The Scientific Method/Process

1. Observation: scientists make an observation and examine prior research.

2. Hypothesis: scientists ask questions and try to explain the observations.
3. Experiment: scientists test the hypothesis to see if it’s right or if it needs to be rejected.
4. Analyzing data: scientists check the results of the experiment and check if they’re affected by the
experiment or if they only changed slightly.
5. Conclusion: scientists see if the hypothesis was correct or not.
Elements & Periodic Table: atomic number; mass number; electronegativity
➢ Atomic number: is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons defines the
identity of an element (an element with 6 protons is a carbon atom, no matter how many neutrons may be
present) An example of an atomic number on a periodic table is 1 on the Hydrogen element.

➢ Mass number: is a count of the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. It is found at the bottom of
an element in the periodic table.
➢ Electronegativity: refers to the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond.
Electronegativity increases from bottom to top in groups, and increases from left to right across periods.
Thus, fluorine is the most electronegative element, while francium is one of the least electronegative.
 ➢ CHONPS: stands for Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur. These six elements
make up 98% of living matter on Earth.
➢ Element: is one particular type of atom, and cannot be broken down into a simpler substance by ordinary
chemical means.
Atoms: structure, particles, charges, molecules, ions, compounds
➢ Atom: is the smallest basic unit of matter.

➢ Structure: positively charged nucleus surrounded and neutralized by negatively charged electrons revolving
in orbits at varying distances from the nucleus, the constitution of the nucleus and the arrangement of the
electrons differing with various chemical elements.
➢ Particles: there are three types of smaller particles which are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and
neutrons form the dense center of an atom, the atomic nucleus. Electrons are much smaller particles outside
of the nucleus.
➢ Charges: Protons have a positive electrical charge, and electrons have a negative electrical charge.
Neutrons, as their name suggests, are neutral, they have no charge. Because an atom has equal numbers of
positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons, it is electrically neutral.
➢ Molecules: is two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. A molecule of oxygen (O2) consists of
two oxygen atoms that share two pairs of electrons. Almost all the substances that make up organisms,
from lipids to nucleic acids to ware, are molecules held together by covalent bonds.
 ➢ Ions: is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons. An ion forms because an atom is more stable
when its outermost energy level is full; the gain or loss of electrons results in a full outermost energy level.
An atom becomes an ion when its number of electrons changes and it gains an electrical charge. This
charge gives ions certain properties. Compounds consisting only of ions - ionic compounds - easily
dissolve in water.
➢ Compounds: is a substance made of atoms of different elements bonded together in a certain ratio.
Common compounds in living things include water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). A compound's
properties are often different from the properties of the elements that make up the compound. At
temperatures on Earth, hydrogen and oxygen are both gasses. Together, they can form water. Similarly, a
diamond is pure carbon, but carbon atoms are also the basis of sugars, proteins, and millions of other
compounds.
➢ Element: is one particular type of atom, and it cannot be broken down into a simpler substance by ordinary
chemical means. An element can also refer to a group of atoms of the same type. A few familiar elements
include the gasses hydrogen and oxygen and the metals aluminum and gold. All atoms are made of the
same types of particles. All hydrogen atoms have one proton, and all oxygen atoms have eight protons.

Bonds: covalent; ionic; hydrogen

➢ Covalent bonds: form when atoms share a pair of electrons. Covalent bonds are generally very strong, and
depending on how many electrons an atom has, two atoms may form several covalent bonds to share
several pairs of electrons.
 ➢ Ionic bonds: forms through the electrical forces between oppositely charged ions.. Salt, or sodium chloride
(NaC1), is an ionic compound of Na+ and C1-. Sodium chloride is held together by ionic bonds.

➢ Hydrogen bond: is an attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom,
often oxygen or nitrogen. Opposite charges of polar molecules can interact to form hydrogen bonds.

