Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

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Chemical Physics Letters

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cplett

Research paper

Physicochemical properties of absorbent hydrogel polymers in disposable

baby diapers
Teh Sabariah Binti Abd Manan a, *, Salmia Beddu b, *, Daud Mohamad b,
Nur Liyana Mohd Kamal b, Zarina Itam b, Taimur Khan c, Hisyam Jusoh d,
Noraisyah Azeezah Abdul Rahman e, Fadzli Mohamed Nazri f,
Md Fauzan Kamal Mohd Yapandi g, h, Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar i, Mohamed Hasnain Isa j,
Zakaria Che Muda b, Amirrudin Ahmad a, k, Nadiah Wan Rasdi a, l
a
Institute of Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan Ikram-Uniten, 43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
c
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
d
Geo TriTech, No. 17, Persiaran Perdana 15A, Pinji Perdana, 31500 Lahat, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
e
Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd. Ladang Tanah Merah A3 Division, Bukit Pelanduk, 71960 Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan Darul Khusus, Malaysia
f
School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
g
TNB Research Sdn. Bhd. No. 1, Kawasan Institusi Penyelidikan, Jalan Ayer Itam, 43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
h
Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi Mara, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
i
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
j
Civil Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Tungku Highway, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
k
Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman, Malaysia
l
Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Diapers are reusable waste. This research presents physicochemical properties of sodium polyacrylate in new
Disposable baby diapers (ND) and used (UD) diapers, via wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF), Fourier transform infrared
WXRDF (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), pH, turbidity and colour. Additional constituents detected in ND, while others
FTIR
were slightly higher in UD. Slight decrease (2000–2500 cm− 1, UD) and bulk peaks (3287–3333 cm− 1, UD) were
XRD
observed and functional group at 2897 cm− 1 (ND) disappeared showing their role as absorption sites. The pH
pH, turbidity, colour
(6.83–8.50), turbidity (16.3–36.6 NTU) and colour (153–432 Pt.Co) values were obtained. Thus, this provides a
baseline reference for diapers application in concrete technology.

1. Introduction
Diapers are biodegradable material that contribute to methane
emission in landfills leading to global warming [1]. Disposable used
baby diapers account 12% of Malaysian landfill waste with daily
disposal equivalent to 9.72 million pieces per day [2]. Alternatively,
used diapers are reusable in many ways.
The top sheet of diaper consists of hydrophobic polypropylene fibres
that have been treated with hydrophilic surfactant to prevent rewetting
[3]. Sodium polyacrylate ((C3H3NaO2)n) is a hydrogel polymers absor­
bent that has water retaining structure via absorption mechanism [4,5].
In the absorption process, molecules are drawn into the bulk of the phase
with absorption capacity of 800 times their weight in distilled water
(Fig. 1).
However, there are potential of alien substances [3] including mer­
capto compounds (at elastic portions) [6] exist in the diapers causing
sensitization to baby skin (Table 1). Mercapto, also known as sulfonyl or
thiol, is a functional group containing sulfur and hydrogen. A total of
20% of allergic contact dermatitis cases are due to disposable diapers
that infuse various dyes for aesthetic means [7].
Urine is a biological sample that contains various element. Elemental
analysis of human urine via total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF)
showed that it contains 20 elements, from both K and L series of
wavelengths [8]. The K-series (µ = mean average concentrations)

