Translation in Practice

Nanjing University
M1L1 Why translate

Why does translation matter? This subject is so huge and complex that it cannot be summed up in
one sentence or one page or one lesson. Maybe we can narrow it down and ask, what contributions
translation makes to our life, to our world? But that's still to big a question. Let's ask it in another
way. Without translation, what would happen to our life, to the technologies we're so use to, to
literature and arts that we enjoy? To our religious and spiritual experiences, to our political, social,
professional, and personal life? According to the study of anthropologists, there are more than 6,000
human languages in the world. It's not known how many of these languages are written. Let's
hypothesize there are 600. How many languages can one read? It's said that a Lebanese linguist can
read 40 different languages, that's really amazing. But for many of us, it would be difficult even to
be able to read two or three languages. Without translation, it would be impossible for even the
most gifted linguists who read, and through reading, to learn any facts, thoughts, feelings, written in
any language they don't know. [MUSIC] Giordano Bruno said in the 16th century, from translation
all science had its offspring. I would say, from translation all branches of learning developed.
Results of academic's research in one language and made available to researchers of other
languages through translation, who may then advance the study. Without translation, they may not
benefit from the work of their fellow researchers and get inspirations from them. [MUSIC]
Translators of King James' Bible, after completing the translation in the 17th century, wrote to the
readers. Translation it is that openeth the window to let in the light that breaketh the shell, that we
may eat the kernel. That putteth aside the curtain, that we may look into the most holy place. That
removeth the cover of the well, that we may come by the water. Without that translation, the
English-speaking people would not have had the opportunity to bathe in the light or to come by the
water. Similarly, Martin Luther's translation of the Bible into German in the 16th century, brought
about not only the religious reform in Germany, but also the revival of the German language and
even the German nation. Actually, in every area of human life that we can look at, we see the active
role translation plays. The history of Roman civilization and the Roman Empire would have been
different if the ancient Greek books on philosophy, arts and science were not translated into Latin.
The great Renaissance would also have been different without the translation of the great works
produced in ancient Rome into the vernacular languages of Europe. After the Industrial Revolution,
translation was an important means through which the European countries could know as much as
possible about their competitors. In the 19th century, Japan opened its door to the world, after
realizing gaps between Japan and the Western countries through the translation of Western works.
Throughout history, world literature has been made available to readers through translation. It is
translation that enables the writers and their works to reach as many readers as possible. This is also
true with books on arts, philosophy, history, psychology, education, social studies, and many other
subjects. Without translation, we cannot be inspired and touched by the thoughts, perspectives,
experiences and feelings in them. To become ever more open-minded, learned, sympathetic, to
know the world and ourselves better. Today, in this globalized world, translation continues to be
exceptionally important for nations to interact, for companies to operate. For students and teachers
to learn the latest development in their fields of study. For everyone of us to be informed about the
news in the world, to travel, to read, to watch films, etc., etc. This course, Translation in Practice,
lays a foundation in translation, which I hope will get you involved in translation work. And
through your translations make contributions to the development of the language and culture,
science and technology, and international exchanges. I also hope that this course will make it
possible for you to be inspired and touched by the thoughts, perspectives, experiences, and feelings
expressed in a foreign language. In this course, you're going to see what makes a qualified
professional translator. And you are going to acquire some of the abilities and skills that a qualified
professional translator needs. You are going to navigate the lessons on how to analyze the meanings
of words, the structures of sentences, the logic of paragraphs. How to understand the meanings
between the lines, the tones and the styles of the source language text. How to express the meanings
of words and the author's ideas and tones in the target language? How to translate the cultural
elements, and a lot more. Now, let's start our navigation together.

M1L2 What Is Translation

One of the first questions we ask before we learn translation or do translation is, what is translation?
You may already have some experience in translation or maybe you don't have any experience yet.
But you have read translated works and there are some translations that you like and some that you
don't. Do you think the translator's understanding of what is translation, affects their translation
practice? When you decided to take this course, what did translation mean to you? Translators at all
times and in all countries, have given many definitions of translation. They define different types of
translations. For example, literary translation and nonfiction translation. They view translation from
different perspectives. For example, from the perspective of linguistics or that of art. They
Understand the process of translation differently. For example, Whether it evolves language codes
only or culture as well or artistic re-creation. As a result, it is very difficult if not at all, impossible
for us to sum up a definition of translation that apply in all circumstances. Despite the difficulty, we
can still shed some light on this matter. As different translators have used various figures of
speech ;-similes, metaphors, analogies, to talk about their understanding of translation. When we
talked about why we learn translation, we mentioned the translation of King James Bible. Let's start
from here. In 1611, King James Bible was published in Europe. It was the result of efforts made by
47 translators in seven years. The translators did their best to achieve loyalty to the Greek and
Hebrew source text and the preciseness, conciseness and elegance of the target language. And then
forward the translators writes, "Translation it is that openeth the window, to let in the light; that
breaketh the shell, that we may eat the kernel; that putteth aside the curtain, that when we look into
the most holy place; that removeth the cover of the well, that we may come by the water." In these
words, we see very clearly the role translation plays in religious, spiritual, and cultural life. In the
17th century, a French translator named Gilles Ménage, formed the phrase, les belles infidèles,
beautiful but unfaithful woman. [FOREIGN]. To describe beautiful but faithful translation. Do we
love women who are beautiful but not faithful or do we love women who are faithful but not
beautiful? This question involves gender bias. But it makes us think what the Chinese Taoist
philosopher Lao-Tzu writes, [FOREIGN]. I don't know if Lao-Tzu thinking of translation among
other things, when he wrote this. But I think his words speak to the difficult choice translators often
have to make, between being faithful to the source language and being elegant in a target's
language. Monologist would shed some light on the criteria of a good translation. Yang Jiang, a
famous writer and translator writes in her article entitled [FOREIGN]. She's talking about the role
of the translator. The translator in whole words is a servant who serves both the original work and
the reader at the same time. And is expected to be faithful to both. In other words, the job of the
translator is to accelerate and deeply understand the meaning of the original work, faithfully express
the meaning of the target language and express it in such a way that a target readers would feel as if
that were really a work written in their native language. Sounds reasonable, but not at all easy to do.
Often, the effort to serve the original work and the effort to serve the readers are not compatible.
Personally, I like what the American translator Margaret Sayers Peden says about translation, "I like
to think of the original work as an ice cube. During the process of translation the Cube is melted.
While in its liquid state, every molecule changes place; none remains in its original relationship to
the others. Then begins the process of forming the work in a second language. Molecules escape,
new molecules are poured in to fill in the spaces, but the lines of molding and mending are virtually
invisible. The work exists in a second language as a new ice cube- different, but to all appearances
the same." This is a very good description of the process of translation. From what these translators
say about translation, we can have an idea about the relationship between the source language text
and the translation, the translator and the reader And the translator and the source language text et
cetera. As translators or future translators, how do you define your role in translation? How do you
understand your responsibilities?

M1L3 What is good translation

The topic of this lesson is what is good translation. Before we answer this question, let's read
together a translation. This is the original sentence in English. Millie hunts close, quarters well,
points beautifully, is staunch to wing and shot, and retrieves with verve. You need to know, you may
have guessed, Millie is dog. Now, let's read the Chinese translation. [FOREIGN]. Whoa, Millie
must be a genius. She can divide the game into four equal parts and she can shoot. Perhaps she's not
a dog, but a huntsman in disguise. This translation is very suspicious. When we read the source
language, we see that the translator did not understand a few key words. Quarter can mean to divide
into four equal parts. It can also mean to range over an area in every direction. The second meaning
is appropriate in this context, especially when considering a fact that Millie is a dog. Point does not
mean to tell or give direction, but to hold her head towards the game. Shot is a mass noun, which
means tiny lead pellets used in a single charge or cartridge in a shotgun. All these words are related
to hunting. In the lesson, about why we translate, we mentioned that translation communicates the
thought, perspectives, experiences, feelings expressed in language A to readers of language B. A
translation cannot be good if it does not communicate the meaning of the source language. This
translation does not communicate the meaning of the source language. Good translation requires
more than conveying the meaning of the source language. Here's another translation of the sentence
about Millie. [FOREIGN]. Does the translation convey the meaning in a source language? I should
say so. Is it good translation? No. I don't think so. It reads boring and dull. If this translation is bad
because the language it uses is bad, then is the translation good if the language is fluent, expressive,
and beautiful? Let's take a look at this. [FOREIGN] This Chinese sentence is a very vivid
description of a hunting scene. A clever, quick, loyal and proud dog magically kills a bird. However,
when we look at the English sentence, we find it doesn't mention at all how the dog gets the bird
that is about to fly away when her owner shoots at it. This translation is not really translation, it is
rewriting. What we looked at just now are two extremes of translation. They bring us to the
discussion of or debate on what is good translation that has been going on ever since human beings
began to translate. During the three kingdoms period, a Chinese translator named [FOREIGN]
translated more than 20 Buddhist sutras. He believed that a translation should [FOREIGN]. In other
words, he emphasized the communication of meaning instead of the fluency of language.
[FOREIGN], a well-known Buddhist in a Tang Dynasty, pointed out that good translation
[FOREIGN]. He was saying that the translation should be faithful to the original text and be easy to
understand. In other words, both the conveyance of the meaning and the fluency of the language are
important. The relationship between faithfulness and expressiveness has been a central issue in the
discussion of the criteria of good translation. [FOREIGN], a modern Chinese writer and translator,
said that in translation, he would [FOREIGN], giving high priority to the readability of the
translation. Responding to [FOREIGN] words, [FOREIGN], another modern Chinese writer and
translator, said [FOREIGN], which aroused a heated debate in a Chinese literary circle at that time.
[FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] all indicate the difficult situation translations are
often in. It will be great if the translation can be truthful and expressive, but in reality, it's very
difficult to be both. When we do translations, we may not consciously think about making a choice
between the two. But when we are in difficulty or dilemma, we realize that we have to make a
choice. Are we going to be faithful to the original text or to the reader? Are we going to create a
beautiful but unfaithful translation? Or are we going to create a faithful but not beautiful
translation? If we want our translation to be exactly the same as the original text, we may cause
barriers in understanding to the readers. If we want the readers to enjoy reading, we may take the
risk of misrepresenting the original text. As the Canadian writer, Anne Michaels, says in Fugitive
Pieces, you choose your philosophy of translation just as you choose how to live: the free
adaptation that sacrifices detail to meaning, the strict crib that sacrifices meaning to exactitude. In
translation studies and practice in contemporary times, some new ideas have been presented.
[FOREIGN], a writer and translator from Taiwan, says [FOREIGN]. It would be perfect if we could
have it both ways, but in practice, when should we make compromises and to what extent.
[FOREIGN], who translated many well-known French writers' works, says [FOREIGN]. The
question is how do we express the spirit of the original work? Maybe the answer is what
[FOREIGN] has said. It depends on each individual translator on his or her flexibility, which means
that translator's subjectivity plays an important role in translation. How do we understand the
translator's subjectivity? The Czech scholar, Jiri Levy, says translation is a decision making process.
If the translator makes the decision, then he or she can be freed from the difficult situation of being
caught between being faithful and expressive between the original work and the readers. However,
we have to realize that while it's true that translator's decisions are affected by his or her knowledge,
experience, values, even characters, they're also affected by the time, the society, the culture the
translator is in as well. How subjective is a translator's subjectivity is an issue to be discussed. In
translation practice, translators encounter all kinds of complicated issues. To a certain extent, the
understanding of what is translation and what is good translation serves as a compass that tells us
which direction to go. But how do we get there? We need the help of translation techniques, which
will be discussed in the following lessons.

