Development of

Economic
Thought
ECON128

Dr. Sarah Louisa Phythian-Adams

email: slpa@liverpool.ac.uk

Image: Birmingham Museum Trust

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Contents

Contents ..................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 1: FROM ANTIQUITY TO PRE-ENLIGHTENMENT ERA ........................ 5
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Ancient Greece ................................................................................................. 5
Timeline ............................................................................................................... 5
Ancient Greece .................................................................................................... 5
1.2 The Roman Economy (to Middle Ages) .......................................................... 10
1.3 Religious perspectives .................................................................................... 11
1.4 12th C – Emergency of Universities ................................................................. 13
1.5 Emergence of ‘modern world’ view ................................................................. 14
1.6 The Reformation & Rise of European Nations ................................................ 15
Chapter 1 References ................................................................................................ 17

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Introduction
This module will be taught over 12 weeks in the first semester of the first year.
The module will therefore consist of 12 weekly of:
 2 hrs live lecture
o Here I will help to introduce you to the characters and theories across
the timeline [Lecture notes are available]
 1hr small group seminar with your Academic Advisor
o Here you will discuss answers to questions drawing out themes and
interesting points from the lectures.
This module will be assessed in 3 parts as follows:
• 10% Participation Mark (participating in group discussions & seminars) – this
is confirmed by submitting your notes from the seminar tutorial discussions
WEEKLY. Marks awarded on a pass/ fail basis (with partial marks given in
some circumstances).
o NOTE: Here the mark is awarded from your ‘best 10’ from 11 weeks
submissions.
• 20% ‘Essay marking’ assessment (online test) (discussed in week 7 class)
• 70% Individual Essay Question – 3hr open-book* exam.
*Here open-book refers to 1 A4 folder of notes (of your choosing).
I welcome questions regarding the structure, content and examination of the course
via:
• Questions & Discussion board on CANVAS
• Email: slpa@liverpool.ac.uk
• Academic consultation hours: Mondays 11am-1pm (or email for alternate
drop-in for when I’m on campus) [313, Mulberry Court]
Please refer to the module handbook for more details of the course and your
undergraduate handbook for general details on governance of modules.

Module Aims: Why study ‘dead’ theories?

This course looks at the evolution of economic thought, ideas and doctrines - like
philosophy or science.
The aim is not to ‘learn’ details of economic phenomena - you will study these in
modules across your degrees) but how people have tried to make sense of the
philosophy.
For example, how economic ideas evolve and influence - and are influenced by -
contemporary political & social environments.

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The idea is – if we understand how modern economic concepts developed – this can
help us understand them as concepts better and the context in which they were
applied and can be applied.

Course Outline
12 Weekly lectures (2 hours) and small group tutorials (1 hour):
1. From antiquity to pre-enlightenment era
2. The enlightenment era (17th – 18th C)
3. Adam Smith and the framework of Classical economics (18th C)
4. Elaborations and formalisations of Classical economics (Malthus & Ricardo)
(19th C)
5. Classical economics revisionism (John Stuart Mill) (19th C)
6. Marxian economics (Marx & Engels) (19th C)
7. SKILLS WEEK: Essay Writing workshop (Essay assessment)
8. Alfred Marshall & framework of Neoclassical economics (Early 20th C)
9. Variations on neoclassical economics America & Europe (Early 20th C)
10. Money & the Business Cycle, Keynesianism, monetarism and general theory
(Mid 20th C)
11. The rise of Mathematical and applied Economics (mid-late 20th C)
12. Modern Heterodox economics (Contemporary)

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CHAPTER 1: FROM ANTIQUITY TO PRE-ENLIGHTENMENT ERA

Introduction
In week 1 we will look at the beginnings of Economic thought in Ancient Greece,
through to developments across the span of the Roman empire into the middle ages.
Then from the renaissance to the reformation and thus the emergence of the modern
world view pre-enlightenment era when ‘economics’ as a subject was beginning to
form (we will look at the enlightenment era next week).