Organic vs. Inorganic

➢ Organic: any substance containing carbon-based compounds, especially produced by or derived from living
organisms. Examples of organic molecules are the biomolecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids.
➢ Inorganic: a substance that does not contain carbon. Examples include bases, acids, salts, and waters.
Water (H2O), Hydrogen Bonding (surface tension-cohesion; capillary action-adhesion), Polarity (polar vs.
nonpolar; hydrophilic, hydrophobic, amphipathic)
➢ Water (H2O): is a polar molecule. Polar molecules form when atoms in a molecule have unequal pulls on
the electrons they share.

➢ Hydrogen bonding: is an attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom,
often oxygen or nitrogen.
➢ Surface tension: is a force which causes a layer of liquid to behave like an elastic sheet or skin. It is the
high surface tension of water which allows insects to walk over it. It is this skin ( surface tension ) that
stops items on the surface sinking.

➢ Cohesion: the attraction among molecules of a substance. Cohesion from hydrogen bands makes water
molecules stick to each other. Cohesion also produces surface tension, which makes a kind of skin on
water.
➢ Capillary action: is the ability of a liquid to flow upward in narrow spaces without the assistance of external
forces. Capillary action allows water to move upward due to surface tension of the water molecules and
intermolecular forces between the water and the surrounding surface.
➢ Adhesion: the attraction among molecules of different substances. In other words, water molecules stick to
other things. Adhesion helps plants transport water from their roots to their leaves because water molecules
stick to the sides of the vessels that carry water.

➢
➢ Polarity: is defined as having two opposite tendencies or opposite electrical charges. Good and evil are an
example of polarity.
 ➢
➢ Polar: shared unequally. Water is an example of something that is polar. Polar things are attracted to water,
Polar things dissolve polar things. Polar things can’t cross the cell membrane freely. They have to bind to a
membrane receptor. Polar things normally use facilitated diffusion.
➢ Nonpolar: shared equally. Hydrocarbons, lipids, fats, and oils is an example of something that is polar.
Nonpolar things dissolve nonpolar things.

➢
➢ Hydrophilic: likes water. Is polar and is the head of the phospholipid bilayer.
➢ Hydrophobic: hates water. Is nonpolar.
➢ Amphipathic: having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.
Ions, Positive (+) & Negative (-) charges, Partial-positive vs. Partial-negative charges & Hydrogen Bonding
➢ Positive Ions: are small molecules that have gained a positive charge. An atom that loses one or more
electrons becomes a positively charged ion because it has more protons than electrons.
➢ Negative Ions: an atom with nearly full outer energy levels tends to gain electrons. An atom that gains one
or more electrons becomes a negatively charged ion because it has more electrons than protons.
➢ Partial-positive charges The covalent bond between two atoms with different electronegative results in
unequal sharing of electrons. This unequal sharing of electrons leads to partially positive and partially
negative charges on the opposite ends of the bond.
➢ Partial-negative charges: means that the electrons are more attracted to that atom than to the other atom
covalently bonded to it.
 ➢
➢ Hydrogen bonding: is an attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom,
often oxygen or nitrogen.
The Biomolecule Table: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids

The Polarity of Biomolecules, Structural Components, FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

➢ Carbohydrate: polar. OH (hydroxel)
➢ Lipids: nonpolar. COOH (carboxyl)
➢ Proteins: have nonpolar side chains their reaction in a watery environment is similar to that of oil in water.
The polar side chains place themselves to the outside of the protein molecule which allows for their
interaction with water molecules by forming hydrogen bonds. COOH (carboxyl) and amino (NH2)
➢ Nucleic Acids: are polar as well as non-polar. For instance, the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA is
hydrophilic (making it polar). The interior of the DNA – the bases, are hydrophobic (making it non-polar).
OH (from sugars) PO4 (phosphate) and NH2 (nitrogenous base) MORE POLARity
➢ Carbohydrate Structural Components: consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The general empirical
structure for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n. They are organic compounds organized in the form of aldehydes or
ketones with multiple hydroxyl groups coming off the carbon chain. The building blocks of all
 carbohydrates are simple sugars called monosaccharides.