M2L1 Four-Step Translation Process

The process of translation involves an understanding of the source language and expression in the
target language. I break down this process into four steps. Step 1, from a general idea or impression
of the diction, style, tone, etc., of the source language. Step 2, understand the meanings of the words
in the source language and analyze the grammar and logic, if necessary. Step 3, look for the
appropriate expressions in the target language. And step 4, make revisions according to the
vernacular of the target audience. Let me use one example to explain what these four steps mean
and how they work. I want to point out before we start that there is no way clear distinction between
these four steps and they do not follow the exact order. That when we become experienced the
translators, we may merge these steps. But now, for the purpose of teaching, I have deliberately
distinguished the steps, one from another. And I'll try analyze each step in details. Before we start to
do any translation, we should read the paragraph first. Rone Boyko, an otherwise healthy 38-year-
old woman who likes to jog and swim, had her first attack of vertigo in the summer of 2003. I woke
up one morning and couldn't see straight, the Winnipeg mother of two and vice-principal of a
French elementary school remembers, I felt the floor was going to fall out from underneath me.
This paragraph is taken from an article about popular science. Articles of this kind, are written for a
general audience, normally in precise language, with clear description and strict logic. These
characteristics should be found in our translation, as well. The language of this paragraph is not
difficult. The narration is very clear. But the two sentences are a little bit long, and the structure of
the sentences is a little bit complicated, when we need to rearrange the order of the words and
phrases in our translation. This is what we know from the first reading. What type of writing it is?
What is the style of its language? And what is the structure? The second step is to understand the
meanings of words and phrases. In this paragraph, maybe the only word we don't know is vertigo.
We'll simply look up the word in a dictionary or on the Internet. In Chinese, vertigo means
[FOREIGN]. Now we can translate. [FOREIGN] We stop here because we find it very awkward if
we go on. How do we translate the word, otherwise? We know the meaning of this word in Chinese
[FOREIGN]. However, if we translate the sentence into [FOREIGN]. It doesn't make sense. The
reader will be confused. This is bad Chinese. So we need to look into the meaning of this word
within the context and find a best Chinese expression for it. How do we do that? We can analyze the
relationship between this word and what comes before it, and what comes after it. The subordinate
clause in this sentence tells us that this woman is 38 years old, that she likes to jog and swim. In
other words, she's young and healthy. The main clause tells us that she was attacked by vertigo in
the summer of 2003. And we know that vertigo is a kind of illness. Putting these together, we know
that before that attack of vertigo she didn't really have any serious health problems. Now we can
translate the sentence into [FOREIGN]. Let's go on with our translation. [FOREIGN] This is the
first draft of our translation. Is all the information in the source language retained in the Chinese
translation? Yes. Is the translation good Chinese? No. It is not really Chinese. It is translation-ese. It
reads very awkward. We need to revise it. When we revise the translation, there are three things that
we need to consider. The meaning must be correct and precise. The narration must be clear and
logical, and the language must be fluent and vernacular. Now, let's go back to the first sentence. The
word woman is modified by an adjective phrase add to it, who likes to jog and swim and two words
before it, 38 year old and healthy. And healthy itself is modified by otherwise, which makes this
part of sentence look like a little tree with tricks reaching out in all directions. English sentences and
Chinese sentences are structurally different., and translation involves not just the meanings of
words, but the structures of sentences and the cultural differences. In the following lectures, we will
deal with all of these. For now, we need to know that because of the different structures in English
and Chinese sentences, we need to trim the sentence. This part makes several points, Rene is 38
years old, she was healthy, she likes to jog and swim. In Chinese, [FOREIGN]. By breaking down a
long English sentence into smaller parts, separated by commas in a Chinese sentence. We have done
the translation not only in terms of the language code but also in terms of the sentence structure.
Had her first attack of vertigo was translated into, [FOREIGN], which is bookish and not good
Chinese. We can change that into [FOREIGN]. Now, let's look at the second sentence. The subject
of this sentence is very long. In the first draft, this subject is directly translated into Chinese. Which
makes the sentence very unbalanced, like a person with a very thick, strong upper body and very
thin and short legs. But this part is between two quotes and cannot be broken down into smaller
parts as we did with the first sentence. How do we solve this? We can change the order of the words
and sometimes sentences when we translate paragraphs and passages. As long as the original
meanings are correctly conveyed. Actually, word order is one important consideration when we do
translation. And you will learn the technique of changing a word order in the following lectures.
Now, the second sentence tells us two things, her role as a mother, and a school prinicipal and the
first attack of where to go. So can we rearrange the order of, or the points, tell the general
information I've relayed first and then talk about the specific incidents? Let's try that. [FOREIGN]
We notice that in this second draft, the order of the original sentences has been greatly changed. But
all the information is retained, and the Chinese reads much better than the first draft. Finally, let's
polish the language and give a finishing touch to the translation. Where's Winnipeg? The city may
not be known to the Chinese readers. They may know Vancouver or Toronto, but maybe not
Winnipeg. We can add [FOREIGN] before it, to help the Chinese readers better understand where
Rone is from. This is a commonly used translation skill called addition, which we will discuss in
details in the following lessons. The word [FOREIGN] is added to provide the readers with cultural
information. We can also put a full stop after [FOREIGN] to separate two different points. When we
do this, we need a subject for this new sentence. So we add [FOREIGN]. We use the technique of
addition again, and this time to make the sentence grammatically correct. [FOREIGN] This
expression in not native to Chinese. It can be changed into [FOREIGN]. Now, our final draft
becomes; Rone Boyko [FOREIGN]. This final draft retains all the information in the original
paragraph. It gives the narration a very clear logical order and it is in Chinese Vernacular. I hope
this example can give you an idea of how translation is done

M2L2 Gathering Background Information

The first step in translation, is to understand the source language. This is the key to good translation.
If we do not understand the source language, or if we do not understand it deeply and thoroughly,
our translation will be dissatisfactory. To understand a source language text means to understand,
first of all of course, the language. Including not only the surface meaning, the underlying meaning,
the implications, and the overtones. But also the structures of the sentences, and the logical
relationship between sentences and paragraphs. Besides the language itself, we need to know many
other things. Things I would call background information. What is background information? It
includes, who is the writer of the source language text? What is the attitude of the writer? What is
the purpose of the writer? What is the style of the writing? What is the historical, geographical,
social and cultural setting in and context of the writing? Let's take a look at some of them. Who is
the writer? It's important to know who the writer is, especially when we translate literary works.
Because this helps us understand the idea and the style of the writing. Some writers are well-known,
and we already know something about them. Some writers are lesser-known, or when we have
never read their works. In this case, we need to do some research on them. I'd like to share with you
my own experience. Some years ago, I translated the Canadian writer Michael Ondaatje's work,
Running in the Family. I was a young translator at that time, with little experience. I knew very little
about Canadian literature. And they knew nothing about this writer. And enjoyed reading and
translating the hilarious anecdotes in the book. And I often laughed as I translated. At the same time,
however, I could strongly feel the helplessness and sadness between the lines. Where did this
feeling come from? Why did I feel sad, after I laughed? Was my feeling wrong? The uncertainty
about this feeling affected my choice of words, and my decision on the rhythm and the pace of the
language. I decided to look up the writer. The writer, Michael Ondaatje, was born in Sri Lanka with
mixed European and Singhalese blood. His book, Running in the Family, is about mixed-raced
people in Sri Lanka. A sense of loss and uncertainty prevailed among these people. Who belong to
neither the European colonizers nor the native colonized. After reading about the writer, I had a
better understanding of a sadness and loss, masked by the carefree lifestyle and the indulgings.
Their feelings float onto the paper from my pen. What is the setting in and context of the writing?
This can refer to the historical, political, social and cultural setting in, and context of the writing.
For example, the historical context of Abraham Lincoln's speech, Gettysburg Address, is the
American Civil War. The social context of Stephen Hawking's speech, The Origin of the Universe,
is the research findings of physics. The geographical and historical setting of the Chinese Nobel
Prize winner, Mo Yan's novel, Red Sorghum, is Gaomi, Shandong province in the 1930s and 1940s.
This can also refer to the natural and cultural environment in a writing, and in which the writing is
produced. For example, in the Nobel prize winner Alice Munro's book, Dear Life, there was a story
about a woman living on a farm near Lake Huron. In winter, when she goes to the barn, she has a
rope round the back door to hang onto. When I translated this sentence, I understood every word in
it. But I just didn't understand why she has a rope around the back door, and why she has to hang
onto the rope. I could simply translate it into [FOREIGN]. This is the faithful translation, but
something is not there in this translation. Luckily I met an old man one day, and we began to chat.
And he told me that he used to live on a farm near Lake Huron. I immediately asked him about the
rope. He solved the mystery for me. It's very cold in winter near Lake Huron. When the dry snow is
blown by the strong wind, the visibility becomes very low. And people have to tie a rope between
their house and where they go on the farm, such as the barn. And hang onto the rope, so that they
can find their way back. He himself forgot to do so once, and almost got lost on his own farm. After
I went home that day, I rushed to my computer and changed my translation of that sentence into
[FOREIGN]. She does this to make sure she can walk to the barn and back. This is a short and
simple sentence, but the full meaning of it cannot be translated. Unless we know what is really
going on in the life of the residents on the farms near Lake Huron, in Canada. What is the genre of
the writing? Is it poetry, drama, novel? Is it narrative, expository, argumentative? Poetry is very
special literary genre. With refined language, rich feelings, vivid imagery, distinct rhythm, and
rhymes. Classical Chinese poems have the same number of characters in each line. Are particular
about tone patterns and rhyming. And are well-known for expressing deep thoughts and rich
feelings, in concise language. Here are a few lines from the Li Bai's poem, [FOREIGN].
[FOREIGN]. This poem has been translated into English by different translators. This is the
translation I like. On hobbyhorse you came upon the scene. Around the well we played with the
plums still green. We lived, close neighbors on Riverside Lane. Carefree and innocent, we children
twain. It is impossible to have the same number of words in each line of English translation. And
the tonal pattern of a Chinese poem cannot be represented in a meter of an English poem. But we
can clearly see the translator's efforts to keep the rhyming. Scene and green, lane and twain. And his
effort to keep the imagery. Hobbyhorse, and green plums. When we read poems, we have certain
expectations. When we translate poems, we know in which aspects we should make special efforts.
This is why our knowledge of the genre is important in doing translation. Practical writing also has
special characteristics. Practical writing, as the term suggests, is for practical purposes. Resolutions,
instructions, reports, proposals, announcements. Contracts, minutes, letters of invitation, business
letters, etc., are all practical writings. Of the many characteristics of practical writing, two are
important for translators to know. First, practical writing is based on facts, and there is absolutely no
room for artistic recreation. The translator must translate everything correctly. Paying special
attention to time, dates, numbers, names of people and places, technical terms, etc. For example,
here is a part of a non-disclosure agreement. The Chinese agreement uses formal language and is
written in a formal tone. The English translation also uses formal language, such as dated, entered
into by and between, whereas. And is written in a formal tone. Second. Practical writings have their
formats that cannot be changed. The overall layout of the document and the formatting of the
content, should both follow the source file as closely as possible. The tables, charts, graphs, etc.,
should be exact the same as those in a source language text. Here are two examples. The first
example. The second example. As we can see, the format of the source language text is exactly
kept in the translation. What is the style of the source language text? The style of a text is to a great
extent decided by its genre. Practical writings, for example, except personal letters, mostly use
formal, precise, and plain language. Instead of humorous, casual, or flowery language. The styles of
literary writings can be very different, depending on who the writer is. Ernest Hemingway's style is,
among other things, terse. Charles Dickens is witty and sometimes sentimental. Lu Xun can be tart.
Zhang Ailing can be sharp. A writer's style gives his or her writings very special characteristics, and
distinguishes him or her from other writers. To translate a writer's work, it is important, of course, to
translate the ideas. It is equally important to translate the style. What is the attitude of the writer? If
we know the writer's attitude when we read the source language text, we'll be alerted to self-
contradictions. Details that do not support the writer's opinion, or changes in attitude. Which
indicate that there may be something wrong in our translation. To know the background information
of a source language text, we can also ask ourselves, what is the purpose of the writing? Is it to
inform, to persuade, or both? If it is to inform, then the writing may follow a time order or space
order, and use clear and concise language. If the purpose is to persuade, then the writing will follow
a logical order, uses language that appeals to reason, or to both reason and emotions. If we read
more carefully we will also note the logical relationship within the writing, and implied meanings of
certain words. The background information can help us understand the source language text.
Choose the appropriate words, use the writer's style, and be aware of the cultural elements. Finding
the background information of a source language text is, therefore, an essential step in translation.