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tehsabariah@umt.edu.my (T.S.B. Abd Manan), Salmia@uniten.edu.my (S. Beddu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2021.138605
Received 19 February 2021; Received in revised form 14 March 2021; Accepted 31 March 2021
Available online 20 April 2021
0009-2614/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al.
Fig. 1. Adsorption mechanism of diaper: (a) sodium polyacrylate, (b) dry diaper, (c) wet diaper [4,5].
including phosphorus (P, µ = 48.5 µg/g), sulfur (S, µ = 40.9 µg/g),
chlorine (Cl, µ = 6.24 µg/g), potassium (K, µ = 311 µg/g), calcium (Ca, µ
= 14.8 µg/g), vanadium (V, µ = 0.068 µg/g), chromium (Cr, µ = 0.019
µg/g), manganese (Mn, µ = 0.022 µg/g), iron (Fe, µ = 0.265 µg/g), co­
balt (Co, µ = 0.035 µg/g), nickel (Ni, µ = 0.044 µg/g), copper (Cu, µ =
0.132 µg/g), zinc (Zn, µ = 0.625 µg/g), arsenic (As, µ = 0.123 µg/g),
selenium (Se, µ = 0.085 µg/g), bromine (Br, µ = 0.305 µg/g), rubidium
(Rb, µ = 0.190 µg/g) and strontium (Sr, µ = 0.023 µg/g). The L-series
including barium (Ba, µ = 0.065 µg/g) [8]. The K series wavelengths
range from 0.486 to 0.563 Å and the L series cover from 3.3 to 4.7 Å [9].
Roelofs-Thijssen et al. [10] conducted conventional urine sampling
method among catheterized neonates (n = 5 respondents), 5 urines from
catheterized children (n = 5 respondents) and 12 samples outpatient
adults (n = 12 respondents). The urine samples were quantified (Ar­
chitect c16000 chemistry analyser) resulting in 2.44 mmol/L Ca, 76.1
mmol/L Cl, 0.96 g/L protein, 6.45 mmol/L phosphate, 2.16 mmol/L
glucose, 32.8 mmol/L K, 3.52 mmol/L creatinine, 8.3 mmol/L magne­
sium (Mg), 61 mmol/L Na, 329 mOsmol/Kg osmolality, 105 mmol/L
urea nitrogen and 1.29 mmol/L urate [10].
In addition, sodium polyacrylates used in baby diapers are product
from polymerization of methyl acrylate forming a polymethylacrylate
(or sodium polyacrylates). Methyl acrylate is reported to be used in solid
polymer electrolytes (SPEs) to replace lithium batteries [11–13] and
membrane for dye-sensitized solar cells [14–17].
Current research presented sodium polyacrylate used in baby di­
apers. Recent research on application of baby diapers by previous
scholars are mainly on synthesis of superabsorbent polymer from recy­
cled cellulose for diapers applications [18] method of disposal via
compost [1] valorisation on the recyclable material (i.e. sodium poly­
acrylate) [19–26,34], chemical safety concern in the material (e.g.,
phthalates) [27,28], comparative studies on absorption efficiencies of
the polymer [29] and application in concrete technologies [30–33,50]
(Table 2).
The superabsorbent polymer from recycled carboxymethyl cellulose
(fibre size: 300 µm, 23 µm, 8 µm, 900 µm) was developed by Lacoste
et al. [18] for diapers applications. The alternative method of disposal
(other than landfill and incineration) was introduced by Colón et al. [1]
via compostable diapers as part of green disposal efforts. Next, the
valorisation of sodium polyacrylate includes pyrolysis of diapers to
2
Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605
produce a series of catalyst [19] as part of anti-seepage systems in
landfills via modified bentonite [21] as stabilizer for nickel nano­
particles [20] and hollow silver spheres [26] productions, as a combi­
nation binder for corrosion prevention of titanium alloy [25] chelating
agent to inhibit precipitation of iron oxides [22] and as water-based
polymeric dispersants for water based products (i.e., paints, coating,
etc.) [23,24].
Applications of the polymer in concrete technologies focused on self-
healing mechanism in concrete properties upon cracks. Meyer et al. [30]
placed crosslinked polymers namely Starvis S 3911F, Starvis S 5514F,
and SAP III is FLOSET 27 CS on concrete surface to increase the evap­
oration rate during curing procedure and reduce the risk of plastic
shrinkage in concrete (standard concrete, ground granulated corex slag
(GGCS) and self-compacting concrete (SCC) mixes). The assessment was
conducted via conventional measurement of the plastic shrinking crack
and capillary pressure sensor. Karimi et al. [31] introduced admixture
for cement grouts and SCC with an addition of shredded waste diapers
(SWD) to vary the viscosity assessed by Bingham viscosity model and
flow tests. The research reported SWD as a part of highly effective
viscosity-modifying admixtures for concrete. Meanwhile, Shen et al.
[32] applied the polymer as internal curing agent in high performance
concrete (HPC) via temperature stress test machine. Similar concept to
Karimi et al. [18] instead of SWD Lee et al. [33] applied different types
of polymers and dosages as part of the admixture for self-sealing cracks
in concrete. Overall, researchers are mainly focused on assessment of
structural and mechanical properties while description on physico­
chemical properties of the polymer in diapers is limited.
Physicochemical properties of a sample such as sodium polyacrylate
can be determined through wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
(WDXRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
analysis, pH, turbidity and colour studies. The WDXRF can detect a wide
range of chemical elements in a sample and is able to perform small spot
mapping (SSM) on selected minute locations of the sample surface
including cement, minerals, metals, petrochemicals, plastic and poly­
mers within a short period of time [35]. Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy is a tool to identify the chemical bonds and organic
content of a chemical compound in a form of wavelength spectrum
[18,19,36,37]. FTIR wavelength spectrum consists of transmittance (%)
against wavenumber (ṽ) (Eq. (1)).
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Potential alien substances found in the diaper-area that cause sensitization [3]. Potential substances Source of substances
Potential substances Source of substances
Span 20 Baby bath, baby shampoo, baby
Bacitracin OTC topical antibiotic wipes. Antibacterial wipes,