➢ Lipids: are an essential component of the cell membrane. The structure is typically made of a glycerol
backbone, 2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), and a phosphate group (hydrophilic). As such, phospholipids are
amphipathic.

➢ Proteins: The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, which are small organic molecules that consist of
an alpha (central) carbon atom linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a
variable.component called a side chain.
 ➢

➢ Nucleic acids: is made up of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate.

Condensation (polymerization) & Hydrolysis (de-polymerization) reactions
➢ Condensation: is the process where water vapor becomes liquid. It is the reverse of evaporation, where
liquid water becomes a vapor. Condensation happens one of two ways: Either the air is cooled to its dew
point or it becomes so saturated with water vapor that it cannot hold any more water. Condensation makes
polymers.
➢ Polymerization: combine chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network molecule, called a
polymer.
➢ Hydrolysis: to break something down with water/makes monomers.
 ➢ Depolymerization: is a process that converts the polymers (macromolecules) into component monomers
(smaller molecules).
Condensation => Polymerization => Dehydration
Solute, Solvent, Solution-pH, Acid and acidity (pH<7), Base and basicity (pH>7)
➢ Solute: is a substance that dissolves in a solvent.
➢ Solvent: is the substance that is present in the greater amount and that dissolves another substance.
➢ Solution: is a mixture of substances that is the same throughout - it’s a homogeneous mixture.
➢ pH: a solution’s acidity, or H+ ion concentration.
➢ Acid: is a compound that releases a proton - a hydrogen ion (H+) - when it dissolves in water. They donate
protons and have a pH lower than 7.
➢ Acidity: has to do with acids and has a pH lower than 7.
➢ Base: are compounds that remove H+ ions from a solution and have a pH higher than 7.
➢ Basicity: has to do with bases and has a pH higher than 7.
Cell Theory
➢ Cell Theory: all organisms are made up of cells, all existing cells are produced by other living cells, and the
cell is the most basic unit of life.
Cell Membrane (Phospholipid Bi-layer)/Plasma Membrane Structure, function, transport, permeability
➢ Cell Membrane: or the plasma membrane, forms a boundary between a cell and the outside environment
and controls the passage of materials into and out of a cell. The cell membrane consists of a double layer of
phospholipids interspersed with a variety of other molecules. Phospholipids are amphipathic.
➢ Phospholipids: a molecule composed of a charged phosphate group, glycerol, and two fatty acid chains.

➢ Phospholipid Bi-layer: is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes
are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around all cells. Cholesterol also helps regulate the activity of
certain integral membrane proteins.
➢ Plasma Membrane Structure: is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids, with their hydrophobic, fatty acid
tails in contact with each other. The landscape of the membrane is studded with proteins, some of which
span the membrane. Some of these proteins serve to transport materials into or out of the cell.

➢ Plasma Membrane Function: provides protection for a cell. It also provides a fixed environment inside the
cell. And that membrane has several different functions. One is to transport nutrients into the cell and also
to transport toxic substances out of the cell.
➢ Plasma Membrane Permeability: is semi-permeable, which means that some molecules can diffuse across
the lipid bilayer but others cannot.
Fluid Mosaic Model
➢ Fluid Mosaic Model: describes the arrangement of the molecules that make up the cell membrane. The cell
membrane is flexible, not rigid. The phospholipids in each layer can move from side to side and slide past
each other. As a result, the membrane behaves as a fluid, similar to film of oil on the surface of water.
However, proteins embedded in the membrane do not flip vertically. If one part of a protein is outside the
membrane, it will stay outside the membrane. The variety of molecules studding the membrane is similar to
the arrangement of colorful tiles with different textures and patterns that make up a dynamic mosaic.

