amador et al., 2017), which may also explain
the low scores for iciness in these frozen desserts. While significant dif-
ferences in sensory melt rate and breakdown were detected among the
samples, there were no apparent trends with increasing overrun. The
scores for breakdown and melt rate in the frozen desserts may have been
due to the high degree of fat destabilization, as large fat clusters are per-
ceived as “un-melted” for longer and may hinder the breakdown and
structural disruption of the product. While not significantly different, sen-
sory greasiness increased slightly with increasing overrun. This is largely
due to the mouthcoating effects of destabilized fat clusters in ice cream
and frozen desserts (Amador et al., 2017; Warren & Hartel, 2014).
As shown previously, there was no correlation between sensory
melt rate and ambient drip-through rate (Amador et al., 2017; Guinard
et al., 1997; Warren & Hartel, 2014). Frozen desserts manufactured
with 175% overrun, had significantly slower ambient drip-through rate,
but the sensory melt rate was slightly higher than those manufactured
with 125 and 150% overrun. The sensory melt rate may have been

T A B L E 4 Descriptive sensory panel scores on a 15-point numerical scale for melt rate, denseness, iciness, breakdown, and greasiness for
frozen desserts manufactured with varying overrun

Overrun (%) Sensory melt rate Sensory denseness Sensory iciness Sensory breakdown Sensory greasiness
a a a a
100 8.7 ± 2.1 7.6 ± 1.3 1.1 ± 0.6 8.5 ± 1.6 1.4 ± 0.8a
a,b a,b a a,b
125 7.7 ± 2.3 7.2 ± 1.3 1.0 ± 0.7 7.7 ± 1.5 1.3 ± 1.0a
150 7.5 ± 2.6b 6.6 ± 1.5b 0.9 ± 0.6a 7.6 ± 1.5b 1.6 ± 1.0a
a,b b a a,b
175 8.3 ± 2.1 6.7 ± 1.5 1.0 ± 0.7 8.2 ± 1.9 1.7 ± 0.7a

Note: Means in the same column not sharing the same letter are significantly different at α < 0.05. Mean ± SD are shown.
VANWEES ET AL.
related to the microstructural composition of the frozen desserts, but
also the conditions of sensory texture analysis. During the ambient
drip-through test, no shear is applied during testing and warm air melts
the sample by convection. During sensory evaluation, the destruction
of the frozen dessert structure is accelerated as samples are melted by
the convective and conductive heat and humidity of the mouth, salivary
enzymes, and shear associated with the evaluation protocol.
The oscillatory rheological responses at 37 C provided some
insights into the physical texture of the high-overrun frozen desserts
in the mouth, however, there were no correlations between rheologi-
cal and sensory texture responses. This further confirms the necessity
of using structural, rheological, and sensory analysis to evaluate all
aspects of frozen dessert texture.
4 | CO NC LUSIO NS
The textural properties of high-overrun frozen desserts were affected by
the volume of air incorporated during dynamic freezing. The whipping
and freezing process created many small air cells that disrupted the serum
phase, resulting in smaller ice crystals and increasing the resistance
to melting. The high amount of air incorporated also created many large
fat clusters in the frozen desserts, thereby increasing the solid-like charac-
ter of the melted and frozen products. The high-overrun frozen desserts
had similar sensory texture, but products manufactured with very high
overrun resisted melting at ambient temperatures and had higher rheolog-
ical response moduli, corresponding to a more solid texture even when
melted. The addition of air during the freezing process influenced the
overall texture of these high-overrun products and may provide further
insights to the role of air in creating indulgent, low-calorie frozen desserts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge Rachel Fehring for her assistance in collecting
fat globule size data, and all sensory panel participants for their time and
commitment to the study. This project was funded by a Hatch grant.
ETHI CAL S TATEMENTS
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they do not have any
conflict of interest.
Ethical Review: The sensory evaluation component of the study was
approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
Informed Consent: Consent was obtained from all sensory panel
participants.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
S.R.V.W. and R.W.H. designed the study. S.R.V.W. conducted the
structural, rheological, melting, and sensory analyses, collected all
data, interpreted results, and drafted the manuscript. R.W.H. and
S.A.R. edited the manuscript.
99
OR CID
Richard W. Hartel https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3364-3745
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APPENDIX

TABLE A1 Definitions, techniques, and references for the attributes used for descriptive sensory analysis

Attribute Definition Technique References

Iciness Size of ice crystals
immediately detected by
tongue
Melt rate Time required for ice cream
to completely melt in
mouth
Denseness Compaction of cross-section
Breakdown Force required to manipulate
ice cream sample between
tongue and palate
Greasiness Degree of residual
greasy/fatty/oily coating
or amount of oil left on
mouth surface
Place sample in mouth, evaluate initial size of ice
crystals in the sample by manipulating between
tongue and upper palate no more than 4 times.
(Note: ice crystal size is determined by initial size,
not size during melting). Expectorate sample.
Place sample in mouth and gently press between
tongue and upper palate. Count time it takes for
sample to melt completely (“1–1,000” = 1 s). Time
for sample to melt corresponds to the numerical
score on the lexicon.
Place sample between molars and compress once for
1 s. Evaluate force required to compress sample.
Expectorate sample.
Place sample in mouth and manipulate ice cream
sample between tongue and upper palate 3–5
times. Evaluate force required to manipulate the
sample.
Place sample in mouth, allow it to melt completely.
Expectorate sample and evaluate residual grease
or oil on mouth surfaces.
1.5 = Pillsbury White Frosting (small particulates)
7 = Domino Granulated Sugar 12 = Orange
slice starch candy (very large particulates)
4 = Edy's Slow Churned Light Vanilla Ice Cream
(moderately fast melt rate) 7 = Breyer's Natural
Vanilla Ice Cream 11 = Häagen–Dazs Vanilla
Ice Cream (slow melt rate)
2 = Kraft Cool Whip Original Whipped Topping
(airy) 6 = Kraft Philadelphia Original cream
cheese 10.5 = Crystal Farms Sharp Cheddar
cheese (dense)
1 = Kraft Cool Whip Original Whipped Topping
(moderate force) 4 = Daisy Original Sour
Cream 8 = Kraft Philadelphia Original cream
cheese (moderately high force)
2 = ConAgra Reddi-Wip Original Whipped Cream
(slight) 6 = Kraft Philadelphia Original cream
cheese 11 = Filippo Berrio Extra Virgin olive oil
(very greasy)