1.1 Ancient Greece

Timeline
There are 6 distinct periods we can look at
1. Ancient Greece: Characterised by its great thinkers such as: Homer & Hesiod;
Socrates & his students Xenophon & Plato; and of course Aristotle (who
particularly had a lot to say about Justice, exchange and wealth).
2. The Roman economy
3. Religious perspectives (Judaic, Christian and Islamic) during the ‘middle ages’
4. 12th C – Economics at universities
5. Renaissance and emergence of the of the modern world view
6. The Reformation & Rise of European Nation states: Brought ‘new’ ideas and
ways of thinking like ‘Mercantilism’ and new problems like Inflation.
We will start in Ancient Greece.

Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece was organised around city states and is understood historically
through the written work of some of its greatest scholars.

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Homer
Homer’s epics (circa 750-725bc) the ‘Illiad’ and ‘Odyssey’ reflected the Mycenaen
(Bronze age) world (1400-1100bc).
Landed estates were the main form of wealth (i.e. via agriculture) and Homer
believed wealth occurred because ‘households’ (families and slaves) were ‘well
ordered’.
Otherwise, war (and tribute) was a major source (e.g. war with Troy) and the martial
arts were seen as heroic, while Trade was seen as a secondary (inferior) means!

Hesiod
Hesiod’s poem (circa 700 bc) ‘Work and days’ is famous for its story about
Pandora’s box and goes on to tell the story of the descent of man from the golden
age of immortals who lived ‘without harsh toil’.
Here Zeus provides prosperity (so ‘morality’ and pleasing Zeus led to prosperity).
Work was required because the gods kept man’s food concealed, thus man trades
off work for leisure to obtain resources.
He thus realized that the basic economic problem is one of scarce resources.

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Even suggests competition can stimulate production since it will cause craftsmen to
emulate each other.
Hesiod’s ideal (being a farmer and poet) was agricultural self-sufficiency but without
war to destroy the farmer’s produce.

Rise of the Athenian Economy

Great academic growth occurred 7th-6th C. BC and we can understand it from
luminary examples in different scholastic disciplines:
 Anaximander (c.610-546bc) drew first (western) map of the known world;
 Pythagoras (c.570-490bc) engaged in number mysticism and mathematics;
 Playwrights like Sophocles (c.495-406bc) and Euripides (c.480-406bc) and
historians like Herodotus (c.485-425 bc) recorded and challenged society.
The Political and economic sphere too was undergoing ‘academic’ growth:
 Solon was appointed archon (civilian head of state) of Athens in 594bc,
curtailing the power of the aristocracy and laying the foundations for
‘democracy’ (however limited! - elections were held yes, but voting only by the
property-owning classes).
 Land was redistributed; Laws codified and a silver currency established.
 The Athenian merchant fleet was enlarged and enabled a rapid expansion of
foreign trade.
 Then because of this - specialised agriculture developed – e.g. olive oil which
was traded for grain.

The Persian wars (492-449bc) united Greece against a common enemy. And
although Athens fell to Persia, Sparta then defeated them a year later (479bc) which
led to a golden age of expansion…
Athens became the leader of a maritime alliance of Greek states and a complex
commercial centre unsurpassed until post-renaissance Europe.
Piracy was overcome in the eastern Mediterranean and trade flourished which
allowed commercial agriculture to flourish and trade in manufacturing to develop.
Therefore activities also associated with commercial society also developed – such
as banking, money-changing, credit, commodity speculation and monopoly trading!
A functioning, regulated economic system not a million miles away from a ‘modern’
economy!
NOTE: Although Athens strengths of trade & sea power led to great advances,
Sparta (their great rival) still relied on agriculture and war still eventually defeated
Athens after the Peloponnesian war (431-404bc).

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Athenian democracy involved citizens directly (males of Athenian parentage only!),

so too litigation - citizens (sometimes hundreds) formed juries – which meant that
‘rhetoric’ (public speaking) became important.
The Sophists (professional intellectuals or ‘professors’ before universities existed)
flourished, although they lived a tightrope where new ideas which disrespected the
gods could threaten banishment or execution.
Greece’s primary sophist Protagoras (c490-420bc) was banished for his scepticism
of the gods and another of its famous figures, Socrates, was later executed.

Socrates, Xenophon & Plato

Socrates (469-399bc) was a sophist who engaged in this abstract thought,
questioning and looking for non-religious explanations of phenomena. He is
considered to be one of the founders of ‘Western philosophy’ and as being the first
‘moral philosopher’ which as we will see next week, is the basis for the discipline of
economics!
His influence of the discipline of economics can therefore be felt most notably
through two of his pupils Xenophon and Plato – who developed economic ideas
further.