Benzalkonium chloride Baby moisturizers, creams, body shampoos, conditioners, soaps
wipes Thiuram Rubber additive
Benzophenone-3 Soaps, sunscreens
Benzoyl peroxide Topical preparations (also an
irritant that may mimic allergy) 1
Bronopol (Formaldehyde releaser) Baby wipes, shampoos, soaps
v= (1)
λ
Bufexamac Anti-inflammatory ointments and
creams Transmittance is a quantity of light incident that transmitted through
Carba mix (diphenylguanidine, zinc Rubber additive, soaps, shampoos, a substance or solution. The wavenumber (ṽ) equals to number of waves
dibutyldithiocarbamate, zinc diethyl adhesives, clothing in a wavelength of distance (λ). The unit for wavenumber can be either
dithiocarbamate)
Cobalt Button, zippers, snaps, buckles
in m− 1 or cm− 1. This energy unit represents unique identification at
Cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) Surfactant in baby shampoos and different ranges and values, representing chemical bonds and organic
washes contents accordingly.
Colophony Adhesive bandages XRD or X-Ray powder diffraction (XRPD) analysis is used for iden­
Composite mix (sesquiterpene lactone mix) “Natural” soaps, shampoos, plant-
tification of crystalline and amorphous material, polymorphic forms and
based oils
Corticosteroids (Tixocortol pivalate, Many frequently prescribed topical quantification of crystallinity of a sample in percentages [38–40]. pH is
budesonide, triamcinolone acetonide) preparations a measure of the acidic or alkaline nature of a liquid. Turbidity is a
Cyclehexylthipthalimide Rubber additive clarity measurement of a liquid. Colour parameter is to measure colour
Diaminodiphenylmethane Rubber, dye, and adhesive additive intensity based on UV absorbance [41].
Diazolidinyl urea Lotions, soaps, shampoos
conditioners
Overall, this highly water retaining material has the potential for the
Disperse dyes Sye insynthetic fabrics application in concrete technology whilst supporting Sustainable
DL-alpha tocopherol Baby wipes, creams, lotions, Development Goals no. 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), 11
emollients, shampoos, (sustainable cities and communities) and 12 (responsible consumption
conditioners, soaps, sunscreens
and production) [42]. The complementary studies on characterization of
DMDM hydantoin Emollients, shampoos,
conditioners, soaps the physicochemical properties of absorbent hydrogel polymers in baby
Ethylenediamine Cross-reacts with hydroxyzine and diapers via WDXRF, XRD, FTIR, pH, colour and turbidity will provide a
cetirizine good reference to researchers towards application of sodium poly­
Formaldehyde Emollients acrylate from diapers in concrete technology.
Fragrances (including balsam of Peru/ Any scented product (can be
myroxylon pereirae) flavoring or mimicked by tomato)
Geraniol Soaps, shampoos, lotions, perfumes 2. Methodology
Imidazolidinyl urea Lotions, creams, soaps,
conditioners 2.1. Physicochemical properties of sodium acrylate in diapers
Iodopropylcarbamate Baby wipe ingredient
Isopropyl myristate Hand sanitizer, topical
corticosteroid preparations, The diapers used in this study were purchased from Malaysian local
emollients market (Mamy Poko brand) (Fig. 2). The physicochemical character­
Lanolin/Amerchol L-101 (wool alcohol, Emollients, lotions, ointments, ization of hydrogel polymer of diapers (new (ND) and used (UD) di­
steryl, acetyl alcohol creams, topical corticosteroid apers) covers elemental analysis, molecular structure information (i.e.,
preparations
Mercapto mix (n-cyclohexyl-benzothiazole Rubber additive
chemical bond and organic content of a chemical compound), crystal­
sulfenadmide, diabenzothiazide sulfite, and linity, pH, turbidity and colour.
morpholonyl mercaptobenzothiazole) The elemental analysis of diapers was determined using WDXRF
Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) Lotions, shampoos, conditioners, (PANalytical and Zetium Model) via standard method ASTM D6247
body wash
(chapter 18: standard test method for determination of elemental con­
Methylchloroisothiazolinone (Kathon CG) Shampoos, conditioners, soaps
Methyldibromoglutaronitrile phenoxyethanol Shampoos, conditioners, soaps tent of polyolefins) (WDXRF) [43].
(Euxyl K400) The molecular structure information (i.e., chemical bond and
Methylisothiazolone OTC topial antibiotics organic content of a chemical compound) of chemical compound in
Neomycin Buttons, zippers, snaps, buckles diapers were determined using FTIR spectroscopy (Bruker Platinum ATR
Nickel Rubber additive
N-isopropyl-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine Rubber additive
and Tensor II) via standard method ASTM E168 [44] and ASTM E1252
(IPPD) (FTIR) [45]. The description on FTIR spectra is shown in Table 3. Vi­
Octyl gallate Shampoos, soaps, lotions bration is a type of motion of an organic content in a chemical com­
PABA Sunscreens pound that vibrates at certain types of motion such as stretching and
Paraben mix Topical corticosteroid
bending (also called deformation) [18,36,37,46]. Organic content
preparations, diaper balms, lotions,
creams, soaps, shampoos, identification of every peak obtained in the FTIR spectra was carried out
conditioners based wavenumber reference from National Institute of Standards and
Potassium dichromate Dark green dye and cosmetics Technology USA (2021).
Propolis Natural emollients and cosmetics The crystallinity of chemical compounds in diapers was determined
Propylene glycol Soaps and emollients
XRD analysis (PANalytical and X’Pert PRO MPD PW 3040/60) based on
p-tert-butyl-phenol-formaldehyde (PTBF) Glue additive
Quaternium-15 Baby oils, baby bath, shampoos, standard method BS EN 13925 – 3:2005 (non-destructive testing X-ray
soaps, lotions diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials) (XRD). The
Sodium benzoate Shampoos, conditioners, soaps, pH (brand: pH probe Hach 54650-14 Sension 156), turbidity (unit: NTU,
body wipes
brand: Hach 2100P turbidity meter) and colour (unit: Pt-Co, brand:
Sorbitan sesquioleate Topical ointments, creams and
lotions DR5000 UV–Vis spectrophotometer) for ND and UD were determined.