➢
Intra-Cellular Transport: Endomembrane System: phagocytosis, endocytosis, exocytosis
➢ Intercellular Transport: is the movement of vesicles and substances within a cell. Intracellular transport is
required for maintaining homeostasis within the cell by responding to physiological signals.
➢ Endomembrane System:
➢ Phagocytosis: is a type of endocytosis in which the cell membrane engulfs large particles.This plays a key
role in your immune system. Some white blood cells called macrophages help your body fight infection.
They find foregin materials, such as bacteria, and engulf and destroy them.
➢ Endocytosis: is the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules into a cell by engulfing them in a
membrane. The cell membrane makes a pocket around a substance. The pocket breaks off inside the cell
and forms a vesicle, which then fuses with a lysosome or a similar type of vesicle. Lysosomal enzymes
break down the vesicle membrane and its contents (if necessary) which are released into the cell.
➢ Exocytosis: the opposite of endocytosis, is the release of substances out a cell by the fusion of a vesicle
with the membrane. During this process, a vesicle forms around materials to be sent out of the cell. The
vesicle then moves toward the cell’s surface, where it fuses with the membrane and lets go of its contents.
Exocytosis happens all the time in your body. You couldn’t move a muscle without it.
Trans-membrane Transport and polarity
➢ Trans-membrane Transport: is a type of integral membrane protein that spans the entirety of the cell
membrane. Many transmembrane proteins function as gateways to permit the transport of specific
substances across the membrane. The trans-membrane transport is nonpolar.
Concentration Gradient, Diffusion, Osmosis, Passive Transport, Facilitated Diffusion
➢ Concentration Gradient: is the difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another.
Molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient - that is, from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
➢ Diffusion: is the movement of molecules in a fluid or gas from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration. It results from the natural motion of particles, which causes molecules to collide
and scatter.
➢ Osmosis: water molecules also diffuse. They move across a semipermeable membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower water concentration. It’s important to recognize that the higher
 concentration of dissolved particles in a solution, the lower concentration of water molecules in the same
solution.
➢ Passive transport: is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane without energy input from the cell.
It may also be described as the diffusion of molecules across a membrane.

➢ Facilitated diffusion: is the diffusion of molecules across a membrane through transport proteins. Transport
proteins make it easier for molecules to enter or exit a cell. But this process is still a form of passive
transport. The molecules move down a concentration gradient, requiring no energy expenditure by the cell.

Active Transport
➢ Active Transport: drives molecules across a membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration. Cells use active transport to get needed molecules regardless of the concentration
gradient and to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to any process that living things use to actively
maintain fairly stable conditions necessary for survival.
Passive vs. Active Transport
➢ Passive vs. Active Transport: The difference between passive transport and active transport is that the
active transport requires energy, and moves substances against their respective concentration gradient,
whereas passive transport requires no cellular energy and moves substances in the direction of their
respective concentration gradient. There are two major ways that molecules can be moved across a
membrane, and the distinction has to do with whether or not cell energy is used. Passive mechanisms like
diffusion use no energy, while active transport requires energy to get done.
Cell membrane receptors & Intracellular Receptors
 ➢ Receptor: is a protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response. It recognizes and
binds to only certain molecules, ensuring that the right cell gets the right signal at the right time. The
molecule a receptor binds to is called a ligand. When a receptor and ligand bind, they change shape. This
change is critical because it affects how a receptor interacts with other molecules.
➢ Cell Membrane receptor: a molecule that can’t cross the membrane may bind to a receptor in the cell
membrane. The receptor then sends the message to the cell interior. Although the receptor binds to a signal
molecule outside the cell, the entire receptor changes shape - even the part inside the cell. As a result, it
causes molecules inside the cell to respond. These molecules, in turn, start a complicated chain of events
inside the cell that tells the cell what to do. For example, band 3 proteins are a membrane receptor in red
blood cells. When activated, it triggers processes that carry carbon dioxide from body tissues to the lungs.