Xenophon (c.430-354bc) was an aristocrat and after Socrates execution (399bc)

became a military leader (for Sparta). After he settled in Sparta managing an estate
there and from this experience wrote ‘Oikonomikos’ (or Oeconomicus – ‘œ’ is a
ligature used in medieval latin to represent the Greek diphthong ‘oi’) which translated
means ‘Household’ (i.e. estate) management. [The origin of the word ‘Economics’]
‘Oikonomikos’ is both a treatise on managing an agricultural estate and the
‘administrative art’ in general, i.e. management.
It had a few notable insights – particularly, he suggested that good organisation
could double productivity! He also highlighted the benefits of the division of labour –
in everything from furniture making to the kitchen.
He actually went beyond the estate (the firm) and considered the allocation of
resources in the city-state as a whole. For example, he lauded how Cyrus the great
of Persia (he actually wrote a whole book on him: ‘Cyropaedia’) balanced defence
with productivity of land (resources).
However, interestingly he only saw trade/markets as peripheral to the idea of the
management of resources (that’s just where you exchanged surplus for other useful
things). He saw voluntary exchange to be ‘just’ (correct) if both parties gained.
(Justice in exchange is then an area that Aristotle would later spend much time.)

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Plato (c.428/7- 348/7) was also an aristocrat who fought military campaigns before
he wrote ‘Republic’ which attempts to provide a blueprint for the ideal state.
‘Republic’ is famous for the idea of governance by neither extremes of democracy or
tyranny, but ‘Guardians’ (those trained from childhood, forbidden from owning
property, to govern in the interests of all citizens).
However, he also talked about efficiency. Particularly the division of labour – ‘men
should specialise in those activities for which they were naturally suited’. (But also
efficient administration is by disinterested rulers).
Like other philosophers before him he took the endowment of resources as given
(property to be allocated on mathematical grounds) and trade as limited to consumer
goods. There should be no ‘profits’ or payment of ‘interest’!
He founded an academy (c.375bc) to teach the principles of good government to
future statesmen (…several of which still became tyrants!)

Aristotle (Justice & Exchange)

Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322bc) became one of the most influential
philosophers for the next 2000 years(!) with writings encompassing philosophy,
politics, ethics, natural science, medicine… and economics!
Book V of ‘Nichomachean Ethics’ discussed principles of justice in disputes, i.e.
guiding principles in economic exchange:
 Reciprocal (or commutative) justice – i.e. exchange situations – any trade
had a range of prices between WTP and WTA – suggested the harmonic
mean
 Distributive justice – according to merit – equally ‘contribution to battle’ or
‘proportion of capital invested’ – suggested just price was geometric mean
 Rectificatory justice - righting an injustice, compensating losses fairly –
suggested arithmetic mean.

Aristotle (Wealth)
Aristotle believed money was essential to solve the barter problem of double
coincidence of wants (a farmer may want shoes but shoemaker not need wheat!)
However, he saw commercial ‘wealth’ (through exchange) as ‘illegitimate’!?
Natural wealth occurred from good estate management, from increasing stock of
goods – i.e. harvests or output from good management choices.
Exchange of surplus for other ‘needed’ things was accepted but wealth through
exchange and usury (lending) was ‘unnatural’ - benefiting at someone else’s
expense.

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The life of the ‘polis’ should be a ‘good’ life with limited wants – there should be a
limit on the accumulation of wealth. This sentiment was shared with other Socratic
philosophers (i.e. Xenophon, Plato & Aristotle)