M2L3 Deciding on the Word Meaning

The third step in translation is to understand the word meaning. Translators need to have a large
vocabulary. They need to constantly enlarge their vocabulary. But no matter how large a vocabulary
one has, one does not and cannot know every word in both the source language and the target
language. When we try to decide the meanings of the words, we need a help of the dictionary and
the context. Speaking of looking at the dictionary, we may immediately think of new words,
technical terms, words that we don't commonly use in our daily life. Some of these words and terms
can be found in learner's dictionaries. Some can only be found in special dictionaries and reference
materials such as those of forestry, construction, navigation, religion, to name only a few. However,
looking at the words and terms is not simply turning the pages of the dictionaries and reference
books. And looking for definitions and or explanations that are already written there. Very often we
have to select the most appropriate definition or explanation among a list of many. And sometimes
we have to translate certain words ourselves. Here is one example. [FOREIGN] We may be
intimidated by the sentence at first glance, not because it is long or complicated, but because it has
so many terms that we don't know that we have never heard of. What does [FOREIGN] mean, for
example? We don't even know the meaning of the word in Chinese. How do we translate it into
English? Two things can help us. First, this sentence is from an article about the import of timber.
Second, the word [FOREIGN] is used together with the word [FOREIGN] so it must have
something to do with the treatment of timber. This is what the Chinese-English dictionary says
about [FOREIGN] stifling, suffocating. [FOREIGN] used in traditional Chinese medicine, treat by
fuming, steaming, [FOREIGN] fumigate. The first and the second definition do not fit in the
context. Can we use the third translation? Without an example sentence, we cannot be sure. Let's
look at the word fumigate in English-Chinese dictionary. The dictionary says fumigate is a verb
which means, [FOREIGN] the noun is fumigation. Now, we can be sure that fumigate or fumigation
is the word we are looking for. Next, let's see what [FOREIGN] means in [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN]
is a place where we store things. For example, [FOREIGN] arsenal, [FOREIGN] warehouse,
[FOREIGN] library, and so on. In this sentence however, [FOREIGN] is not where timber is stored
but where treatment takes place. On the Internet, we can find a translation of [FOREIGN]
fumigation chamber. Is it right? Let's Google fumigation chamber. What we find are webpages that
use this term when talking about pest control. When timber is imported, it needs to go through a
pest control process, and this process involves fumigation. So fumigation chamber is the translation
for [FOREIGN]. We do the same when we translate [FOREIGN]. What is the meaning of
[FOREIGN] here? Medicine? Drug? Chemical? Is used in fumigation so it can't be medicine or
drug. Can we translate it into chemical? Wait, let's find out what kind of chemical is used to
fumigate timber. On the Internet, the translation is fumigant. We should use fumigant instead of
chemical, because the former is more specific while the latter is too general. Now, that we know
[FOREIGN] is fumigant, how do we translate [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN] can be offer, apply, dose,
give. Offer and give both mean [FOREIGN]. Apply means [FOREIGN]. Dose means [FOREIGN].
[FOREIGN] is correct. The fumigation takes place in the fumigation chamber. And fumigant is
carried, or transported, or delivered, or supplied to the chamber from this [FOREIGN]. Yes, supply
is the word. It means to make available for use. So we can translate [FOREIGN] into fumigant
supply room. This term is not found in a dictionary or on the Internet. We translated it ourselves.
From what we did just now to translate the two words [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] we see that we
need to look up dictionaries, search the Internet, analyze the context, and compare synonyms, so
that we can decide on the meaning of a word. We tend to think that terms such as [FOREIGN] and
[FOREIGN] are difficult to translate while commonly used words are easy to translate. Actually,
this is not the case, because we are familiar with commonly used words. We think we know what
the mean, but we end up making mistakes. In many cases, we need to analyze the grammar and the
logic of the source language in order to correctly translate words we think we know so well. Let's
look at two examples. The first example, are they ahead of us or behind? It was dawn there too?
This sentence is taken from a short story in which a son comes home to America from Australia,
and the father goes to the airport to meet him. When the father sees the son, he asks these two
questions. The original translation is [FOREIGN]? All the words in a source language text are
simple, commonly used words. The Chinese translation seems to match the English sentences.
However, in a Chinese translation, the second question does not naturally follow the first one. We
should read the two sentences again carefully. If ahead of us means [FOREIGN] and behind us
means [FOREIGN] this seem not to have any logical relationship with dawn. Can the word dawn
have other meanings? In a dictionary, dawn means [FOREIGN]. This doesn't solve our problem. We
need to look up the words ahead and behind. We find that ahead means in a forward direction or
position, at or to an earlier time, in or toward a more advantageous position. Behind means in, to, or
toward the back, later in time, in a secondary or inferior position. Taking into consideration that
dawn is a time concept. And Australia and America are in different hemispheres. We can conclude
that ahead and behind refer to the difference in time instead of the difference in economic
development. As such, we can translate the two questions into [FOREIGN]. In the same story, after
the father drives the son home, he says, think I'd slide over to the track. Now that I'm up. The
original translation of the two sentences is [FOREIGN]. Another puzzling translation. There might
be some difficulty understanding the first sentence. And because the translator misunderstood the
second sentence, she couldn't tell that the translation of the first sentence was wrong too. In the
second sentence, Now that, means [FOREIGN] instead of [FOREIGN]. And up means [FOREIGN]
instead of [FOREIGN]. So the second sentence should be translated into [FOREIGN]. Now, it
doesn't make sense logically to put these two sentences together, [FOREIGN]. We need to take a
closer look at the foot sentence. When the father says this, he's already home. If he really means
[FOREIGN] the word think should be in a past tense. But it is in the present tense, which means he
wants to do something now. Grammatically, it is not correct to translate the sentence into
[FOREIGN]. Well, if he doesn't want to go to the railway track, what does he want to do? I guess
the translator is so familiar with the word track that she translated it into [FOREIGN] without much
thinking. Actually, track can also mean [FOREIGN], [FOREIGN], [FOREIGN] [FOREIGN]. In this
context, [FOREIGN] is the equivalent word. It is still early and he has got up, so why not go to the
track and jog? Both logically and grammatically, it makes sense. So these two sentences can be
translated into [FOREIGN]. After revising and polishing, these two sentences become this one
sentence, [FOREIGN]. From the examples we looked at just now, we see that we need the help of
dictionaries and reference materials to understand word meanings, but we cannot rely on them. Very
often we have to decide on word meanings with the help of our own careful reading, common
sense, and logical thinking. In the following lessons, we will look at many more examples, and talk
in greater detail about the understanding of word meanings in translation.

M2L4 Looking for Appropriate Expressions

The fourth step in translation is look for appropriate expressions in the target language. We cannot
separate the third step, understanding word meaning, from the fourth step, looking for appropriate
expressions. Expressions gradually form as we read the source language text, look up the words,
analyze the grammar and the logic. However, this process does not necessarily lead to appropriate
expressions. When we write down our translation, we need to remember there are differences in the
English culture and the Chinese culture. The English readers and the Chinese readers, they make
different associations with the same words, that the same idea may be expressed differently in
English and in Chinese. In this lesson, we'll look at a few factors that we should consider when we
try to decide what is the appropriate expression, and a few techniques that we can use to help us
with the expression. Culture difference, let me give you two examples. The first example, the
English word uncle can be translated into [FOREIGN]. Sometimes, we have to read a whole story
very closely before we can find out which Chinese word we should use to translate this one English
word. In a Chinese culture, blood relationship is very important. That's why we need different
words to tell whether the relative is from the father's family, that is [FOREIGN], or the mother's
family, that is [FOREIGN], or, is a member of the family by marriage, that is [FOREIGN]. Within
the father's family, we need different words to tell whether this man is older than the father,
[FOREIGN], or younger than the father, [FOREIGN], because seniority is important. In English
culture however, it does not seem necessary to tell the difference, so [FOREIGN] they are all
uncles. There are also Chinese words that have more than one equivalent word in English, for
example, the year 2015 is [FOREIGN]. There are three versions of English translation of
[FOREIGN]. Year of the goat, year of the sheep, year of the ram, which is the correct translation?
At the beginning of 2015, BBC reported hundreds of millions of Chinese people are traveling home
to spend the Lunar new year holiday with their families in the world's biggest annual migration. But
while it is farewell to the Year of the Horse, confusion abounds as to whether the coming year is
dedicated to the sheep, ram, or goat. Let's watch a video. >> One, two three, . >> As translators, we
should have the cultural awareness when we look for appropriate expressions in a target language.
Differences in collocation, in doing translation we should also be aware of the differences in
collocation in English and in Chinese. In Chinese, for example, the verb [FOREIGN] goes with
many nouns, so that we can form phrases, such as [FOREIGN] and so on. In English however, no
verb can be used together with all these nouns. The phrases we looked at just now can be translated
into, open the door, drive the car, turn on the light, keep a shop, hold a meeting, make a list, write a
check. Similarly, in English we can say, for example, answer the question, answer the letter, answer
the door, answer the phone, answer the needs, answer criticism. We cannot find one Chinese word,
however, that is equivalent to the word answer in all these phrases. This should be translated into
[FOREIGN]. Differences in word usage, certain words, such as abstract nouns, pronouns, and
verbs, are used differently in the two languages. We should be aware of these two. Let's look at a
few examples of the translation of abstract nouns and pronouns. Abstract nouns in English can be
used to tell the specific qualities, characteristics, status of people or things. The specific nature,
status, characteristics of behaviors or the specific process and degree of actions and a time and place
at which actions happen. For example, in this English sentence, short verses in the frescoes spoke of
love in all its confusions and brokenness. Both confusion and brokenness are abstract nouns. It's not
difficult to translate confusion, which means [FOREIGN], but how do we translate brokenness? Is it
[FOREIGN]? In the sentence, the two words describe two characteristics of love. So, we can
translate the sentence into [FOREIGN], instead of translating into [FOREIGN], which sounds very
odd. There are three types of pronouns in Chinese, personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and
interrogative pronouns. In English, there are eight types of pronouns, personal pronouns, possessive
pronouns, self pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns,
relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. Not every English pronoun, therefore, can find an
equivalent pronoun in Chinese. What adds to the difficulty is that these pronouns are used
differently in the two languages. In English, for example, we say please hand in your homework.
But in Chinese we don't say [FOREIGN]. Instead, we say [FOREIGN]. Your is omitted in the
translation. Though grammatically it's not incorrect to say [FOREIGN], we just don't say so in
Chinese. There are no self pronouns in Chinese. So those in English can be translated into
[FOREIGN] or not translated. For example, take good care of yourself can be translated into
[FOREIGN]. She herself is a doctor can be translated into [FOREIGN]. He hid himself can be
translated into [FOREIGN]. In this case, himself is not translated. Chinese personal pronouns have
different genders only in the third person that is [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN].
English personal pronouns have different genders, such as he and she, have plural form and singular
form, such as I and we, and have nominative, objective, and possessive cases, such as they, them,
their, and theirs. In the following sentences, we find the same pronoun, [FOREIGN]. The same
word [FOREIGN] is translated into different pronouns in English. We are good friends. They drove
us to the airport. They are our neighbours. There are techniques that can help us with our
expressions, such as affirmation and negation, addition and omission, changing the word order,
combining and splitting sentences, etc. We're going to learn and practice these techniques in the
future lessons. In this lesson, we'll only look at a few examples, so that we have a general idea of
what these are. Let's read this sentence. Before daybreak the men were working and they finished
at six. We can translate the sentence into [FOREIGN], or we can translate it into [FOREIGN]. There
is a slight difference between the translations of the word before [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN].
They are the same in meaning, but different in tones. Both mean it's early in the morning, but
[FOREIGN] emphasizes this fact and makes reader feel more strongly about it. This is English
sentence, with all his achievements he remains modest and prudent. This is the Chinese translation,
[FOREIGN]. In the Chinese translation, [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are added to explicitly
express the adversative relation that is implied in English sentence This is the English sentence,
you can never tell. This is the Chinese translation, [FOREIGN]. In the Chinese translation, the word
you is omitted. In the following lessons, we'll discuss other techniques as well. The last step is
revising and polishing. I suggest that you put aside your translation for some time before you revise
it. What do we revise? Revise the content, fine-tune the choice of words, make sure the terms and
names are consistent. Revise the language, make sure the language flows. Revise mechanics, make
sure the spelling and punctuations are accurate. After all these steps are completed, we can submit
our translation.
M3L1 Identifying Specialized Vocabulary