3
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Table 2
Studies on application of diapers from literatures.
Studies on diapers/Ref. Compostable Dermal Exposure Absorption Crack Valorization of Self-sealing of Internal This Research
Diapers from Diapers efficiencies Prevention Diapers in Cracks in Curing
Concrete Concrete
Method of Chemical safety Absorption Method to test Innovative Cracks in SAP as an Physicochemical
disposal [1] concern in the efficiencies of plastic shrinkage viscosity concrete can internal properties of
material (e.g. the polymer cracks in concrete modifying self-heal when curing (IC) absorbent
phthalates) [27] [29] [30] admixture [31] exposed to agent [33] hydrogel polymers
prolonged in diapers
wetting [32]

Location The composting Diapers distributed Diapers from the Superabsorbent The Netherlands United China Diapers from
plant of in Japan local market of polymers (SAP) Kingdom Malaysian local
Mancomunitat Casablanca, namely Starvis S market (Mamy
La Plana, Malla, Morocco 3911F, Starvis S Poko brand)
Barcelona, Spain 5514F, and SAP
III is FLOSET 27
CS from South
Africa
Experiment Description Compostable Investigation of the Comparative The validity of Shredded waste The selected Influence of Baseline reference
rate of diapers. amount of study on the using SAP layer diapers (SWD) polymers were SAPs as an IC for physico-
Organic fraction transdermal total absorptive on concrete prepared by either agent in high chemical
of shredded exposure of capacity and surface as a novel Fritsch polyacrylate or performance properties of
diapers mixed newborn babies to fluid run-off method for Pulverisette 15 polyacrylate- concrete absorbent
with bulking seven phthalates quantification testing plastic cutting mill. The co-acrylamide hydrogel polymers
agent in a via gas were shrinkage maximum denoted as S1, in new (ND) and
volumetric ratio chromatography investigated. cracking allowable S2, S3 and S5 used (UD) diapers
(1:1). mass spectrometry concentration of (size 500 μm).
(GC–MS) chemicals in There were 2
combined mixing types of
water of different cement:
types of concrete a) white
was based on Portland
European and the cement (CEM I,
American 52.5N)
standards (EN b) Portland
1008 (BSI composite
Committee B/ cement
517/1, 2002) and containing
ASTM C 1602 27% fly ash
(ASTM (CEM II/B-V,
Subcommittee 32.5R)
C09.40, 2012) complying with
BS EN 197-1,
from Lafarge.
Medium Shredded 2 diapers from 5 Nine Standard concrete Cement grouts Cement paste, High Hydrogel polymer
diapers (<1cm) companies each, representative mix, slag mix and and self- mortar and performance in diapers
of commercial square piece of top samples of self-compacting consolidating concrete concrete
brand namely D1 sheet of 3 cm × 3 commercial concrete mix concrete (SCC) samples
and D2 cm was cut out, brands of the containing four
shredded and bestselling baby SAP types at
mixed diapers in the U. varying
S, Europe, dosages and
Africa, and the through-
Middle East thickness crack
widths
between 0.1
and 0.4 mm
were tested.

Studies on Compostable Dermal Exposure Absorption Crack Valorization of Self-sealing of Internal Curing This Research
diapers/ Diapers from Diapers efficiencies Prevention Diapers in Cracks in
Ref. Concrete Concrete
Method of Chemical safety Absorption Method to test Innovative viscosity Cracks in concrete SAP as an internal Physicochemical
disposal [1] concern in the efficiencies of plastic shrinkage modifying can self-heal when curing (IC) agent properties of absorbent
material (e.g. the polymer cracks in concrete admixture [31] exposed to [33] hydrogel polymers in
phthalates) [27] [29] [30] prolonged wetting diapers
[32]

Properties a. Dry matter a. Concentrations a. Total a. SAP absorption a. Average a. Flow rate and a. Temperature a. WDXRF
under content (%): 40.7 of seven absorptive b. Capillary concentration of cumulative flow of b. Autogenous b. FTIR
study b. Organic matter phthalates capacity pressure sulfate in combined NaCl through a 0.2 shrinkage of HPC c. XRD
content (%, dry b. Transdermal No b. Fluid run-off c. Plastic mixing water in the mm and 0.3 mm c. Restrained stress
basis): 73.0 Observed Adverse quantification settlement and wake of cracks of HPC
c. pH (1:5 w:v Effect Level c. FTIR shrinkage incorporating b. Influence of d. Basic tensile
extract): 4.7 (NOAEL) d. Free swell d. Cracks shredded waste crack width on the creep of HPC
d. Electric capacity (FSC) e. Bleeding and diapers into a peak flow rate e. Cracking
conductivity (1:5 e. Centrifuge evaporation cement composite c. Effect of high potential of HPC
(continued on next page)

4
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Table 2 (continued )
w:v extract, mS retention f. Water b. Influence of SWDs SAP dosages on 28-
cm− 1): 4.4 capacity (CRC) extraction by SAP on the rheological day compressive
e. Nitrogen f. Absorption properties of cement strength
(Kjeldahl) (%, dry under load grouts d. Modelling of the
basis): 1.8 (AUL) c. Influence of SWD crack fraction
f. C/N ratio: 23.0 g. Absorption content on the sealed as a
g. Respiration kinetics average compressive function of crack
index (mg O2 g− 1 h. Particle size strength of cement width and SAP
OM h− 1): 4.3 distribution grouts dosage (α, wt.% of
h. Bulk density (PSD) d. Effect of SWD on cement) for a
(kg L-1): 0.5 i. pH the flow parameters cement paste at 0.3
i. Air-filled j. Moisture of SCC w/c ratio.
porosity (%): 50.0 content (MC) e. Influence of SWD
j. Impurities (%): dosage on the
<1 average compressive
strength of SCC
Findings Reduction of Cumulative risk Performances The use of SAP The appropriate SAP dosage of 1% The adiabatic WDXRF: 4 additional
almost 50% of assessment for of super proved to mimic dosages of WSD as by weight of temperature rise of constituents detected
carbon dioxide phthalates in the absorbent the mechanisms high as 5% in non- cement would seal HPC was 27.6, in ND (Fe2O3, NiO,
from total carbon topsheet of paper polymer in of evaporation by reinforced concrete a 0.2 mm crack, 29.3, 31.0, and CuO and ZnO). The
of compostable diaper: 6.70 × 104 saline solution: absorbing the at water-cement and an SAP dosage 34.9 ◦ C and percentages of Na2O,
diapers under FSC (47 g/g) bleed water from ratios ranging from of 5% would seal a increased with the SO3, K2O, Al2O3, P2O5
aerobic CRC (35.26 g/ the surface and 0.25 to 0.6 and as 0.7 mm crack, increase of amount and Cl were found to
conditions g) extracting pore high as 2% in assuming the of SAPs. be slightly higher in
AUL 0.3psi water from the reinforced concrete swelling of SAP in The rate of UD
(27.4 g/g) concrete at water-cement a crack is similar to restrained tensile FTIR: Slight decrease
ratios ranging from unconfined stress of HPC was on wavenumbers at
0.4 to 0.6 can be swelling in 1.7, 1.5, 1.4, and 2000 to 2500 cm− 1
used. synthetic 1.2 MPa/day and was observed in UD
solutions. decreased with the XRD: The crystallinity
increase of amount of ND and UD were
of SAPs. classified as
The specific basic amorphous
tensile creep of
HPC at the age
when the
restrained
specimen of
mixture SAP-
0 cracked was 45,
23, 13, and 7
µε/MPa and
decreased with the
increase of amount
of SAPs.