1.2 The Roman Economy (to Middle Ages)

At the time of Alexander the Great’s death (323bc) the Roman republic was limited to
the Italian peninsula.
By AD14 (Augustus’ death) the Roman Empire’s breadth was Spain to Syria and
height of Rhineland to Egypt retaining most territories (some losses) until the 4th C.
Like ancient Greece war and conquest was still a major part of acquisition of wealth.
Land was still linked to political power, and wealth from exchange still controversial
(only when converted to land was it ‘worth’ anything), thus Roman commercial law
based on safeguard of property and transfer of it.
Whilst we still laud the Romans for their roads and impressive architecture
(Infrastructure), they also contributed to the development of law via the Roman
constitution.
Law was influenced by a new philosophical school:
 Cynicism – rejection of the material world – as virtue not material possessions
important – people gained from freedom of want so lived without possessions
 Stoicism – (offshoot) Moral virtue was the only good
‘Natural law’ thus a way ‘human law’ could be judged as ‘just’.
Roman law saw contracts as valid if all parties had consented to it and bargaining
over a contact considered normal course of business.
 Coercion - sufficient to scare a vir constans (a man of firm character)
invalidates contracts.
 Similarly wilful fraud rendered a contract invalid since all had not consented if
mislead about quality etc.
The end of the ‘old world’ – with the fall of the Roman empire was a drawn-out affair.
Economic problems were precipitant:
 Population fell by 1/3 (plague & barbarian invaders)
 The supply of gold fell (no new imperial conquests)
 Trade to the east collapsed (commerce failed?)
 Cities & army required food and emperors ‘debased’ their coinage (by c.250
coins only 40% silver!) – this led to inflation!
 Even after vigorous attempts at reform (Diocletian’s price edict of 301 fixing
wages & prices!) inflation persisted.
 Populous abandoned cities/towns (continued through the middle ages).

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1.3 Religious perspectives

NOTE: As interpretations of religious perspectives may ultimately be influenced by
one’s own perspectives, it is useful for me to clarify that I do not belong to any school
of organised religion (standpoint) and have focused on the literature that considers
the widespread adoption of the economic philosophies of those religions in
geographic regions which then influenced the development of the European
economy.
Between the Post-Roman empire (circa 476) and the emergence of ‘the modern
world view’ (15th C) were the so-called ‘middle ages’. Philosophies were influenced
by regional religions.
Roman Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity in 312 and under Theodosius
(c.346-95) was adopted as ‘official’ religion (non-Christians and ‘heretics’ were
persecuted… later Christianity also clashed with Islam).
The old testament (shared by the 3 Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Islam &
Christianity) stated that ‘Adam’ (man) was told to work the soil and look after the
garden of Eden – and to multiply and fill the earth (economic growth?).
Wealth was a reward for righteous ways – but pursuit of wealth a temptation away
from god (i.e. the golden calf).
Judaism encouraged international trade (‘send your grain across the seas’) and
diversification (‘Divide your merchandise among seven ventures’).
The early Christians (believed Jesus was Christ) preached imminent 2nd coming of
Christ would be the end of the world, so to ‘carry on’ rather than pursue new
ventures – i.e. economic growth pointless?
The ‘new testament’, based on the teachings of Jesus, rejected a lot of the ‘old
testament’ and was centred more around the ‘righteous’ poor and dissolution of
wealth for rewards in heaven rather than earth; warning difficulties of ‘rich men’
entering heaven.
After ‘world-end’ didn’t manifest the Christian church essentially restructured its
focus: Scholars like Augustine explained clashes with the old testament e.g.:
 Work prevents idleness; Sin is with the trader (misuse) rather than trade itself;
Wealth was a good only as a means to good (not in itself).
 It is worth noting he was heavily Influenced by Greek philosophy – particularly
Aristotle.
Islam became dominant in the east, also covering much of the Mediterranean up to
Spain.
After the advance of Islam arrested in 732, Europe’s trade with the east diminished
and Europe’s ‘dark ages’ descended; while trade boomed in the east, Islam’s golden
age of literature and scholarship thrived for about 500 years. [We also need to add a
note of thanks to those Islamic scholars for preserving ancient Greek & Roman
philosophy!]