Each field, profession, specialty, trait, organization. Has and uses a vocabulary that release
specialized concept by means of specialized vocabulary, professional terms, technical terms, jargons
etc. For the sake of convenience, let's call them specialized vocabulary. When we translate writings
of special and specific fields. Such as scientific writings, legal documents, academic papers, sports
reports, etc. We expect to come across specialized vocabulary. In some cases, it is easy to recognize
these vocabularies. It is not difficult to understand or look up their meaning and it does not take
much time or effort to express them in a target language as in the following example. In early May
2008, they began getting email alerts warning of criminals using funny smelling business cards
soaked in a drug called burundanga has a way to incapacitate victims. Reading this sentence, what
you needed to see is that burundanga is not a commonly used word. According to the context it is
used to incapacitate victims or to disable victims. So it must be a kind of anesthetic. We look up the
dictionary and find that its Chinese meaning is [FOREIGN]. Now we can translate this sentence.
[FOREIGN]. The second example, four days after liftoff, on July the 20th, the eagle landing craft
fell to an altitude of ten miles. Then fired its rocket to slow itself out of orbit and into descent. The
technical terms in this sentence liftoff, lending craft, altitude, rocket, orbit are all related to landing
on the moon. If we are familiar with the moon landings in human history. We know that this
sentence describes the landing of Apollo 11. When translating this sentence therefore, we should use
terms in the field of aerospace. Liftoff means [FOREIGN], landing craft originally means
[FOREIGN] but here it means [FOREIGN]. Altitude means [FOREIGN], but here it refers to the
distance between the surface of the moon and the landing craft. Rocket is usually translated into
[FOREIGN], but in documents on the moon landings this word is translated into [FOREIGN]. Orbit
means [FOREIGN]. And here, it specifically refers to of course [FOREIGN]. Now we can translate
the sentence. [FOREIGN]. The third example. [FOREIGN]. In this sentence again, is easy to
recognize the technical terms. [FOREIGN]. Which all describe the construction on the historical
site. It's not difficult to understand [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN]. But we may not know what
[FOREIGN] means at first. This sentence is taken from an article about the Grand Bao'en Temple in
Nanjing. Actually, the words [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] help us guess that this sentence is about
the construction of the underground palace of the Buddhist temple. [FOREIGN] is the alms bowl
that Buddhist monks use and [FOREIGN] must be an overturned alms bowl. In English the sentence
is, to protect the millennium old underground palace, four inclined beams were designed to span the
original site. And sat on the outer part of the pagoda's foundation to form a new underground palace
in the shape of an overturned alms bowl. The first example. [FOREIGN]. The Buddhist terms in this
sentence can be found in Buddhist dictionary. However, it is not enough to give the translations of
these terms. As we know, many Buddhist terms, in both English and Chinese are transliterations of
the terms in Sanskrit. Some of them have become popular vocabulary such as Buddha for and
karma [FOREIGN]. Others however are not commonly used such as [FOREIGN] in this sentence.
To help the readers better understand, we can give explanations of these terms after the
transliterations. The Tripitaka, also referred to as the whole of Buddhist Cannon, is entire collection
of Buddha's teachings. It consists of Sutra, the conventional teaching, Vinaya, the disciplinary code
and Abhidhamma, the commentaries. This English sentence translates the Buddhist to terms
correctly and explains them very clearly. In the examples we look at just now, we can spot the
specialized vocabulary easily. However, this is not always the case. Sometimes certain words and
phrases looks so familiar that we think we know what they mean but maybe we don't. We have to be
very careful whenever we had any doubt about the meanings of words. I'll illustrate this point with
few examples. The first example. And so I drank my pint of Irish stout, taking comfort in the fact
that you've named the mineral hidden in the white stripe of it's head. This sentence at first glance
does not contain any specialized vocabulary. [FOREIGN] But we can't go on. What does head
mean? Does it mean [FOREIGN]? The head of what? The word it that comes before it refers to
Irish stout, so the head here must refer to that of the beer. But what does the head of the beer mean?
This question can be easily answered by the dictionary. Of all the meanings given in a dictionary
[FOREIGN] fits in a context. We can also guess the meaning of this word without looking up the
dictionary. Head refers to the upper, higher part of a body or object. The upper, higher part of beer
in the glass is the foam. So this sentence is [FOREIGN]. The second example, a grey Clydesdale
with a white face, she's 17 hands if she's an inch. We can see that Clydesdale is a special term. It is a
breed of horse. What does 17 hands mean? Now, we feel it necessary to look for the word hand.
One meaning of this word is related to a horse. A unit of measure equal to four inches used
especially for the height of horses. In Chinese, [FOREIGN]. This horse then is 17 hands tall. This
sentence is translated into [FOREIGN]. The examples we looked at just now, tell us that specialized
vocabulary can be found in all kinds of writings. It is of course, necessary and important to
correctly translate them in technical writing mistakes can result in loss or accidents. We can never
assume however, that specialized vocabulary is not important in literal translation because mistakes
do not result in any loss of money or machine failure or injury to workers. Specialized vocabulary
in literal writing for one thing, can make readers view that the descriptions are real. Help them to
get to know different societies and cultures. And affect their reading experience. I myself always try
my best to correctly and precisely translate the descriptions and narrations of industries and fields.
Foreign history and geography, flora and fauna, customs and traditions, etc. For this purpose, I
looked up and familiarized myself with vocabulary of lumbering, breach construction, farming,
architecture, zoology, sea fury, religion, etc. That I mean never even have thought about getting to
know if is we're not for the translations that I did. When translating one in a family for example, I
some how got help from someone working at the Sri Lankan Embassy in Beijing who marked the
pronunciations of the name of the Sri Lankan places on the map. And describe to me the local
plants, animals, and spices. When translating Life of Pi, I looked up dictionaries, encyclopedias, and
other reference books, and wrote many emails to the author in order to correctly understand the
descriptions of navigation, religions, plants, and animals in the book. Without descriptions of the
sea, the fish, the boat, the weather, how can the readers feel the hardships, helplessness, despair, and
hopes of Pi when he drifts on the sea? Without descriptions of a tiger, the hyena, the zebra, the ape.
How can the readers understand the nature of animals and of human beings? Without descriptions
of the plants, animals and religions of India, the readers cannot know the setting of the story. To not
learn the customs of India and loses the background against which they can understand the
characters and the book as a whole. Specialized vocabulary in all kinds of writings deserve our
special attention.

M3L2 Analyzing Grammar and Logic

When we talked about the process of translation, we mentioned that analysis of grammatical
structure of a sentence and logical relationships between sentences can help us understand word
meanings. In this lesson, we're going to use more examples to illustrate this point. Using context
clues to guess word meaning is a skill that we often use in reading comprehension. With context
clues, including the grammatical relationships and logical relationships, we can guess the meanings
of words while reading instead of looking up the dictionary all that time. In translation, these clues
can help us in two ways. One, help us quickly select a meaning from a long list of meanings in a
dictionary. And two, help us detect the mistakes we may have made in understanding the meaning
of words. It's time again for examples. The first example. You can grab a coffee in tony West or
North Vancouver and in less than 20 minutes, drive switchback roads to rugged mountain country,
complete with old-growth forest, alpine lakes and meadows, and in some spots, breathtaking views
of the cityscape below. The original translation of the first part of this sentence is, [FOREIGN].
Tony seems to be a name we're familiar with. Tony West seems to be the name of a cafe, hence the
Chinese translation, [FOREIGN]. However, if we read carefully, we notice that in this sentence, the
first letter of tony is not capitalized, which means it is not a person's name. Besides, isn't it odd to
put North Vancouver, a city in the greater Vancouver area, side by side with a cafe? We need to look
up the word tony with small letter T. This would actually means, "marked by a high-toned manner
or style". Now it make sense. What I mention together are West Vancouver and North Vancouver,
two cities marked by a high-toned style. We cannot translate tony into a Tony just because it looks
like the name Tony. The Chinese translation of this sentence is, [FOREIGN]. The second example.
"No reference to Edmund Blunden is complete without reference to poetry, for first and foremost
he's a poet. 'He thought in numbers and numbers came.' He wrote poetry much as we would write
emails today". In this example, it is very clear that this Edmund Blunden is a poet. Is he a
mathematician, too? We know numbers means, [FOREIGN], so he thought in numbers means,
[FOREIGN]. How weird it is for the writer to say that he's a poet in the first sentence, to mention
his mathematical talents in the second sentence, and then again talk about this poetry writing in the
third sentence? If the first sentence says, Blunden is a poet, and the third sentence describes how he
writes as a poet, isn't logical for the second sentence to describe how he thinks as a poet. We must
look up the word, number. To our surprise, number can mean "metrical lines". Well, if it means
metrical lines, the three sentences are logically connected to each other. [FOREIGN]. The third
example. "On a personal level, the beginning of the seventies saw many of us leave university, start
working our the first jobs, and get married. The end of the decade saw many of us with children or
divorced or living in sin. In this example, we may not know the phrase, living in sin, but we know
sin means [FOREIGN]. Does living in sin mean [FOREIGN]? The two sentences talk about
university graduates who find a job, get married, have children, and get divorced. But then
suddenly, they jumped to living a simple life. What's the relationship between this last part of the
sentence and those that come before it? That's when we look up the phrase, and find that it means,
"live together without getting married". [FOREIGN]. Now, the translation flows. The fourth
example. Who would object to more people receiving higher education? Or more lads from poor
families getting the break?". The word, break, as we know it, means [FOREIGN]. The question is,
how does objecting to people receiving higher education relates to objecting people getting a rest?
We have no doubt at all about the meaning of higher education. So we should look up the word,
break. This word can mean "opportunity". In this context, it means the opportunity to receive higher
education. [FOREIGN]. The fifth example. "Be the flip, look at the mini!" "Be sure the minis are all
in again, don't you know?" "She has the legs." Two women in this dialogue discuss miniskirts, and
then one says that, she has legs. Of course, one cannot wear miniskirts without legs. But is it really
necessary to point out that she has legs? But wait, let's read the last sentence again. It is, she has the
legs, not, she has legs. What legs does she have? Legs that are perfect for wearing miniskirts. This
is the discussion. [FOREIGN]. The sixth example. [FOREIGN]. We know this would [FOREIGN]
in this example. [FOREIGN] refers to free public or private school where children from poor
families could go, or a charity school. However, what is the relationship between such a school and
Buddhism? Why are the center for the translation Buddhist sutras and the center for charity school
juxtaposed? And it is odd to say that a city is a center for charity schools. Were there a lot of such
schools in that city? Since the topic of these two sentences is Buddhism, let's look at a Buddhism
dictionary and see if we can find anything. We find in a dictionary that [FOREIGN] means
[FOREIGN]. So, [FOREIGN] is not a school but a field of study. The study of prajna. In Jiagnang,
the region south of the Yangtze River, Nanjing was the first city that dissimulated Buddhist
teachings. Eminent Buddhist monks from different dynasties translated thousands of Buddhist
sutras in Nanjing, making the city an important center in China for the translation of Buddhist sutras
and the study of prajna. The seventh example. [FOREIGN] This is a sentence from the introduction
of Grant Bhawan temple in Nanjing. It is said that Xuanzang, a well known Buddhist monk in the
Tang dynasty, sighed when he saw the neglected Buddha statues in India on his pilgrimage to the
west. [FOREIGN]. There was a millennium between the time Xuangzang and the time of Buddha.
There has been a millennium since sariras of the parietal bone of Xuangzang and a sarira of the
parietal bone of Buddha were enshrined in the Grand Baoen Temple. While Xuangzang sighed that
he could not see Buddha itself, his dream comes true in this exhibition area named, Gaze across a
Millennium, in the sacred land of great gratitude. It captures the wonderful moment of master
Xuangzang's encounter with Buddha across time and space, and presents the extraordinary
connection between Xuangzang and Buddha. The Chinese sentence, [FOREIGN], means that
Xuangzang was right, that he cannot see Buddha after all. But this is not the message. This
exhibition airway's sense to the visitors. To enshrine the sariras together is one way of making his
dream of meeting Buddha himself come true. Instead of translating the word [FOREIGN] into a
sigh or lament, we should translate it into dream. While Xuangzang sighed that he could not see
Buddha himself, his dream comes true in this exhibition area. In doing translation, we find
ourselves analyzing the grammar and the logic of the source language very often. This analysis
helps a lot in our understanding of the word meanings.