2.2. Statistical analysis ∑n

i=1 (xi − x)(yi − y)
r = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ (3)
∑ n ∑ n
The statistical (skewness and/or kurtosis) and graphical (P value (xi − x)2 (yi − y)
2

squatter plots (P-P plot) and histogram) methods were used to estimate i=1 i=1

the normality of datasets distribution [48] of WDXRF, FTIR spectra, pH,

turbidity and colour for ND and UD. The statistical software used in this 3. Results and discussion
study was IBM SPSS 23. The equations for skewness (Eq. (1)) and kur­
tosis (Eq. (2)) are shown below. 3.1. Physicochemical properties of sodium acrylate in diapers
∑n
(xi − x)3 The physicochemical characterization of sodium acrylate in diapers
1
Skewness = n∑ i=1 (1)
3
(1n i=1 (xi − x)2 )2
n was determined via WDXRF, FTIR spectroscopy, XRD analysis, pH,
turbidity and color.
1
∑n 4
i i = 1(xi − x)
Kurtosis = ∑n
( )2 − 3 (2) 3.1.1. Wavelength-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (WDXRF)
n 2
The elemental analysis via WDXRF is shown in Table 4. The detected
1
n i i = 1 (xi − x)

species were sodium oxide (Na2O), magnesium oxide (MgO), aluminium

x = sample mean
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was used to measure linear as­
sociation between two variables (Eq. (3)) with an inference that both
variables are normally distributed. The correlation coefficient between
variables can range from − 1 (shows negative linear correlation) to
0 (shows no linear relationship), to +1 (shows positive linear correla­
tion) [49].
oxide (Al2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5),
sulfur trioxide (SO3), chloride (Cl), potassium oxide (K2O), calcium
oxide (CaO) and bromide (Br). However, there were four additional
constituents detected in new diapers such as iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3),
nickel (II) oxide (NiO), copper (II) oxide (CuO) and zinc oxide (ZnO).
Aluminium (Al) and silica (Si) are existing material used in the diaper
polymer (Fig. 3).

5
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Fig. 2. Diapers used in this research: (a) Mamy Poko diaper, (b) new and used diapers, (c) sodium polyacrylate from diapers from ND and UD.

Table 3 Table 4
FTIR spectra [37]. The percentages of chemical composition via WDXRF.
Wavenumbers Region Functional groups Vibration types No. Molecular Current study ASTM C150 Beddu et al.
(cm− 1) formula 2005 (2020) and Abd
Manan et al.
4000–2500 Single bond Hydroxyl (O-H) Stretching (2021)
Amine (N-H)
Aldehyde (C-H) New Used Ordinary Fly Bottom
2500–2000 Triple bond Alkynes (C≡C) Stretching diaper diaper Portland ash ash
Nitriles (C≡N) (ND) (UD) cement
2000–1500 Double Alkanes (C = C) Stretching (OPC)
bond Carbonyl (C = O)
Na2O 0.0233 0.0435 0.25 n.a. n.a.
Nitriles (or cyanides)
SiO2 0.0926 0.0737 20.0 46.8 50.75
(C = N)
MgO 0.00520 0.00575 3.15 1.15 0.34
1500–500 Fingerprint Alkane, phenol and 1460–1365 cm− 1
SO3 0.0478 0.110 2.35 0.53 0.75
lipid Bending (alkane)
CaO 0.328 0.309 66.0 3.32 7.37
Stretching
K2O 0.00778 0.561 0.43 1.34 2.68
(aldehyde)
Al2O3 0.00757 0.0179 4.85 18.41 17.91
Fe2O3 0.0364 0.0 2.40 6.08 17.94
P2O5 0.252 0.313 >0.95 n.a. n.a.
The percentages of chemical compositions in ND were 0.0233% Cl 0.128 0.282 n.a. n.a. n.a.
(Na2O), 0.0926% (SiO2), 0.00520% (MgO), 0.0478% (SO3), 0.328% NiO 0.0126 0.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.
(K2O), 0.00778% (Al2O3), 0.00757% (Al2O3), 0.0364% (Fe2O3), 0.252% CuO 0.00839 0.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.
ZnO 0.00382 0.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.
(P2O5), 0.128% (Cl), 0.0126% (NiO), 0.00839% (CuO), 0.00382% (ZnO)
Br 0.0 0.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.
and 0.0% (Br). The percentages of chemical compositions in UD were
0.0435% (Na2O), 0.0737% (SiO2), 0.00575% (MgO), 0.110% (SO3), n.a. = not available.
0.309% (K2O), 0.561% (Al2O3), 0.0179% (Al2O3), 0.0% (Fe2O3),
0.313% (P2O5), 0.282% (Cl), 0.0% (NiO), 0.0% (CuO), 0.0% (ZnO) and other mineral oxides contained material such as ordinary Portland
0.0% (Br). cement (ASTM C150 2005), fly and bottom ashes [51,52].
The percentages of Na2O, SO3, K2O, Al2O3, P2O5 and Cl were The P-P plots for two empirical WXRDF datasets of ND and UD is
observed to be increased from 0.0233%, 0.0478%, 0.00778%, shown in Fig. 4. It is to test the fit of probability distribution. The cu­
0.00757%, 0.252% and 0.128% (ND) to 0.0435%, 0.110%, 0.561%, mulative distribution function (CDF) has ranges in the unit square [0,1]
0.561%, 0.313% and 0.282% (UD) accordingly (Fig. 3). Ma et al. (2018) × [0,1] [48]. The CDF of the datasets against each another at 45◦
reported that, metal ions increase mechanical strength and barrier straight line showing the distribution of iron oxides of new and used
properties of collagen-sodium polyacrylate composite films. However, diapers were approximately equal.
the percentage of Cl in UD (0.282%) was higher than ND (0.128%) with Based on descriptive statistics on WDXRF analysis, the skewness
possibilities of Cl penetration leading to corrosive behavior and harmful values were 1.871 (ND) and 1.498 (UD) showing symmetric distribu­
for the application in concrete technology [31]. Overall, the percentages tions. The standard errors of skewness equal to 0.597, indicating that the
of chemical compositions in ND and UD were comparatively less than normality condition was met. Kurtosis values were 2.709 and 1.613 for