➢ Intracellular Receptors: molecules that cross the membrane are generally nonpolar and may be relatively
small. Many hormones fit within this category. Aldosterone can cross most cell membranes. However, it
produces an effect only in cells that have the right type of receptor, such as kidney cells. When aldosterone
enters a kidney cell, it binds to an intracellular receptor. The receptor-ligand complex enters the nucleus,
interacts with the DNA, and turns on certain genes. As a result, specific proteins are made that help the
kidneys absorb sodium ions and retain water, both of which are important for maintaining normal blood
pressure.

➢
Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions & Electronegativity: ADP, ATP, NAD+, NADPH, FAD+, FADH2
➢ Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions: is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of
electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the
 oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron. Redox reactions are
common and vital to some of the basic functions of life, including photosynthesis, respiration, combustion,
and corrosion or rusting. Oxidation is the process when oxygen combines with an element, changing the
appearance of the element.
➢ Electronegativity: is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to
attract electrons toward itself. The electronegativity of an atom is affected by both its atomic number and
the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nuclei.
➢ ADP: is a lower-energy molecule that can be converted into ATP by the addition of a phosphate group. If
ATP is a wallet filled with money, ADP is a nearly empty wallet.
➢ ATP: is a molecule that transfers energy from the breakdown of food molecules to cell processes. You can
think of ATP as a wallet filled with money. Just as a wallet carries money that you can spend, ATP carries
chemical energy that cells can use. Cells use ATP for functions such as building molecules and moving
materials by active transport.

➢ NAD+: works as a shuttle bus, transferring electrons from one molecule to another within cells to carry out
all sorts of reactions and processes. With its molecular counterpart, NADH, this vital molecule participates
in various metabolic reactions that generate our cell's energy.
➢ NADPH: is an essential electron donor in all organisms, and provides the reducing power for anabolic
reactions and redox balance. NADPH homeostasis is regulated by varied signaling pathways and several
metabolic enzymes that undergo adaptive alteration in cancer cells.
 ➢ FAD+: oxides version of FADH2.
➢ FADH2: is a redox cofactor that is created during the Krebs cycle and utilized during the last part of
respiration, the electron transport chain. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, or NADH, is a similar
compound used more actively in the electron transport chain as well.
Plant Cell Structures, Organelles & Functions
➢ Plant Cell Structures: contains chloroplast, central vacuole, cell wall, cytoskeleton, vesicle, nucleolus,
rough ER, ribosome, centrosome, smooth ER, cell membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, and
vacuole. FUNCTIONS: Chloroplast - are organelles that carry out photosynthesis, a series of complex
chemical reactions that convert solar energy into energy-rich molecules the cell can use. Central vacuole -
is a single large vacuole that usually takes up most of the space inside a plant cell. It’s filled with a watery
fluid that strengthens the cell and helps to support the entire plant. When the plant wilts, its leaves shrivel
because there is not enough water in each cell’s central vacuole to support the leaf’s normal structure.
➢ Cell wall - a rigid layer that gives protection, support, and shape to the cell. Cell walls of plants and algae
have openings, or channels. Cytoskeleton - a network of proteins that is constantly changing to meet the
needs of a cell. Vesicle - small membrane-bound sacs that divide some materials from the rest of the
cytoplasm and transport these materials from place to place within the cell. Nucleolus - an area inside the
nucleus of a cell that is made up of RNA and proteins and is where ribosomes are made. Ribosomes help
link amino acids together to form proteins. The nucleolus is a cell organelle. Rough ER - has on it
ribosomes, which are small, round organelles whose function it is to make those proteins. Ribosome - tiny
organelles that link amino acids together to form proteins. Centrosome -is a cellular structure involved in
the process of cell division. Proteins called microtubules assemble into a spindle between the two
centrosomes and help separate the replicated chromosomes into the daughter cells.