M3L3 Making conversions

Conversion, as a translation technique, means changing the path of speech of certain words in the
process of translation. The following examples can tell us why and how this is done. The first
example. The men coming out of a hole, each within the envelope of steam. The word envelope in
that sentence is a noun. If we translate this sentence into Chinese without changing the part of
speech of envelope, the Chinese sentence is like this. [FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN]. It's not clear
what the sentence is talking about. It's not native to the Chinese way of expression. It can be seen
clearly that this is translation. We can try to imagine the scene. The steam is thick. And it seems as
if the men are enveloped in a cloud of steam. We can translate the sentence into [FOREIGN]. In this
version, the noun, envelope, is translated into the verb [FOREIGN]. We must remember though,
that in the translation of this sentence, as in the translation of other sentences, the conversion
between nouns and verbs or between any part of speech is adopted out of necessity. There is no rule
that we can follow in adopting this technique. Not all nouns should be translated into verbs or other
parts of speech under certain circumstances. Not all nouns can be translated into verbs or other parts
of speech. All conversions are made for the purpose of expressing the word meaning correctly and
to make the translation clear, fluent, and native to the target readers. Let's look at more examples.
The second example. [FOREIGN] The word [FOREIGN] in this sentence refers to the glazed
pagoda of the grand Bao'en temple in Nanjing. It was destroyed during the Taiping rebellion 400
years after it was built. In 2010, this pagoda was rebuilt. [FOREIGN] refers to its destruction. We
can translate the sentence into: More than 100 years after it was destroyed. Or, we can translate it
into: 100 years after its demise. Both are correct in meaning and in grammar. However, the second
version uses a noun instead of a clause which is more concise, and is more authentic English. The
complete sentence is: More than 100 years after its demise, it rises from the ashes and reclaims its
place as one of the pre-eminent cultural landmarks of Nanjing. As we mentioned just now, there's no
rule about the conversion between parts of speech. In the two examples we looked at just now, a
noun in an English sentence is translated into a verb in Chinese. And a verb in a Chinese sentence is
translated into a noun in English. Conversion takes place not only between nouns and verbs but
other parts of speech as well. The third example. He had the kindness to show me the way. This is
an example of how nouns are used differently in English and in Chinese. It will be so awkward to
translate this sentence into [FOREIGN]. Instead, we should translate it according to what the
Chinese people would say under the circumstance. [FOREIGN] In this translation, the English
noun, kindness, is translated into the Chinese adverb, [FOREIGN]. The fourth example. And the
moon lost in the thickness of clouds, so it did not shine a path for him towards the trees. The word
thickness in this sentence is an abstract noun, and abstract nouns are not easy to translate. Can we
say, [FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN]? I can't say it's wrong, but it's definitely awkward. We mentioned
in one of the previous lessons that abstract nouns are used to indicate the property, quality,
characteristic, status, or condition of something. So, we can convert this abstract noun into an
adjective that describes the clouds. [FOREIGN] The fifth example. They spent a lot of time in
social gatherings, barn dances, and annual balls, it was true. We know, to spend time in, means
[FOREIGN] To spend time in social gatherings, barn dances, and annual balls, therefore is
[FOREIGN]. This translation is correct in meaning and grammar. But the middle part of the
sentence is long which makes the whole sentence look bulky or bloated. We can change it a little bit
so that it becomes [FOREIGN]. Now, this sentence seems to have gotten rid of a heavy burden, and
looks neat. And the key to this change is the conversion of the preposition in into the verb
[FOREIGN]. The sixth example. He thinks she's like one of them movie stars, like Lauren Bacall,
Madonna, or somebody, with those fancy clothes and those long fingernails. This sentence looks
very much like the one we looked at just now. It also has a preposition, with. But it has a
component, which the one will looked at just now, does not have. Like Lauren Bacall or Madonna
or somebody, this part makes the translation even more difficult. We can see what the translation
might be like [FOREIGN] If we translate the preposition into a verb, however, the translation can
read more smoothly. [FOREIGN] The seventh example. They created a company that
revolutionized searching capabilities and built a $100-billion dollar business. Revolutionize in
Chinese means [FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN]. We can say, [FOREIGN] But one of the meanings of
revolutionize, [FOREIGN], is lost. We can change the translation into [FOREIGN]. This translation
fully reviews the meaning of the word revolutionize. It is made possible by the conversion of the
verb revolutionize into the adjective [FOREIGN]. The eighth example. [FOREIGN] We can
translate [FOREIGN] into, when the event or competition or exhibition concluded or closed. Or,
because this phrase means [FOREIGN], we can translate it into, at the close of, to make the
sentence shorter and tighter. In June 2014, at the close of the Fourth University Students Art
Exhibition, two microfilms made by Nanjing University students, Every Soul Counts and Master
Chen Baichen, won special awards. In this example, a Chinese verb phrase is translated into an
English prepositional phrase. The ninth example. [FOREIGN]. This example is similar to the one
we looked at just now. We can translate the verb [FOREIGN] in this sentence into an English verb.
Three main reasons caused the destruction of the ancient city walls. We can also translate this
sentence into, there are mainly three reasons for the destruction of ancient city walls. If we use there
to start the sentence, we cannot keep the word [FOREIGN] as a verb in English because we already
have a verb, are, in the sentence. Therefore, we have to make adjustments, and translate the verb
into the preposition, for. There are mainly three reasons for the damage done to and destruction of
ancient city walls in China: elements, wars, and human behavior. The last example. [FOREIGN] It's
perfectly all right to say [FOREIGN] in Chinese. But, it is not correct to say, had systematic study
of, in English, which is a word for word translation. To translate it into authentic English, we can
say, as more sites of the Longshan Period were found, the construction of early cities was studied
more systematically and became the key in the study of the formation of Chinese civilization. In
this translation, the adjective [FOREIGN] is translated into, systematically, an adverb in English.
From the examples we studied in this lesson, we can see that, sometimes, conversion is necessary.
Without which, we cannot express the meaning of the source language in a target language.
Sometimes, conversion is not absolutely necessary, but it can make our translation more readable,
flow more smoothly, more fluent. Whether we should use the technique of conversion and when we
use it, depend on the sentence itself, and sometimes, the translator's preference.

M3L4 Adding or Omitting Words, Phrases, Clauses

In this lesson we're going to talk about the technique of addition and omission in translation.
Addition is the technique of adding words, phrases, or even sentences to clearly express the
meaning of the source language. Sometimes additions are made because the English grammar and
the Chinese grammar are different. When translating English into Chinese, for example, we need to
add words to make clear the plural form and the verb tense or to add pronouns, prepositions, articles
that are not used in Chinese in some cases. The first example. The lights still blinked in front of
him. English nouns have singular and plural forms, while Chinese nouns don't. Instead of changing
the form of a word, we use numerals, and measure words, or reduplications. In this sentence, lights
is a plural noun. To make this clear, we can translate it into [FOREIGN]. In the translation,
[FOREIGN] is added to indicate the plural form. The second example. He came to this country as a
refugee and was as poor as we are now. English verbs change forms as they change tenses, but
Chinese verbs do not. We use adverbs of time to indicated the tenses. In this sentence, the word
poor describes their situation in the past, when they first came to this country. This past situation is
compared to our present situation. When translating this sentence, we must make this point clear
[FOREIGN]. In the translation, the word [FOREIGN] is added to make clear the verb tense. The
third example. [FOREIGN]. Because English and Chinese pronouns are different in types and in
forms, we often need to add pronouns which translate from Chinese into English and omit pronouns
when we translate from English into Chinese. In this Chinese sentence, there is one pronoun,
[FOREIGN]. But in English translation we have to add a pronoun, is. He had lived in this count all
of his life. It would be wrong to say, he lived in this country all life. As it will be wrong to say,
[FOREIGN]. Sometimes, we make additions to express the meaning of the source language to the
fullest. The fourth example. Wiry and incredibly fit, Chesterton looks like a compact Lance
Armstrong. The translation is [FOREIGN]. There are two additions in the translation. One is an
explanation of Lance Armstrong. Who is Lance Armstrong? For North American readers, especially
those who are interested in sports, he might be well known as a former American road racing
cyclist. So there is no need to explain who he is. However for Chinese readers he may not be so
well known. Therefore it's necessary to add few words about him so that their readers can better
understand Chesterton's field. Another edition is made to the word compact. In Chinese, this word
means, [FOREIGN]. Lance Armstrong as a sports man, must be strong. Chesterton looks like a
compact Armstrong. , indicates that he, and Armstrong are of a same type. But they are not exactly
alike, and the difference lies in Chesterton being compact. We can't say a person is [FOREIGN] and
it's inner proper to use [FOREIGN] to describe someone who's strong and loves sports. The Chinese
translation says that Chesterton is like Armstrong, and adds [FOREIGN] to indicate the difference.
The fifth example. [FOREIGN]. To represent the scenes of the Responsive Sariras giving out light
on seven occasions in history, tens of thousands of sariras, represented by tens of thousands of
lights, shine forth spectacular light. This sentence describes an exhibition area. There are two
questions to be answered when translating this sentence. First, the rivers, which are sacred to
Buddhists are very rare. How can there be tens of thousands of them in the exhibition area. Second,
in history, responsive sariras enshrined in Nanjing only gave out light on seven occasions. Even if
there are so many sariras in the exhibition area, how can they be made to give out light all the time?
These questions were answered by the designer of this exhibition area. It turns out that lights are
used to represent sariras to reproduce the scenes in history. That is how this part represented by tens
of thousands of lights is added. The translation of this sentence tells us that a translator's language
ability and professionalism are both important in translation. Sometimes we make additions to make
the translation native to the target language expression or for rhetorical purposes. Let's see the
example. And of course if the truth be told nothing anybody ever taught in the University ever
prepared to anyone to meet all life's challenges, problems, and disappointments. [FOREIGN]. In
English, the word meet can be used together with challenges, problems, and disappointments. In
Chinese, we can say [FOREIGN]. But, to give more variety to the language, we can use different
verbs with different nouns. [FOREIGN]. The seventh example. As a matter of consequence, in
2000, the Capital Bucharest came to have a record number of approximately 200,000 stray dogs, i.e
a dog at every six inhabitants. We can compare these two translations. Translation one.
[FOREIGN]. Translation two. [FOREIGN]. Both translations are correct. But the second version
emphasis the fact that there are a lot of stray dogs. And the ratio of dogs to inhabitants is very high.
The added words create a better shocking effect. Because the English grammar and a Chinese
grammar are different, sometimes we need to add words to make clear the plural forms, the verb
tense, or to add pronouns, prepositions, articles, et cetera. For the same reason, sometimes we need
to omit certain words. The first example. He grabbed the thief by the collar. [FOREIGN]. In this
example the preposition by, is used in English, but in Chinese we don't use any preposition. By
therefore is not translated. The second example. He sent his son to the university, and he was eager
to have him distinguish himself. [FOREIGN]. In the English sentence, there are four pronouns. But
in a Chinese sentence there is only one pronoun. The pronouns are omitted in a Chinese translation
because they are used differently in English and in Chinese. The third example. Bricks are banged
into the earth and narrow creeks of sand are poured in between them. [FOREIGN]. The conjunction
and combines two single sentences into a compound sentence in English. In Chinese we tend to use
commas a lot, instead of conjunctions. The fourth example. In the east end of the city, a tunnel is
being built under the lake in order to lay intake pipes for the new waterworks. [FOREIGN]. There
are four definite articles in an English sentence. But there is none in a Chinese translation because
there are no articles in Chinese. In the examples we looked at just now, omissions are made for
grammatical reasons. Sometimes certain information is repeated in English but the repetition
becomes redundant in Chinese. The first example. The is not a future of Heath-Robinson
contraptions that do the housework and make you a cup of coffee the moment you imagine a cup of
coffee. [FOREIGN]. A cup of coffee appears twice in English sentence. But in Chinese the meaning
is perfectly clear without repeating it. The second example. She also had tinnitus- a ringing in the
ears- as well as a feeling of fullness in the ears. [FOREIGN]. The word tinnitus is a technical term
in English which may not be known to all readers, therefore, it is necessary to explain it. The
Chinese equivalent of this word are [FOREIGN] is a technical term in Chinese too. But the meaning
of it can easily be guessed so it's not necessary to explain it. The third example. [FOREIGN]. The
Grand Baoen Temple reached its zenith when Emperor Yongle ordered it to be built "on an imperial
palace scale," personally naming it "Grand Baoen Temple," "Number One Pagoda," and "Imperial
Buddhist Hall.". In a Chinese sentence, three different words, [FOREIGN] are used to tell that the
temple was made by the emperor himself. But in English, there are no special words reserved for
this purpose. Omissions and additions are made so that the grammar is correct, the meaning is clear
and the expression is native.