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T.S.B. Abd Manan et al.
Fig. 3. Percentages (%) of chemical composition in ND and UD.
ND and UD accordingly. Positive kurtosis values obtained are an indi­
cation of leptokurtic distributions. The standard errors of kurtosis ob­
tained for both variables were similar, equivalent to 1.154, showing
normality behaviour.
3.1.2. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
The interfacial interactions of chemical compounds in the sodium
polyacrylate of new (ND) and used (UD) diapers are shown in Fig. 5. The
FTIR spectrum consists of regions that have specific wavenumbers
(Table 1). These regions can be identified as single (4000–2500 cm− 1),
triple (2500–2000 cm− 1), double (2000–1500 cm− 1) and fingerprint
(1500–500 cm− 1) regions. The types of functional groups that can be
found in single bond are hydroxyl, amine and aldehyde. Functional
groups in triple bond region are alkynes and nitriles. Double bond region
has functional groups of alkanes, carbonyl and nitriles [37].
Sharp peak at 659 cm− 1 (ND) referred to alkyl halides and 548 cm− 1
showed deformation of the silicon monoxide (Si-O) group. The silica and
carbon functional groups on the surface of sodium polyacrylate played
an important role as active absorption sites [36]. The absorption sites
are vital as water retaining sites for a self-curing concrete [53]. Weak
peaks were observed at 3287–3332 cm− 1 (ND) and 3287–3333 cm− 1
(UD) representing amine (3500–3200 cm− 1) or hydroxyl (3000–3700
cm− 1) stretching [54]. The stretching vibration of nitrile (C≡N, ~2250
cm− 1) was observed at 2116 cm− 1 (ND) and 2115 cm− 1 (UD). The bulk
peaks were observed at 3287–3333 cm− 1 (UD) and functional group at
2897 cm− 1 (ND) disappeared after urine was absorbed showing their
role as absorption sites. Carbonyl group (C=O) in double bond region
represents ketones, aldehydes and carboxylic acids. The carbonyl (C=O)
peak occurs around 1700–1250 cm− 1. SP3C-O can be noticed as a strong
peak around 1000 cm− 1. N-H and SP3C-O exist in ND and UD, most
likely due to existing content in the diapers. The N-H and C=O present in
UD are functional groups that made up urea (carbamide), which have a
chemical formula of CO(NH2)2.
A molecule can be identified by comparing its absorption peak to a
data bank of spectra [47,55]. Detection of some organic and inorganic
additives in polymers can be done. However, it has limited inorganic
information with limited surface sensitivity (minimum analysis area:
~15 µm). Nevertheless, the quantitative analysis can be done via
7
Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605
calibration [56]. The identified organic contents are shown in Fig. 6. The
FTIR spectra for ND and UD have single bond regions that are filled with
3 and 2 significant peaks each (ND: 3332 cm− 1, 3287 cm− 1, 2897 cm− 1;
UD: 3333 cm− 1, 3287 cm− 1). The identified organic contents in ND are
classified as propyne (3332 cm− 1), acetylene (3287 cm− 1) and cyclo­
hexane (2897 cm− 1). The organic contents in UD are propyne (3333
cm− 1) and acetylene (3287 cm− 1).
The triple bond region consists of 3 significant peaks each (ND: 2351
cm− 1, 2287 cm− 1, 2116 cm− 1; UD: 2349 cm− 1, 2288 cm− 1 , 2115 cm− 1).
The examined organic contents in ND are classified as not available (N.
A.) (2351 cm− 1), benzene-D6 (2287 cm− 1) and germane (2116 cm− 1).
The organic contents in UD are classified as N.A. (2349 cm− 1), benzene
(2288 cm− 1) and germane (2115 cm− 1).
The double region consists of 3 significant peaks each (ND: 1997
cm− 1, 1758 cm− 1, 1633 cm− 1; UD: 1634 cm− 1, 1564 cm− 1, 1555 cm− 1).
The studied organic contents in ND are classified as N.A. (1997 cm− 1),
methyl formate (formic acid) (1758 cm− 1) and 1,3-butadiene (1633
cm− 1). The organic contents in UD are 1,3-butadiene (1634 cm− 1), N.A.
(1564 cm− 1) and furan (1555 cm− 1).
The fingerprint region consists of 16 and 18 significant peaks each
(ND: 1427 cm− 1 (acetone or boric acid), 1368 cm− 1 (1,4-dioxane), 1334
cm− 1 (benzene-D6 or 1,4-dioxane), 1315 cm− 1 (ethane or 1,2-dichloro-
), 1281 cm− 1 (butane or tetrafluoromethane), 1203 cm− 1 (ethane or 1-
bromo-2-chloro-), 1160 cm− 1 (1-propyne or 3-iodo-), 1104 cm− 1
(ethane or 1,2-dibromo-), 1052 cm− 1 (ethane, 1-bromo-2-chloro- or 1,4-
dioxane), 1029 cm− 1 (2-butyne or cyclopropane), 897 cm− 1 (nitric
acid), 812 cm− 1 (methane or dibromo-), 659 cm− 1 (ethane or 1,2-
dibromo-), 585 cm− 1 (carbonic difluoride), 557 cm− 1 (ethene or tetra­
fluoro-), 516 cm− 1 (boric acid); UD: 1453 cm− 1 (dimethyl ether,
chloromethane or propyne), 1428 cm− 1 (ethane or 1-bromo-2-chloro-),
1370 cm− 1 (butane), 1335 cm− 1 (benzene-D6 or 1,4-dioxane), 1316
cm− 1 (ethane or 1,2-dichloro-), 1281 cm− 1 (butane or tetrafluoro­
methane), 1245 cm− 1 (ethane or 1,2-dibromo-), 1203 cm− 1 (ethane or
1-bromo-2-chloro-), 1161 cm− 1 (1-propyne or 3-iodo-), 1107 cm− 1 (2-
butanone), 1053 cm− 1 (ethane, 1,2-dibromo- or propyne), 1033 cm− 1
(formic acid or methyl alcohol), 1002 cm− 1 (tetrachloroethylene), 891
cm− 1 (acetone), 548 cm− 1 (bromotrifluoromethane), 525 cm− 1 (cyclo­
hexane), 517 cm− 1 (boric acid) and 503 cm− 1 (cyanogen)).
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