➢ Smooth ER - doesn’t contain ribosomes on the surface and makes lipids and performs a variety of other
specialized functions, such as breaking down drugs and alcohol. Cell membrane - or the plasma membrane,
forms a boundary between a cell and the outside environment and controls the passage of materials into and
out of a cell. Golgi apparatus - consists of closely layered stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces that process,
sort, and deliver proteins. Mitochondria - supply energy to the cell. They’re bean shaped and have two
membranes. It has its own ribosomes and DNA. Vacuole - is a fluid-filled sac used for storage of materials
needed by a cell.
➢ Organelles: chloroplast, cell wall, plastids, and a large central vacuole. The chloroplasts contain a green
pigment chlorophyll that is responsible for the process of photosynthesis.
Animal Cell Structures, Organelles & Functions
 ➢ Animal Cell Structures: A animal cell structures has cytoskeleton, vesicle, nucleus, nucleolus, endoplasmic
reticulum (rough), ribosome, centrosome, endoplasmic reticulum (smooth), cell membrane, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria, vacuole, centriole, and lysosomes. Organelles in animal cells include the nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, and vacuoles. Ribosomes are not enclosed
within a membrane but are still commonly referred to as organelles in eukaryotic cells.
➢ Functions: FUNCTIONS ARE IN NOTEBOOK except centriole and lysosome. Centriole - are
cylinder-shaped organelles made of short microtubules arranged in a circle. Centrioles play a role in
organizing microtubules that serve as the cell's skeletal system. They help determine the locations of the
nucleus and other organelles within the cell. Lysosome - are membrane-bound organelles that contain
enzymes. They defend a cell from invading bacteria and viruses. They also break down damaged or
worn-out cell parts. Lysosomes tend to be numerous in animal cells.
Chemical reaction, reactants, products, reaction intermediates, equilibrium, homeostasis
➢ Chemical reactions: changes substances into different substances by breaking and forming chemical bonds.
➢ Reactants: are the substances changed during a chemical reaction.
➢ Products: are the substances made by a chemical reaction.
➢ Reaction Intermediates: is a molecular entity that is formed from the reactants (or preceding intermediates)
and reacts further to give the directly observed products of a chemical reaction.
➢ Equilibrium: is reached when both the reactants and products are made at the same rate.

➢ Homeostasis: refers to any process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions
necessary for survival.
Activation Energy, Endothermic vs Exothermic, Catalysts, Enzymes, Substrates
➢ Activation energy: is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed for a chemical reaction to start.
➢ Endothermic: a chemical reaction that absorbs more energy than it releases.
➢ Exothermic: a chemical reaction that releases more energy than it absorbs.
➢ Catalyst: a substance that decreases the activation energy needed to start a chemical reaction and, as a
result, also increases the rate of the chemical reaction.
➢ Enzymes: are catalysts for chemical reactions in living things. Enzymes, like other catalysts, lower the
activation energy and increase the rate of chemical reactions.
➢ Substrates: the specific reactants that an enzyme acts on.
Eukaryote Vs. Prokaryote
➢ Eukaryotic: have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The nucleus, the largest organelle,
encloses the genetic information. Eukaryotes may be multicellular or single-celled organisms.
 ➢ Prokaryotic: do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. Instead, the cell’s DNA is
suspended in the cytoplasm. Most prokaryotes are microscopic single-celled organisms.

Plant Cell Vs. Animal Cell

Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis

➢ Cellular Respiration: releases chemical energy from sugars and other carbon-based molecules to make ATP
when oxygen is present. Cellular is an aerobic process, meaning that it needs oxygen to take place. Cellular
respiration takes place in mitochondria, which are often called the cell’s “powerhouses” because they make
most of a cell’s ATP.
 ➢ Photosynthesis: is a process that captures energy from sunlight to make sugars that store chemical energy.
Therefore, directly or indirectly, the energy for almost all organisms begins as sunlight.