M3L5 Considering Connotations and Tones

This lesson has two parts. The first part is about choosing between words with positive or negative
connotations. And the second part is about choosing between words that are formal or informal in
tone. Sometimes certain words or terms used in a source language are neutral, but they may have
more than one equivalent word or term in a target language. Some have positive connotations,
others have negative connotations. This is a time when we as translators need to decide which word
or term to use depending on the context of the source language. For example [FOREIGN] The word
[FOREIGN] in this sentence indicates a cause and effect relationship. [FOREIGN] is the cause, and
[FOREIGN] is the effect. We can use different words to translate [FOREIGN] such as because of,
owing to, and due to. All these phrases mean [FOREIGN] but none of them has any emotional
coloring in the sentence. [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are good results, and these good results
come from the professor's advice and guidance. Therefore we can say, thanks to the professor's
advice and guidance, I was able to find the best resources for and approaches to my research. The
phrase, thanks to, indicates the reason and expresses gratitude. While the other phrases, because of,
owing to, and due to, indicate the reason without expressing any emotion. In this example we
choose the phrase, thanks to, for the positive meaning it has. The next example [FOREIGN] This
example is similar to the first one. In this sentence, there is a cause and effect relationship between
[FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] As in the first example, there are several phrases that we can choose
from. What helps us with our choice is the word [FOREIGN] which refer to kind and upright
people, people with lofty ideal. The revitalization of Buddhism then is a good thing. So who can
choose the phrase, thanks to, to indicate the logical relationship. Thanks to the conjoined efforts of a
group of people with high ideas headed by Yang Renshan, Buddhism revived gradually at the end of
the Qing Dynasty. The third example [FOREIGN] In this example, again, we have a phrase that
indicates reason [FOREIGN] The reason in this example however is illness, which is not good and
this illness causes a result that is not good. She could not receive education. Definitely we cannot
use, thanks to, to translate [FOREIGN] we can use, because of, to translate this word. But as we
mentioned just now, because of does not tell our feelings or emotions. To tell that illness is
something bad, we can use another phrase, beset by. Beset means to be hurt or troubled by
something bad. Her effort to complete her education was beset by her illness. From these examples
we can see that even when we translate a simpler word as [FOREIGN] we need to decide whether
to use, because of, or thanks to, or beset by, which have neutral, positive, and negative meanings or
connotations respectively. Sometimes there is an equivalent mutual term in a target language for a
neutral term in a source language. But considering the tone of the source language or the emotion
expressed in a source language, we need to choose words with emotional coloring. For example, in
July 2010, Alastair walked 80 miles along part of the Fosse Way, taking in Devon woodland
carpeted with flowers, numerous ciders at country pubs, and even cakes from a WI coffee morning.
In this sentence, the phrase, take in, simply means to spend time looking at something, and to drink
and eat. Because what this man looks at, drinks and eats, are pleasant things, we choose words that
have a positive connotation to translate this phrase. [FOREIGN] In the translation, the words
[FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] all make the readers think of beautiful, happy and pleasant things.
The next example. A lawyer's job is to delete distracting facts until one is left with an emotionally
affecting narrative. In other words, lawyer's jobs are identical to that of novelists, except they earn
money, drive big cars, live in huge houses with blonde trophy wives called Meghan. In this
example, emotionally affecting, is a neutral term. The writer is actually saying however, that
lawyer's should work with facts, but instead they make up stories as if they were novelists. The tone
is sarcastic, even a little contemptuous. Therefore we can use a word that has the same connotation
to translate these two words. [FOREIGN] In the Chinese translation, [FOREIGN] has a negative
connotation which tells well the writer's feelings about lawyers. Another example. Increasingly,
those of us who have failed to make it are putting everything down to luck or fate. The words luck
and fate in this sentence are neutral in meaning, but the word fail has a negative meaning. And a
failure is attributed to luck or fate. We can take the liberty to make additions to these two words to
give them negative meanings. [FOREIGN] Different types of documents, different situations,
different scenes, etc., requires to choose formal or informal language in our translations. For
example, [FOREIGN] This sentence is taken from a legal document. Legal documents tend to use
very formal language. We should therefore use formal language to translate this sentence. This
agreement shall remain in force for a period of three years, and shall be automatically renewed
thereafter for successive periods of one year unless terminated by written notice from one party to
the other no less than 60 days prior to the expiry of the then current terms. In the translation, remain
in force, thereafter, and prior to the expiry of, are all very formal terms which clearly and correctly
show the characteristics of a legal document. The next example. You've got to be very careful of
these Eastern lawyers. If you're not careful, they'll take you and turn you inside out. The words, got
to be, tell us that these two sentences are not from a formal writing. In translation, we use informal
language too. [FOREIGN] In the translation, both [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are informal
language. Next example. Hassan narrowly escaped assassination in attempted coups d'etat in 1971
and 1972. Without a context, we cannot be sure whether this sentence is from a formal writing or
not. But narrowly escaped assassination is more formal than was almost assassinated. So we
translate the sentence into [FOREIGN] In a Chinese translation, [FOREIGN] is a formal expression.
The next example. Speaking of US relations with China in a foreign policy report sent to Congress
on February 9, 1972, Nixon stated that the United States could not afford to be cut off from a
quarter of the world's population. In this sentence, the two phrases, speaking of, and sent to, can be
used in both formal and informal writings. If this sentence is from an informal writing or speech, we
can translate it into [FOREIGN] The words [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are used in formal
writing or speech. If this sentence is from an informal writing or speech, we can translate it into
[FOREIGN] The words [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are informal. When to use the formal
language, and when to use informal language depends on the genre and a context.

M3L6 Being Flexible

Many words, both in English and in Chinese, have multiple ambivalent vague meanings. They
require a lot of thinking, weighing, deliberation in translation. One such word is overwhelm. Let's
look at a few examples. Overwhelmed by the disparate responses, I attend two discussion groups in
an effort to achieve clarity. Many translators find it difficult to translate the word overwhelmed. It
means to cover over completely, to overcome by superior force or numbers, and to overpower in
thought or feeling. In Chinese [FOREIGN]. In the sentence, I attend two discussion groups in order
to understand something clearly because there are disparate or totally different responses and I don't
know which one to believe. In other words, I feel at a loss. The word overwhelmed in this context
then means [FOREIGN]. The second example, Slowly, Apollo 11 began to rise. The sound of the
liftoff overwhelmed the screams of millions of spectators, many of whom now called in unison,
tears streaming down their cheeks, Go! Go! Go! Go! In this sentence, we'll find the word
overwhelmed again. This time, it is used to describe the sound of the liftoffs. The screams of
millions of spectators were very loud, but the song of the liftoff was louder. It was so loud that it
overwhelmed the screams. We can say the sound [FOREIGN]. The third example, I had been
overwhelmed by her beauty and her smile. Another overwhelmed. What does it mean here? It
describes neither the physical sound which we can translate into [FOREIGN] nor a feeling which
we translate into [FOREIGN]. It is beauty and smile that overwhelmed. If we imagine that see, we
see this I stunt when seeing her. [FOREIGN]. Or we can say, [FOREIGN]. Overwhelmed may not
be a word we use very often but the word work is definitely a very commonly used to word. This
word too sometimes requires us to think very carefully about what it actually means. For example,
When some of the filaments would catch on a line and rest there slimy and purple while the old man
was working a fish, he would have welts and sores on his arms and hands. We can work the land,
work the machine, work a stone, but to work a fish, does that mean fishing? In the sentence, the
filaments would catch on a fishing line while the old man was working a fish. So, working a fish
must mean when he is pulling the fishing line to pull out the fish. The sentence is translated into
[FOREIGN]. The next example, If you don't travel too fast I will get into them, the old man
thought, and he watched the school working the water white. They in this sentence refers to the fish.
The school of fish is a work in the water and the water becomes white. The fish must be swimming,
jumping, stirring the water so the water splashes and swirls and becomes white. We can translate the
sentence into [FOREIGN]. The next example, It was only a line burn that cut his flesh. But it was in
the working part of his hand. Which part is the working part of the hand? Is the strongest and most
dexterous part that operates in this case the fishing line. [FOREIGN] Some words are unique and
we cannot find an equivalent in a target language. We have to use the existing words in a target
language to express these words. For example, [FOREIGN]. The words [FOREIGN] and
[FOREIGN] are unique terms in Chinese architecture or to be more specific, in ancient Chinese
architecture. They are sometimes used in modern architecture, but with different meanings. In
ancient Chinese architecture, the space enclosed by four columns is called [FOREIGN] and those in
width are called [FOREIGN] while those in depth are called [FOREIGN]. The more [FOREIGN]
and [FOREIGN], the higher rank the building has. We can translate [FOREIGN] into bays in width
and [FOREIGN] into rows in depth. Archeological excavations reveal that the Hall was 26.5 meters
long and 15.3 meters wide. It was situated on a rammed earth foundation. It is five bays in width
and three rows in depth. A portico and a terrace preceded entry into the principal room. The second
example, [FOREIGN]. The word [FOREIGN] in architecture refers to the size, shape and structure
of a building. In ancient China, the size, shape and structure of a building are decided by the rank of
its owner. The higher the owner's rank is, the higher the building's rank is. No one, and no building
can skip the rank. The Emperor ranks the highest of all people and his palace ranks the highest of all
buildings. The rank of the temple is not as high as that of the palace. But, as the Grand Baoen
Temple was an imperial temple, it was different from all other temples. Its main road can be
compared to the imperial road. But in which aspect? [FOREIGN]. This [FOREIGN] here must refer
to the width of the road, the materials it is built of, and whether there are carvings on the road and
what are carved. We translate the sentence into: Because the Grand Baoen Temple was an imperial
temple, its main road had the same width and structure as the imperial road in the imperial palace.
In the examples we looked at just now, we have to find out the exact meaning of the words. In some
cases, we know what the words mean, but we don't know how to express them in a target language.
For example, [FOREIGN]. Modern technology is used in building this temple, but the temple is not
a modern style. Instead, the charm of the ancient temple is found or restored in a new building. With
the help of modern technology, the ancient charm has been restored in a newly built Grand Baoen
Pagoda. The second example, Jeannette Walls was had a hardscrabble youth. Nomadic, poor, often
hungry, she grew up in the desert Southwest and the mountains of West Virginia. In this sentence,
nomadic, poor and hungry are commonly used words which can be translated into [FOREIGN].
This is correct translation, but dull. We can use other words to give some literary grace to the
translation. [FOREIGN]. The words [FOREIGN] make the reader feel the desperate straits she was
in. Another example, They were painting the Penitentiary roof blue up to the sky so that after a
while the three men working on it became uncertain of clear boundaries. We understand what it
means to paint the roof blue, but what does blue up to sky mean? [FOREIGN]. The sentence goes
on to say, that because the roof was blue up to the sky, the men on the roof became uncertain of the
clear boundaries. According to the context, the boundaries referred to those between the roof and
the sky. In other words, the roof and the sky were of the same blue color and it became almost one.
So, we can translate the sentence into, [FOREIGN]. The next example, The architect Pomphrey,
modeled its entrance on a Byzantine city gate, and the inside of the building would be an image of
the ideal city. The brass railings curved up three flights like an immaculate fiction. The subtle splay
on the tower gave it an Egyptian feel. We're familiar with the words fiction and feel, but, we're not
sure how to translate them when they are used together with flights and Egyptian. Let's study the
word fiction first. Three flights like an immaculate fiction. [FOREIGN]. Immaculate means perfect,
flawless. The flights of beautiful rocks which is a fine material. They are designed elegantly and
they look exotic. They are so beautiful, they don't seem real. We can translate fiction into,
[FOREIGN]. Next, let's study the word feel. The subtle splay on a tower gave it an Egyptian feel.
[FOREIGN]. Or maybe we would say [FOREIGN]. Now, we can translate the sentence.
[FOREIGN]. The next example, In the bleak mid-winter. Frosty winds made moan. Earth stood hot
as iron. Water like a stone. These sentences are not difficult, but they read like a poem and they will
lose the added flavor if we simply translate them into, for example, [FOREIGN]. Considering the
rhyming and the image, we can translate these sentences into, [FOREIGN]. What we did with
examples in this lesson is for the purpose of retaining the correct meaning of the source language
and achieving expressiveness in the target language.

