Table 2.3: Trends in motorization Motor vehicles Passenger cars By income level/region per 1,000 people per 1,000 people 1990-2003 _ 1990 2003° World 118 147 31 700 By Income Low 5 8 3 6 Lower middle 22 39 10 29 Low & middle 25 47 16 35 Middle 37 69 24 5t Upper middle 124 187 1 143 High 499 623 390 433, By Region East Asia & Pacific 9 20 4 14 Europe & Central Asia 97 470 79 142 Latin America & Carib. 100 153 72 108 Middle East & N. Aftica 36 . 24 South Asia 4 10 2 6 Sub-Saharan Africa 24 . 15 . Europe EMU 429 570 379 502 a. Data are for 2003 or most recent year available, ‘Source orld Be ators (WD) (2008).Table 2.4: Automobile sector growth in different countries Country | Population | PerCapita | GDP _ Total Total Market GP Growth | automotive | automotive | growth (PPP) Rate | sales 2006 | production | 2006 (%) 2006 vs 2005 (%) China 7,321,651888 | USS7,700| 10.7] 7,182,720] 7,306,005] +224 (3,854,510) | (3,979,481)* India 1,129,866,154 | US$3,800 92 1,749,985, 1,958,671 +21.6 (1,026,574)* | (1,186,063)* Thailand 65,068,149 | US$9,200 48 682,055. NA -3.0 (191,522)* Japan 127,433,494 | US$33,100 2.2) 5,739,513 | 11,484,223 | 1.9 (4,641,735) | (9,756,515)* Malaysia 24/824 286 | 'US$42,900 89) ~~ 490,766 | 503,048 40.8 (439,792)* | (416,840)* Indonesia 234,693,997 | US$3,900 5.5 318,980 NA 40.3 (208,086)* Philippines 91,077,287 | US$5,000 54 99,538 NA +26 (40,555)* Vietnam 86 ,262/356 |“ US$3,100 a2 ai AT2 NA +166 (23,033)* Singapore “4,583,009 | US$31.400 7.9 | 146.087 NA) 58 (103,318)" Hong 6 (980,442 | USS37,300 | 68 30,065 NAT 22 Kong (22,682)" Taiwan 22,858,872 | US$29,500 46 306.433 303,237 314 (255,930)* | _(252,660)* Australia 20,434,176 | US$33,300 27 | 962.621 NA} 26 (761,675)" “passenger cars {countrynamel him le Inteligence web-site, http:Ihwww.seqmentY comfcountries hil or 2.2 Urban air pollution: impact on health and productivity Productivity loss, human health effects and economic damage from traffic congestion and air pollution are well documented (see Gorman 2002) and have received wide media coverage. As a result, public policies to address these problems are in place in most countries, but no city has been able to satisfactorily contain them. Some data regarding this issue are presented in Tables 2.5-2.8Table 2. 5: Air pollution scenario in different Asian cities Population | Particulate Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Country city thousands matter gi? ugim? 2005 ugim® 2002 1995-2001 1995-2005 ‘Anshan i) 32 115 88 Beij | 40849" 99 90) 1B Chengdu Chongquing | 4975) 0 Guiangzhit (China Gaiyany 7 3467) Harbin 2898) Jinan 2654 Kunming | 1748) Anzhou 1788) 101 102 104 ‘Shanghai 12665 if 53 73 Wuhan 6003 i 40 43 ‘Ahmedabad 5171 30 2 Bangalore 7 6533) , =f =| i | i i 1 1 (Chennai 6915 Delhi I 18334) 177 India ‘Hyderabad 7 6145) 48° Kanpur 3040 128 Lucknow 2589 129) Mumbai 18336 74 ‘Nagpur 2359 65 6 Pune I 4485) 58) = = indonesia Jakarta 13194 715 =| = Iran Tehran 7352 68 209 Osaka | 2626 37 19) 63 Japan Tokyo 36327 2 18 68 Yokohama’ 3366) 32 100 13, Malaysia ‘Kuala Lumpur 1392 28 24 = Philippines Manila 10432 42 33) >| Singapore ‘Singapore 4372 48 20 30 Thailand ‘Bangkok 6604 33 11 23 “Source: World Bank World Development indicators (WD), 2008. SSSTable 2.6: Health effects associated with common vehicular pollutants Pollutants Health effect Lead Ingestion of lead aerosols has been linked to cardiovascular disease, brain and kidney failure. Chronic effects include behavioural and development problems among children, elevated blood pressure, problems with metabolizing Vitamin D and anemia. Exposure