2000–2500 cm− 1 was observed on UD. Cyclohexane is a non-polar hy­

drophobic compound that can be found in nylon fabric. The cyclohexane
presence was observed in the ND wavenumbers 2500–3000 cm− 1.
However, it was found to be missing in the UD.
The descriptive statistics on FTIR spectra are shown below. The
skewness values were 0.955 and 1.178 for new and used diapers. The
ranges fall between permitted ranges showing highly skewed distribu­
tions. The standard errors of skewness equal to 0.464 (ND) and 0.448
(UD) indicating that the normality condition was met. Positive kurtosis
values were 0.207 and 1.493 for ND and UD accordingly indicating
leptokurtic distributions. The standard errors of kurtosis were 0.902 and
0.872, showing normality behaviour.

3.1.3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis

The XRD patterns are shown in Fig. 9. Crystalline structure was
observed at 2θ position of 39◦ and 45◦ . Semi-crystalline structure was
discovered at 38.5◦ , 65◦ and 78◦ . Amorphous structure (shapeless) was
identified from 0 to 80◦ . The sharp peaks are due to the crystalline
component. The broad hump in the baseline is due to the amorphous
component. Background scattering unrelated to the amorphous and
crystalline components produces an offset of the baseline from 0 counts
[36,38–40]. Amorphous and crystalline phases were observed in ND and
UD. Despite of similar pattern observed for XRD spectra for both ND and
UD, spectrum lagged was observed at 20◦ , 30◦ , 40◦ and 45◦ for UD due to
interference from impurities of urine waste [57]. Amorphous content is
vital in concrete technology because it increases the material reac­
tivation towards hydration (e.g. water retaining structure), gives posi­
tive effect on the strength and durability of concrete. If it is not reactive,
it will act as a filler [53,58–61]. Overall, the samples were identified as
amorphous and crystalline. However, crystalline content was observed
to be increased in UD due to increase in sharp peaks.

3.1.4. pH, turbidity and colour

Descriptive statistics on pH, turbidity and colour of ND and UD are
shown in Table 5. The pH values were neutral (6.91 ± 0.08) and alkaline
(8.34 ± 0.15) for ND and UD, respectively. Alkalinity of concrete is
crucial because acidity will cause corrosion and lead to horrible struc­
ture failure [53,58,59,62–64]. Therefore, pH of both ND and UD are
neutral and alkaline making it possible for its application in concrete
technology. The turbidity values were lower (17.07 ± 0.93 NTU) for ND
and higher (34.07 ± 2.72) for UD. Based on national water quality
standards, the turbidity of ND and UD can be categorized as Class II
(ranged from 5 to 50 NTU) [65]. The colour values were 155.67 ±
2.52Pt.Co (ND) and 425.33 ± 9.07 Pt.Co (UD). Hence, the UD yields a
higher colour reading than the ND due to the presence of pigment
urochrome, also known as urobilin urine [66].
The skewness values obtained were − 0.935 (pH ND), 0.586 (pH UD),
1.185 (turbidity ND), − 0.544 (turbidity UD), − 0.586 (colour ND),
− 1.521 (colour UD). The distributions were highly skewed for pH ND,
turbidity ND and colour UD (less than − 1 or greater than 1), and
moderately skewed for pH UD, turbidity UD, colour ND (between − 1
and − 0.5 or between 0.5 and 1). The standard errors of skewness for all
Fig. 4. P-P plots and descriptive statistics for WXRDF datasets.
variables met the normality conditions (less than − 2 or greater than +2)
[67].
The correlation coefficients for variables are displayed in the corre­
The double ratio plot of ND and UD absorption spectra is shown in
lation matrix shown in Figure 10. High positive correlation coefficients
Fig. 7. The datasets are neatly clustered along the trendline showing
were obtained for the pairing of pH and colour (UD vs. UD) (0.986), pH
relationship existed between FTIR spectra of ND and UD. The highest
(UD) and turbidity (ND) (0.991), and colour (ND vs UD) (0.839), giving
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was obtained, equivalent to 0.978,
positive linear correlation between variables. High negative correlation
showing strong positive linear correlation between interfacial interac­
coefficients were observed for the association of pH (ND vs. UD)
tion of chemical compounds in the polymer absorbent in ND and UD.
(− 0.737), pH and turbidity (ND vs. ND) (− 0.822), pH (ND) and
Fig. 8 shows frequency of organic contents in (a) ND and (b) UD
turbidity (UD) (− 0.956), pH (UD) and colour (UD) (− 0.839), turbidity
based on FTIR absorption spectra. Slight decrease on wavenumbers at