M4L1 Changing the word order

English and Chinese sentences have different structures and different word orders. The translator
often has to decide whether to keep the original word order or to change it, to divide a long sentence
into two or more shorter ones, or to combine two or more shorter sentences into a longer one. First
of all, let's talk about changing the word order. I'd like to show you a translation and a comment on
this translation. As you can see in the picture, Table of Contents, is translated into [FOREIGN]. This
is the comment. This is wrong. It should be [FOREIGN] because the English word order should be
reversed when translated into Chinese. The translation is a joke. The comment is a joke, too. The
problem is not with the word order, but I'm glad that this student at least knows that English word
order and Chinese word order are different, and word order often needs to be changed in translation.
Word order refers to the order in which components of a sentence are arranged. This order reflects
the grammar, usage, and ways of thinking adopted by users of the language. English speakers and
Chinese speakers have different habits in using their respective languages. Although the order of the
subject, the predicate, and the object is basically the same in English and in Chinese, the positions
of the attributes, adverbials, and other components are often different. Different language users also
have different ways of thinking which results in different logic in different languages. The translator
may need to change the word order according to the way of expression that the target language
readers are accustomed to. In this lesson, we're going to look at some examples of changing the
word order. The first example, "Even Lind Archer, the new school teacher, who had come late that
afternoon all the way from Yellow Post with the Indian mail carrier and must be hungry, was
waiting." The main clause of this long sentence is, "Even Lind Archer was waiting." Between the
subject and the object are two attributive clauses, the first of which is very long. If we keep the
word order, the translation would be like this, [FOREIGN]. This Chinese sentence is not
grammatically correct. What modified the subject are two clauses. You can change the clauses into
attributes and move them before the subject like this, [FOREIGN]. I couldn't breathe reading it. The
attributes are super long and awkward, although this time, the grammar is correct. Maybe we can
try putting the two clauses between dashes or parenthesis, like this [FOREIGN]. This translation is
better. but it reads a bit foreign, and the subject is too far away from the object. We can also
consider changing the word order and translate the sentence like this, [FOREIGN]. We translate the
main clause first and then the subordinate clauses. This sentence is correct in grammar, clear in
meaning, and idiomatic in expression. The second example, "He also names successors to Charles
Wheeler, 'the young lions and lionesses, the energy you see from Matt Frei or Robert Preston, Mark
Mardell, John Simpson, Nick Robinson." In this sentence, "young lions and lionesses" refer to Matt
Frei, Robert Preston, and others who are mentioned later. This sentence says that from them, we can
see energy. Now that we're clear about the grammar and logic of that sentence, we can translate the
examples first and then translate the summary of what is common in all these people, [FOREIGN].
Because the Chinese readers may not be familiar with these people mentioned in the sentence, the
translator uses a technique of addition and adds their positions. The translation also adds,
[FOREIGN], to connect the terms, [FOREIGN], and the examples that follow. The third example,
"He found it most beautiful, felt most comfortable at this hour when they often saw raccoons
pausing on steps, seemingly tamed, as if owning the territory of the porch." Like the first example,
this sentence has a long subordinate clause which will be awkward to be translated as the adverbial
of time. [FOREIGN]. When we read the sentence carefully, we notice that the subordinate clause
tells when he feels comfortable and also what makes him feel comfortable. We can translate facts
first, and then the conclusion. [FOREIGN] The fourth example, "In Europe, human trafficking has
reached epidemic proportions, spurred on by the collapse of communism, enlargement of the
European Union and implementation of Shengen agreement, which relaxed the border controls in
25 countries." This sentence tells us this result first and then talks about the three causes. We can
keep the original word order and translate the sentence into [FOREIGN]. We can also translate this
sentence according to the Chinese habit, that is, we tell the causes first and then the result.
[FOREIGN] The fifth example, eight days after the January 12 earthquake in Haiti, Dunic, a Green
Beret and a veteran of 9/11 knew that time was running out for any survivors still clinging to life
under the ruins. Without changing the word order, the translation is: [FOREIGN] This translation
makes sense, but it is not closely knit, and it doesn't flow well. The part that modifies Dunic,
[FOREIGN], is a bit too long, and inserted between the subject, Dunic and the prodicate, knew,
forms a gap between them. Such is also the case with time and running. We need to change the
word order to tighten the structure of the Chinese translation. Let's try this. [FOREIGN] in this
translation, we tell who Dunic, the rescuer is, and then tell how he assesses the situation according
to his experience. All relevant information is put together, the meaning is very clear, the language is
fluent. We also notice some additions in the translation. The Chinese readers may not know what
Green Beret is, so the translator adds an explanation in a parenthesis. The meaning of [FOREIGN],
a direct translation of a veteran of 9/11, is not very clear. So the translator translates it into
[FOREIGN] to make the meaning explicit. One more addition is made to, time was running out.
The original translation, [FOREIGN], is correct and clear. But the revised version, [FOREIGN],
emphasizes the rescuer's feeling of helplessness when they know that time is running out, for the
survivors were dying because they cannot find them. Reading this sentence, we feel as if we were
looking at the hands of the clock moving slowly but irretrievably, as if life is leaving the people
buried under the debri. In many cases, we change the word order because the sentence is long, and
the many components are not arranged in the same way as the counterparts would be in a Chinese
sentence. However, it is not only in the translation of long sentences that may involve the technique
of changing the word order. We may need to use this technique when translating some short
sentences too. For example: He reveled in this room, the tiny desks, the smell of books. We can
translate the sentence into [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN] Is a commonly used Chinese expression. In
the translation, the part that follows the expression is a bit too long. We can change the word order
so that the Chinese sentence becomes, [FOREIGN]. In this translation, we talk about what he
reveled in first. Add the word [FOREIGN] to sum up the list of things, and then say, [FOREIGN].
Thus, this sentence is balanced. Let's look at one more example. [FOREIGN]. This example
comprises two sentences. The first of which is very long. It's analyzed to two sentences before we
translate them. The first sentence makes two points. First, the inscriptions on the stele were written
by Zhu Di himself. Second, the inscription are important for the study of the Grand Baoen Temple.
Why are they important? The reason is given in the second sentence, that is, they were the last
imprint of Zhu Di on the Temple. Why were they his last imprint? The reason is given in the first
sentence, that is, he died soon after he wrote them. After this analysis, we are clear about two
things. First, although no words are used in a source language to review the logical relationship
between the different parts of the sentences, the cause and effect relationship is clearly there.
Second, the effect is given in the first sentence, but the causes that lead to the effect are scattered in
two sentences so that the cause and effect chain is broken. In our translation therefore, we can
change the word order to make clear the logical relationship and to rearrange the cause and effect
chain. This is the English translation. The inscriptions on the stele on the left, erected in February
1424, were written by Zhu Di himself. They explain that the Grand Baoen Temple was built to
express his gratitude to his parents. He died on the punitive expedition against the Mongolians five
months after he wrote the words. These words were the last imprints of Zhu Di on the Temple and
are important information for the study of the Temple. Now we have known the technique, changing
the word order. In the next lesson, we're going to look at examples of keeping the word order.

M4L2 Keeping the word order

In the last lesson, we talked about changing the word order of a soft language. But we don't need to
change the word order every sentence. In this lesson, we're going to look at some examples in
which the word order is kept. The first example, "He saw the lions around him glorying in life; then
he took his axe in his hand, he drew his sword from his belt, and he fell upon them like an arrow
from the string." This sentence is written according to time order. Narrating the actions one after
another. There is no need to make any change to the word order. Actually, we shouldn't make any
change. [FOREIGN]. The second sentence,"He is burly on the ground and then falls was terrific
speed, grace, using the wind to push himself into corners of abutments so he can check driven
rivets, sheering valves, the drying of the concrete under bearing plates and pad stones." In the first
part of this sentence, we find actions that take place in time order. In the second part of the sentence,
we read about a list of the things that man does. But these things are not arranged in the particular
order, or in other words, it doesn't matter which comes first, which comes next. So there is no need
to change the word order. It is only in the last part of the sentence that we need to make a slight
change to comply with the Chinese grammar. [FOREIGN]. Besides the word order, there are two
details I want to mention about this sentence. First, the Chinese sentence adds [FOREIGN] to
express the plural noun, abutments. Second, the Chinese translation adds an abstract [FOREIGN] to
make this part complete. The third example, "Each time the dog barks she finds herself going to the
window at the foot of the stairs, looking out through the maidenhair fern to see if the postman is
cycling up the avenue." Reading this sentence will follow the character's steps and look in the
direction she looks. There is no need at all to change the word order. [FOREIGN]. The fourth
example, "The truck rolls burly under the arching trees, pauses at certain intersections where more
workers jump onto the flatbed, and soon there are eight men, the fire crackling, hot tar now and then
spitting onto the back of a neck or an ear." This is a long compound-complex sentence, but it
describes a series of actions according to the time order and space order. The truck drives, stops,
and drives off. We see the truck from afar. Then we see what is on the truck. And finally, we see a
close-up, the tar spitting onto the workers' necks or ears. Everything is very clear, and there is no
need to make any change to the word order. [FOREIGN]. The fifth example, "The nurse or ayah in
charge of our cleanliness was a small, muscular and vicious woman named Maratina." A woman
named Maratina can be and is normally translated into: [FOREIGN] Maratina [FOREIGN]. The
word order is changed so that the translation complies with the Chinese grammar. In this sentence,
however, there are three adjectives that modify the word woman. Small, muscular, and vicious. If
we still go ahead and change the word order, the translation would become: [FOREIGN]. The part
that modifies woman is too long. Another way to translate this part is to keep the word order like
this: [FOREIGN] Maratina. This Chinese sentence flows naturally with all the parts being balanced.
The sixth example, "The cub, small as he was, was feisty. His eyes weren't yet open, but he hissed
and made brave little growling noises at us, his face puckering into a fierce-looking crinkle." What
needs our attention in this example is the last part of the second sentence, "his face puckering into a
fierce-looking crinkle." To pucker one's face is to tighten or stretch one's face. [FOREIGN].
Crinkles, a small creases or folds. [FOREIGN]. His face puckering into a fierce-looking crinkle.
[FOREIGN]. That sounds very odd. It doesn't make sense. What we can do is we can picture the
image of this little cub's face in our mind and describe it. This cub is so small that when he hisses
and growls, his little face puckers, and there are crinkles on his face, and he looks fierce.
[FOREIGN]. In some cases, the word order of the source language is mainly retained in the
translation, but slight changes are made to the word order of one or more parts of the source
language. For example, "Every morning before I was out the main gate I had one last impression
that was both ordinary and unforgettable: the pyramid of turtles; the iridescent snout of mandrill;
the stately silence of a giraffe; the obese, yellow open mouth of a hippo; the beak-and-claw
climbing of a macaw parrot up a wire fence; the greeting claps of a shoebills's bill; the senile,
lecherous expression of a camel." Like one of the previous examples, this example gives a list of
animals, the order of which doesn't really matter. There is no need, therefore, to change the word
order even though that sentence is very wrong. However, because of the difference in grammar, the
word order of the parts separated by semi-colons has to be changed. "A pyramid of turtles," for
example, when translated into Chinese cannot retain its original word order. It's the same with the
"iridescent snout of a mandrill," "the stately silence of the giraffe," and so on. Now, the problem
becomes how we translate these parts. Do we say: [FOREIGN]? That doesn't sound like Chinese.
This is the time we use the translation techniques we have learned such as conversion and addition.
Let's take the translation of "the greeting claps of a shoebill's bill" as an example. The direct
translation of this part would be: [FOREIGN]. We can convert the noun, claps, and the present
participle, serving, as an adjective greeting into verbs and add a few words to make the meaning of
greeting clearer. The Chinese for this part becomes: [FOREIGN]. We can do the same with all the
other parts. This is the complete sentence: [FOREIGN]. The translator changes the word order or
keeps the word order for the same purpose: To produce correct and expressive translation. We
should also remember that keeping the word order doesn't mean keeping the exact order of every
word. Often, we need to make minor changes as we did in the last example.