Glycolysis (anaerobic): function/purpose, location, reactants, products

➢ Glycolysis: splits glucose into two three-carbon molecules and makes two molecules of ATP. Glycolysis
takes place in a cell’s cytoplasm and doesn’t need oxygen. Anaerobic: doesn’t need oxygen to take place.
➢ Function: Glycolysis is the first of the main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration to produce energy in
the form of ATP. Overall, the process of glycolysis produces a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two ATP
molecules, and two NADH molecules for the cell to use for energy.
➢ Purpose: used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy.
➢ Location: Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm where one 6 carbon molecule of glucose is oxidized to
generate two 3 carbon molecules of pyruvate. The fate of pyruvate depends on the presence or absence of
mitochondria and oxygen in the cells.
➢ Reactants and Products: Glucose is the reactant; while ATP and NADH are the products of the Glycolysis
reaction.

➢
Krebs/Citric Acid/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (aerobic):
function/purpose, location, reactants, products
➢ Krebs Cycle: produces molecules that carry energy to the second part of cellular respiration.

➢ Citric Acid: The citric acid cycle is a key metabolic pathway that connects carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism. The reactions of the cycle are carried out by eight enzymes that completely oxidize acetate (a
two carbon molecule), in the form of acetyl-CoA, into two molecules each of carbon dioxide and water.

➢ Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle: same thing as the citric acid cycle, which is the same thing as the Krebs cycle.
➢ Aerobic: a process that needs oxygen to take place.
➢ Function: The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs or citric acid cycle, is the main
source of energy for cells and an important part of aerobic respiration. The cycle harnesses the available
chemical energy of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) into the reducing power of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NADH).
➢ Location: the Krebs cycle reactions take place in the mitochondrial matrix, a dense solution that surrounds
the mitochondria crests: in addition to water, the matrix contains all the enzymes necessary for the
biochemical reactions of the cycle, coenzymes, and phosphates.
➢ Reactants: acetyl CoA and the aforementioned four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate.
➢ Products: two molecules of carbon, three molecules of NADH, one molecule of FADH2 and one molecule
of ATP or GTP are produced.
Electron Transport Chain (aerobic): function/purpose, location, reactants, products
➢ Electron Transport Chain: a series of proteins in the membrane of the thylakoid. High-energy electrons
leave the chlorophyll and enter an electron transport chain.
➢ Function: is used to pump protons into the intermembrane space. This establishes a proton gradient,
allowing protons to be pumped through ATP synthase in order to create ATP.
 ➢ Location: The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) is the mitochondrial membrane which separates the
mitochondrial matrix from the intermembrane space.
➢ Reactants: 2 hydrogen ions and 2 electrons start the chain. Oxygen and ADP are also reactants.
➢ Products: 3 ATP and a water molecule are products.

Photosynthesis: light-DEPENDENT-reactions (lights reactions) & light-INDEPENDENT-reactions (dark

reactions) functions/purpose, location, reactants, products
➢ Light-dependent reactions: capture energy from sunlight.
➢ Function: convert light energy into chemical energy. The goal of the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis is to collect energy from the sun and break down water molecules to produce ATP and
NADPH.
➢ Location: takes place within and across the membrane of the thylakoids.
➢ Reactants: are adenosine diphosphate (ADP), oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP+) and the hydrogen in water.
➢ Products: ATP and NADPH.
➢ Light-Independent reactions: use energy from the light-dependent reactions to make sugars.
➢ Function: use stored chemical energy from the light-dependent reactions to “fix” CO2 and create a product
that can be converted into glucose. The ultimate goal of the light-independent reactions (or Calvin cycle) is
to assemble a molecule of glucose.
➢ Location: takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts. Stroma = The internal space enclosed by the chloroplast
double membrane but excluding the thylakoid space. This space, filled with a colorless hydrophilic matrix,
contains DNA, ribosomes and some temporary products of photosynthesis.
➢ Reactants: CO2, NADPH, and ATP.
➢ Products: glucose, NADP+, and H2O.