to lead has also been associated with decreased sperm count in men, and increased likelihood of spontaneous abortion among pregnant women. Particulate matter voc Causes cardiopulmonary diseases, cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, lung cancer and other cancers. Toxic and precursor of ozone formation. It is also known to cause harmful effects on the immune system, the neural network and haemoglobin. NO) NO; has been shown to have toxic effects on human health including altered lung function, respiratory illness and lung tissue damage. co CO causes oxygen deprivation (hypoxia) displacing oxygen in bonding with haemoglobin. This can cause cardiovascular and coronary problems, increase risk of stroke and impair learning ability, dexterity and sleep. Ozone (Qs) Ozone is dangerous to human health: it interferes with respiratory functions, leads to reduced lung capacity and increases the intensity of lung infections, SOx So, is associated with various bronchial conditions, which can be acute even at relatively low levels of exposure for children and asthma patients. ‘Source: Adopted from Gwiliam, Kojima and Johnson (2004, p-152) and Gorham (2002, pp 76-86)Table 2.7: Relative problems of health-affecting pollutants in world mega-cities ‘Suspended particulate ‘Sulphur dioxide Name of cities [Serious [Moderate | Low Serious Moderate | Low problem | toheavy | pollution | problem | toheavy | pollution pollution pollution Bangkok V _ _ _ _ T Bejing v _ _ _ _ _ Bombay v - _ _ _ 7 Cairo v 2 = = = = Calcutta 7 _ _ _ - 7 Delhi T ~ _ ~ ~ 7 Jakarta 7 ~ ~ = ~ 7 Karachi 7 ~ _ _ _ 7 Manila al - = v = ¥ Mexico y _ _ Y _ _ ‘Seoul y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ‘Shanghai ~ 7 ~ ~ 7 ~ Buenos Aires ~ 7 ~ = ~ ~ Los Angeles _ q _ _ _ y Moscow _ 1 _ ~ ~ Rio de Janeiro ~ 1 _ _ y _ ‘Sao Paulo ~ 1 - - - v Tondon ~ Y ~ ~ 7 New York ~ ~ 7 ~ ~ 7 Tokyo _ _ Y _ _ y ‘Source: Based on date coniained in Garham (2002, pp.82 ~ 85). The economic damage caused by deteriorating air quality has yet to be comprehensively documented. Table 2.8 presents available evidence showing that the damage is less than two per cent of gross national income. The concern is that in the absence of progress in mitigating the problem, the damage will rise.Table 2.8: Air pollution related economic damage Region Carbon dioxide damage Particulate emission % of GNI 2004 damage % of GNI 2004 ‘China I 14 15 India 13 08 Indonesia o7 | 09 Iran | 17 09 Japan 02 06 Malaysia Philippines _ Singapor ‘Thailand East Asia & Pacific Middle East & N Africa South Asia World ‘Source: Based on World Bank (2006), World Development Indicators Table 2.9: Motor vehicle, passenger car and PM:o concentration in different regions Particulate matter Motor vehicles Passenger cars concentration Region Per 1000 people Per 1000 people | Urban population weighted | Po (git) 1990 | 2003 1990 | 2003 1990 2002 World East Asia & pacific 7 Middle East & N ies 36 a 24 = 126 89 ‘South Asia Europ eet ae 97 170 79142, 39 36 Latin America & Cad 100 15972108 60 43 ‘Sub-Saharan Rekee 2 15 - 114 73 Europe EMU. 426 870 | 378509 33 27 ‘Source: World Bank World Development Indicators, 2008. Despite the increase in vehicular emissions such as CO;, the global increase in the number of motor vehicles has thus far made no significant contribution to the increase in PMo air pollution, Although it is believed that the transportation sector contributes to PMc, the record shows that an increase in the number of motor vehicles does not necessarily increase PM pollution. Table 2.9 illustrates this.