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T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Fig. 5. FTIR absorption spectra for (a) ND and (b) UD.

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T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Fig. 6. Types of organic contents in (a) ND and (b) UD based on FTIR absorption spectra.

10
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al.
Fig. 7. The double ratio plot of ND and UD based on FTIR absorption spectra.
Fig. 8. Frequency of organic contents in (a) ND and (b) UD based on FTIR absorption spectra.
(UD) and colour (ND) (− 0.991), turbidity and colour (UD vs. UD)
(-0.905), showing negative linear correlation between variables.
4. Conclusion
The physicochemical properties of hydrogel polymers (WXRDF, FTIR
and XRD) in diapers (ND and UD) were presented. The chemical
composition (chemical oxides) based on WDXRF showed that four
additional constituents were detected in ND (Fe2O3, NiO, CuO and ZnO)
and the percentages of Na2O, SO3, K2O, Al2O3, P2O5 and Cl were found
to be slightly higher in UD. The functional groups and chemical contents
in (a) ND and (b) UD via FTIR observed slight decrease at 2000–2500
cm− 1 (UD), bulk peaks at 3287–3333 cm− 1 (UD) and functional group at
2897 cm− 1 (ND) disappeared after urine was absorbed showing their
role as absorption sites. The possibility of cyclohexane presence was
observed in the ND, but not in the UD maybe due to non-polar and
hydrophobicity behaviours of the chemical compound (2500 to 3000
cm− 1). Overall, the crystallinity of ND and UD were classified as
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Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605
amorphous via XRD. The pH, turbidity and colour values obtained were
ranged from 6.83 to 8.50, 16.3 to 36.6 NTU and 153 to 432 Pt.Co,
respectively. The alkalinity pH favours the integration of the polymeric
material into concrete. Thus, this research provides a baseline reference
for diapers application in concrete technology.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this
published article.
Funding
The authors are thankful to Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia
(FRGS/1/2020//TKO/UNITEN//02/18) and Universiti Tenaga
Nasional, Malaysia (BOLD2020 Grant - RJO10517844/050; BOLD2025
Grant - 10436494/B/2019060; RJO10517844/068; RJO10517844/
041) for providing financial supports for this study.
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al. Chemical Physics Letters 774 (2021) 138605

Fig. 9. XRD patterns for ND and UD.

Table 5
Descriptive statistics on pH, turbidity and colour of ND and UD.
Test Types of diaper Sample Skewness Standard error of skewness Mean ± standard deviation

1 2 3

pH ND 6.83 6.93 6.98 − 0.935 1.225 6.91 ± 0.08

UD 8.50 8.20 8.32 0.586 1.225 8.34 ± 0.15
Turbidity (NTU) ND 18.1 16.3 16.8 1.185 1.225 17.07 ± 0.93
UD 36.6 34.4 31.2 − 0.544 1.225 34.07 ± 2.72
Colour (Pt.Co) ND 153 158 156 − 0.586 1.225 155.67 ± 2.52
UD 415 429 432 − 1.521 1.225 425.33 ± 9.07

CRediT authorship contribution statement
Teh Sabariah Binti Abd Manan: Writing - original draft. Salmia
Beddu: Conceptualization, Writing - original draft, Project administra­
tion, Funding acquisition. Daud Mohamad: Investigation, Writing -
original draft, Project administration. Nur Liyana Mohd Kamal: Re­
sources, Project administration. Zarina Itam: Project administration.
Taimur Khan: Methodology. Hisyam Jusoh: Methodology. Noraisyah
Azeezah Abdul Rahman: Methodology. Fadzli Mohamed Nazri:
Investigation. Md Fauzan Kamal Mohd Yapandi: Investigation. Wan
Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar: . Mohamed Hasnain Isa: . Zakaria Che
Muda: Writing - review & editing. Amirrudin Ahmad: Writing - review
& editing. Nadiah Wan Rasdi: Writing - review & editing.

12
T.S.B. Abd Manan et al.
Fig. 10. Pearson proximity matrices for pH, turbidity and colour for ND and UD.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to thank Professor Dr. Marzuki Bin Ismail from
Institute of Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable Development from
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu; Dr Haris Hafizal Abdul Hamid from
Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Science and
Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; Mr Hong Wei Sheng
(CE098682) from College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional;
and Miss Yusyawati Binti Yahaya from Centralized Analytical Labora­
tory (yusyawati@utp.edu.my), Mrs. Norhayama Ramli and Mr. Zaaba
Mohammad from Lab Services and Facilities Unit, Universiti Teknologi
PETRONAS for the technical supports.
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