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The Koran did not specifically contain economic advice but supported a free market
and espoused taxation in order to support the poor; the prohibition of interest on
loans; regulation of inheritance.
Islamic scholars also provided ‘mirror for princes’ literature advising Government on
efficient commerce and public administration while writings by lawyers & Civil
servants dealt with ‘modern’ issues like pricing, factors influencing consumption and
the supply of goods!
Notable scholars were…
Ibn Rushd (AKA Averroes) (1126-98 near the end of the golden age). His work was
influenced by and critiqued Plato & Aristotle as he sought to establish ethical
principles through reasoned argument (than Koranic doctrine).
This was unpopular and at one point he was banished from Marrakesh and books on
Greek philosophy burned!
He added a 4th function of money to Aristotle’s:
1. Means of exchange
2. Measure of value
3. Store of value for future transactions
4. Liquid reserve of purchasing power
Because of this importance he disagreed with Aristotle that money was a commodity
like any other than could be bent to the ruler’s will as required – it needed to be
constant and true (like Allah) – i.e. ‘fiat’ and should be tightly controlled. (Remind you
of staunch anti-inflationary monetary policists?)
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) – A Moorish-Andalusian migrant to North Africa after
catholic reclaim of Spain who was a civil servant, Jurist, Historian & Diplomat.
He wrote a history of civilisation weaving together economic, political & social
developments which was not so much a religious ‘moral’ perspective, but
explanation of the organisation of society.
He recognised ‘cycles’ in civilisations in which he saw the economic complexity
waxing and waning. Particularly:
 The effect of division of labour on productivity
 Influences of taste on demand
 Choice between consumption and capital accumulation
 Impact of profits (and taxation) on production.
Although insightful, it had little impact - as he was writing at the end of the Islamic
golden age it was in Europe that the next major developments would occur.

While Islam dominated the south, Vikings did in the north. Christianity sustained from
monastic cells in Ireland and Northumberland and spread back to France and
Germany.

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Feudalism developed - land-owner ‘Barons’ created from lands confiscated from the
church who had military obligations to the King (‘Knights’) when called upon (this
meant the King had an inexpensive military (see Charles Martel).
Monasteries were established in allegiance to the crown to underpin a strong link
between all levels of society.
The combination of military power and disciplined religious orders provided the
‘order’ for European expansion.
Feudal society peaked as the crusades pushed eastwards (re)opening trade, Italian
trading cities helped gold flow. Coins were issued, and great Banking houses
created (see Medicis).
Arrest in the crusades along with the black death contributed to banking collapse in
the 14th C. and the end of Feudalism.

1.4 12th C – Emergency of Universities

Around 12thC. the feudal system had loosened and there was a growing
urban middle class. At the same time Christianity conquered previously Moorish
controlled parts of Europe (e.g. Spain) and had access to Arabic learning (this is
when the west re-discovered Greek philosophy). This ferment led to establishment of
Universities (not unlike Sophists of ancient Greece) - the first in Oxford, Paris and
Bologna, and by 1140 there were just under 50!
Economic writing was led by Paris, with earliest writings on Economics within
‘manuals for confessors’ (e.g. Summa Confessorum by Thomas of Chobham
(C.1163-1235)) to brief Priests on business practise for which the populous sought
spiritual guidance. [Confession was compulsory at least annually!]
Thomas is pro commerce placing merchants (market makers) and craftsmen
together but considers moral hazards of various professions – including merchants
including sins of usury & avarice:
 Usury (lending) results in essentially money made from others property (as
when loaned it becomes theirs).
 The Usurer (lender) sells time – which belongs to God
 Share in the profits is sinful unless the lender also shares expenses and
losses (i.e. a partnership).
William of Auxerre (c. 1140-1231) also believed in Aristotlian sense ethics based
on ‘natural law’ (he saw as ‘that which natural reason dictates to be done either
without any deliberation or without much deliberation’ (quoted in Langholm p71,).
[Persuaded pope Gregory IX not to ban Aristotle’s work!]
 He saw private property as a necessary evil but shared the Roman
perspective on unnatural contracts.

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Albert Magnus (aka Albert the great) (c.1200-1280) commented on Aristotle’s

Nicomachean Ethics (V.5) that the value of one good in terms of another should be
in proportion both to the relative need for the two goods and to the labour involved.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) – a student of Albert, simplified/ clarified his
teachings marrying Aristotle with church figures such as Augustine.
 Particularly argued people care for private property (not public) so creates
order so necessary for peace because of corruptness of man after his fall
from grace.
 However fruits of that property should be shared – via buying and selling (at a
‘just’ price) or giving of surplus. Excess of wealth is thus unjust.
 Like Roman idea the ‘just’ price is one agreed by parties appropriate at the
present (i.e. present info) but not if seller takes advantage of adverse
circumstances.
 Compensation for borrowers ‘loss’ loophole in usery.
New ideas on money developed in political, social & economic upheaval of the 14th
& 15th Centuries (Feudal system eroded, Black death produced shortage of labour,
Kings would debase currency).
Nicole Oresme (Bishop of Lisieux) wrote ‘Treatise on the origin, nature, law and
alterations of Money’ (c. mid 1300s) decrying debasement as unnatural – money
should be trusted.
However, establishing that the currency is under the control of the ruler ‘for’ the
people – and has a right to set the value of it for that reason.
 By the beginning of the 15th C (c1400) bills of exchange issued by merchant
banks became a standard method of payment. This is a ‘rule-of-thumb’ date
of emergence of the ‘modern world’.

1.5 Emergence of ‘modern world’ view

15th – 17th centuries European explorers roamed the seas and an artistic, literary &
cultural explosion centred around Italy called ‘the Renaissance’ blossomed.
Art, music and philosophy was no longer solely in support of religion (e.g. see works
of Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael)
Petrarch (1304-74) dubbed the previous era ‘the dark ages’ as he rediscovered
ancient Greek writing and new perspectives on science (e.g. Plato rather than
interpreted Aristotle).
Copernicas (1473-1543) extolled the Greek solar centred (rather than earth)
cosmology; Galileo (1564-1642) turned a telescope to the stars and by Isaac
Newton (1642-1727) gravity was discovered!... i.e. mechanics rather than divinity to
explain the universe.

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1.6 The Reformation & Rise of European Nations

The reformation (16th C) occurred in European countries becoming more Nationalist
and separating from the Roman Catholic church. This ‘Protestantism’ reaffirmed
Judaeo-Christian morality and theology (in the face of a decadent renaissance) was
aided by the development of the Guttenberg press printing bibles (1455).
 Martin Luther (1483-1546) ninety-five theses in 1517 reacted to the selling of
indulgences to pay for St. Peter’s Basilica! He reaffirmed the prohibition on
usury (rejecting the loopholes) and the doctrine of the ‘just’ price.
 Jean Calvin (1509-64) was more relaxed on Usury but firm on ‘just’ price with
businessmen to make ‘moderate’ profits.
The reformation saw a shift away from independent city states of the Mediterranean
area (such as Venice) towards the rise in European national states in the North –
England, France, Spain & Germany.
The state took on more responsibilities (as the Church diminished) e.g. Elizabeth I
(1597-1601) ‘poor law’ to provide support for the destitute wasn’t needed prior.
Portuguese and Spanish discoveries created new long-distance maritime routes and
brought Gold & silver into Europe – prices began to rise.
These changes provided the backdrop for the Industrial revolution further reinforcing
nation states.

Mercantilism
Nation states seeking to increase power & wealth through industry & commerce via a
positive balance of trade was dubbed ‘Mercantilism’ by historians.
Different nations pursued different policies such as:
 Protective tariffs
 Increased state revenues by increased economic activity
 High employment via trade and control of money supply
 Accumulation of national wealth (treasure!)
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) famously wrote ‘The Prince’ (1513) really about
how rulers can maximise the wealth of city states (not nations).
Cambridge don Sir Thomas Smith (1513-77) wrote ‘A discourse of the common
weal of this realm of England’ discussing the Nation’s major problems of inflation and
the enclosure act.

Inflation
Prior to 16th C. prices fluctuated but didn’t experience long term trend. However,
Inflation arose across Europe at this time.

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T. Smith [UK] recognised the difference between nominal and real prices and
blamed inflation on debasement.
Also pointed to market incentives towards wool farming (as wealthy landlords
enclosed land for sheep grazing) creating an agricultural dearth (thus raising food
prices).
Similarly, School of Salamanca [Spain] writers like Martin de Azpilcueta Navarro
(d. 1586) [SPAIN] writing about the problems of usury, prices (inflation) & money
suggested price rises after the discovery of the Indies flooded the Country with Gold
& Silver causing money to fall in value.
Jean Bodin (1530-96) [FRANCE], also identified this influx as the culprit over-riding
previous notions that prices merely reflected scarcity or monopoly.

Summary
This lecture sought to introduce the notion of a shifting philosophy underpinning our
discipline. Like many of the ‘natural sciences’ Economics was discovered and
rediscovered in antiquity and beyond.
This is the largest period of history covered in this module.
Next week we will look at the enlightenment era thinkers

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Chapter 1 References
Harrison, L. & Huntington, S., 2000. “Culture Matters: How values shape human
progress”. (Editors) ed. New York: Basic Books.

© S.L.Phythian-Adams, University of Liverpool, 2022