M4L3 Dividing a sentences

To divide one sentence into two or more shorter sentences, or to combine two or more sentences
into a longer one. These are techniques we often use in translation for the purpose of more fluent
and native expression in a target language. In many cases, a long sentence is divided into shorter
sentences, while short sentences are combined into a longer one. But this is not a rule. Whether we
divide a sentence or combine sentences depends on the semantic, grammatical, and logical
relationship between the components of a sentence. The technique of dividing and combining
sentences is often used together with the technique of changing the word order. Here are some
examples of dividing sentences. The first example. A jukebox song, The Ballad of Lucy Jordan,
lured her into a pub, a converted prison with barred windows and a lot, beamed ceiling. The original
translation of this sentence is [FOREIGN]. This translation expresses the meaning of the source
language correctly and reads fluently. But it does not make a clear distinction between the two
points that the original sentence makes. The original sentence tells how she walks into a pub and
what the pub looks like. We can divide the sentence into two sentences, each describing one point.
[FOREIGN]. In this revised translation, there are two sentences which described how she walks into
a pub and what the pub looks like, respectively. The translation also makes slight adjustments of
the word order so that each part is shorter but narrative order and a translation from one sentence to
the next are not interrupted. The second example. She fell into step beside him, listened to his jacket
creaking as he let her down a path where the moat curved round the cathedral. This is the original
translation. [FOREIGN]. This sentence is not very long. But the part led by as is a bit long, and the
structure is not very simple. Maybe that's the reason the translator changed the word order.
However, this change interrupts the narrative order of the original sentence, making the narration
jump unnecessarily between the two characters. To solve this problem, we can divide the sentence
into two, so that one tells about she and one tells about he. [FOREIGN]. The revised translation
keeps a clear narrative order and makes the point clear. The third example. By the time Norway
achieved independence in 1905, after almost 400 years of foreign rule first by Denmark then by
Sweden, almost one million Norwegians, half the population had emigrated. The structure of this
sentence is complicated, the two of time led by by the time, and after along. The word rule is
modified by foreign before it and by Denmark and by Sweden after it. It is a little bulky but it flows
well. If we translate this sentence without making any change however, the Chinese sentence might
be a little confusing. This is one version. [FOREIGN]. This translation retains all the information in
the original sentence. But there's no smooth tranlation between the second and the third component
and it's not very fluent. This's another version. [FOREIGN]. This translation changes the word order
so that there is a smooth translation between components of the sentence and a clear time order in a
narration. But the first part of the sentence is long and clumsy. Here is the third version.
[FOREIGN]. This translation after considering the topic and the narrative order of the original
sentence, divides it into two sentences according to the different time periods, before independence
and after independence. After the division, the sentences are not clumsy anymore. The first sentence
is further divided so that it summarizes the situation first. Norway underwent 400 years of foreign
rule, and gives the specific details after that. It was ruled by Denmark and then Sweden. Now the
narration is very clear. Not only long sentences, but also short sentences sometimes need to be
divided. For example, That Melton owns not one but two of the very few Enigmas in private hands
is unsurprising. The Chinese translation is, [FOREIGN]. This English sentence is taken from an
article about H Keith Melton, a collector. The translation makes big changes. It changes the word
order, makes additions and divides the one short sentence into three sentences. This is decided by
the topic, the structure and the tone of the original sentence. First, let's take a look at a topic of the
sentence. Enigma is a sci-fi machine used by the Nazis during the Second World War. It is very rare
and very expensive. Melton has two such machines. Which tells us how professional he is as a
collector, and what rare collections he has. However, many of readers will not know what Enigma is
or who Melton is, so it is necessary to add some background information. To translate Enigma into
[FOREIGN] to explain that Melton is [FOREIGN]. And to make clear that very few means
[FOREIGN]. Next, let's take a look at the structure of the sentence. That is, is a commonly used
structure in English. But it doesn't have any equivalent structure in Chinese. If we do not change the
word order, the translation would be something like this. [FOREIGN]. This translation makes the
point, but not very fluently. The original sentence makes three points. One, there are very few
Enigmas. Two, Melton owns two of the the very few Enigmas. And three, this is not surprising. The
translation uses three sentences to give the background information that Enigmas are rare, to tell the
fact Melton has two of them, and to make a comment, it is not surprising. After the deviation of the
sentence and rearrangement of the word order, the Chinese translation makes the points clearly and
reads fluently. Finally, let's take a look at the tone of the sentence. The Enigma is a rare cipher
machine, but Melton owns two. This should be surprising, however, the sentence makes a twist at
the end and says that it is not surprising. A contrast is formed in the sentence. And this contrast
prepares the readers for more information about Melton, the collector, in the following sentences
and paragraphs. To fully express the tone of the original sentence, the translation adds an
exclamation mark after [FOREIGN]. Before we come to the end of this lesson, let's look at one last
example. [FOREIGN]. This is a typical Chinese sentence. It has several short components, each is
separate from, or connected to the next by commas instead of conjunctions. If we do the same in
English however, we have a loose sentence structure. To avoid this, this one sentence is divided into
two sentences in English translation. Changyuan, named after its long city wall. Chang in Chinese
means long, and yuan means wall. Is located in the northeast of Henan Province, facing Dongming
County of Shangdong Province across the Yellow River in the east. With no mountains within its
border, it is a flat and low-lying city. But notice that the word order is changed in the translation.
What comes first and what comes last is decided by the context. If the next sentence talks about the
city walls of Changyuan, then we do not move the last part of the sentence to the beginning in the
translation. As we can see from the examples, very often a sentence is divided to make the larger
relationship clear. Sometimes a sentence is divided for correct grammar and better expression.

M4L4 Combining sentences

We combine sentences in translation to have a tighter sentence structure and a closer relationship
between parts of a sentence. Let's study some examples to see what this means. The first example.
In many ways, writing a memoir is like painting. You slap some words on a black canvas, take a
few steps back, look at how they're coming together, then refine things further. That step back is
retrospection. It's thoughtfulness. It's an attempt to figure things out. It's a search for your truth. The
original translation is [FOREIGN]. The structure of the last four sentence is the same.
Retrospection, thoughtfulness, and attempt to figure things out are very similar in meaning. All
three point to one purpose, that is search for your truth. We can then combine the four sentences
[FOREIGN]. After the combination, the third, fourth, and fifth sentence become one sentence with
three parallel parts. Now, the structure becomes tighter. The relationship between the three similar
words and phrases becomes closer, and the purpose is emphasized. The second example. On a
human level, it may be observed that with a few notable exceptions, the luminaries who guided and
dominated our affairs and the affairs of the State at the beginning of the 70s are no longer with us or
are soon to retire. It is almost as if we have come to the end of an era. This example comprises two
sentences, the first of which is very long. But still, the Chinese translation combines these two
sentences [FOREIGN]. We see in the example, the second sentence is led by it. This it cannot
appear in a Chinese translation. We cannot say [FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN] but [FOREIGN] is not a
complete sentence, unless of course, providing incomplete sentence is the intention of the author. In
the Chinese translation, the two sentences are combined into one, so that this otherwise incomplete
sentence becomes part of a complete sentence. When we combine sentences, of course, we have to
make sure that the combined sentence does not change the meaning or logic of the original
sentences. We also notice that commas are used in a translation to divide the first sentence, which is
very long, into several parts. The third example. Also coincidental with this development was the
fact that after the riot of 1967, many middle class families did leave Hong Kong. And some of those
that remained nevertheless thought it advisable to send their children abroad for tertiary education
so as to prepare the way for eventual migration. This is the Chinese translation, [FOREIGN]. The
second sentence in this example begins with and, which indicates a contrast between two kinds of
families, but this contrast is not strong. So and is translated into [FOREIGN]. The word
[FOREIGN] however, cannot be used to start a sentence. This is the main reason for combining the
two sentences into one. The fourth sentence. Ariana and Vladimir are just two of the victims of the
illicit business of human trafficking, which reportedly generates $44 billion a year world-wide. It is
the third biggest global crime business after drugs and arms dealing. There is a non-restrictive
attributive clause in the first sentence in this example. If this clause is put in front of the part it
modifies, the translation would be [FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN]. No matter which version we adopt,
the middle part of the sentence is bloated. Because the second sentence goes on talking about the
illicit business, we might as well combine it with the subordinate clause in the first sentence. This
clause is now restrictive, so this change should not affect the meaning of the foot sentence. Now, the
translation becomes [FOREIGN]. This third version flows much better than the previous two
versions. Other techniques are used in a translation. Illicit business and crime business are similar in
meaning, and they appear in the same sentence after the combination. There is no need to translate
both. Instead, in a translation, business is put in quotation marks to indicate that this is so-called
business. This is a technique of omission. There is also the technique of addition. [FOREIGN] is
added before [FOREIGN] to emphasize the large sum. The fifth example, [FOREIGN]. The
original translation of this sentence is, according to 2015, Chinese College Faculty's Academic
Competence Ranking, Nanjing University is listed top 2. There is a grammar mistake in that
sentence, but the meaning of the source language is retained and the structure is okay. We can also
translate the sentence into Nanjing University ranked No 2 in the 2015 Chinese College Faculty's
Academic Competence Ranking. This translation changes the order of the two parts of the original
sentence, and combines the independent clause and a dependent clause into one dependent sentence.
This emphasizes the topic, Nanjing University. However, this combination is not a must, whether
we combine the clauses or not depends on the purpose of the writing and the context. The sixth
example, [FOREIGN]. This is the translation. A world class university in China should have
Chinese characteristics, since following others' steps and sticking slavishly to given patterns will get
us nowhere. There is a cause and effect relationship between the two Chinese sentences. Why
should the universities have Chinese characteristics? Because without Chinese characteristics, they
cannot succeed. This logical relationship is not indicated by conjunctions, which is common in
Chinese writings. In English writing, however, we tend to use conjunctions to indicate logical
relationships. The translator combines the two sentences and uses things to connect the two. There's
also a contrast between the two sentences. To emphasize this contrast, we can translate the two
sentences into, A world-class university in China should have Chinese characteristics. Otherwise,
we can only follow others' steps and stick slavishly to given patterns, which will get us nowhere. In
this case, the two sentences are not combined. Combination of sentences is a useful translation
technique. We use it for tighter sentence structure, more explicit logical relationship, and better
expression.

M5L1 Cultivating Cultural Awareness

Translation evolves not only languages, but also cultures. We use the cultures here in a broad sense.
It refers to the history, geography, tradition, customs, values, literature, arts, religions, political
system, ways of thinking, etc., of a people. Only when we are familiar with these, can we be aware
of cultural elements that need to be dealt with. And bridge the gap between the readers and the
foreign culture. I want to tell you a story that I heard from a professor. This professor teaches in an
eastern province in Canada. He was invited to give a lecture in a country where the weather is mild
all year long. He told the audience about a man who saved another man's life even when he knew
that this would cost him is own life. This man was put into prison for his religious belief. In a few
days, he would be executed. One day, he found an opportunity to escape. He took the opportunity,
run away from the prison, and run across the river to the opposite bank. The prison guard run after
him. When this professor was telling this story, an interpreter translated his story to the audience.
Everything went well until he said that the prisoner ran across the river. At this moment, the
interpreter paused and looked at him. The professor thought, maybe the interpreter didn't catch what
he said, so he repeated. He took the opportunity, ran way from the prison, and ran across the river to
the opposite bank. The interpreter still looked at him, looking puzzled. Then he asked, he ran across
the river? The professor said, yes, he ran across the river. Suddenly, the professor realized that for
the interpreter and the audience, it is impossible to run across the river. This professor is from the
eastern part of Canada, where it is so cold in winter and the ice is so thick that people can drive on
the frozen river. The audience, however, lives in a warm climate. They don't have snow in the
winter, let alone ice. It cannot understand how anyone can run across the river. When this professor
told me this story, he joked. Maybe they thought the prisoner and the guard were like Jesus, and
could run on water. If the interpreter knew Canada well, he could translate the professor's words
into, he'd run across the frozen river and the audience would not be puzzled. The rest of the story
has nothing to do with translation, but I still want to tell it. The guard fell into a hole in the ice and
was drowning. The prisoner could safely escape because now, there was no one running after him.
But he went back, pulled the guard out of the river and saved his life. The guard handcuffed the
prisoner. A few days later, the prisoner was executed. Let's come back to translation. Sometimes, it's
easy to notice cultural elements. For example, we can detect at one glance names of foreign people
and places, descriptions of different clothes, furniture, food, customs, etc. Sometimes, however, it's
not easy to notice the works or phrases that have a cultural background. Let's look at two examples.
The first example. But a rather rapid increase in the number of students from poor families does
mean that at the end of the 70s, the University is more like the red brick universities of the Midlands
than the Durham of the East. Red brick university, in this example, refers to the universities founded
in industrial cities in England in the 19th century. This term was coined for these universities,
because they were built from red brick. They were distinguished from universities such as Oxford
and Cambridge, which have a longer history and are built from stones. With this knowledge, we do
not simply translate it into [FOREIGN] instead, we add an explanation so that the readers can better
understand. [FOREIGN] the second example. A truck carries fire at five A.M. through central
Toronto, along Dundas Street and up Parliament Street, moving north. Written in yellow over the
green door is DOMINION BRIDGE COMPANY. Normally, we translated names of people, places,
and sometimes organizations. For example, Mary is Marie. Washington is Washington. Morgan
Stanley is Morgan Stanley. In this example, Dundas Street is Dundas [FOREIGN] and Parliament
Street is Parliament [FOREIGN] both are streets in Toronto. According to this principle in
translation, Dominion Bridge Company should be translated into [FOREIGN]. However, in history,
dominion refers to a self-governing territory of the British Commonwealth. Canada became a
dominion or became independent in 1867. For the Canadians, this word has a special meaning.
Because of this, we translate it into [FOREIGN] instead of [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN] When we
have detected the cultural elements in a source language text, we need to decide what to do to
bridge the gap between source language culture and the readers. We can use addition or footnotes to
add the cultural information if it is necessary to explain the cultural elements. And when it is
possible to use a few words to explain them, we can use addition. For example, [FOREIGN]. If this
sentence is written for experts on Chinese literature, there is no need to explain anything. If the
readers do not know much about Chinese history or literature, then [FOREIGN] will be puzzling to
them. The translator, therefore, needs to explain these to the readers. During the Kaiyuan Era (713
to 741) and the Tianbao Era (742 to 756) of the Tang Dynasty (618 to 907), when Chinese literature
reached its zenith, frontier literature represented by frontier poems, poems about life of the soldiers
and civilians on the frontier, appeared. The translator as the time period after the Kaiyuan Era, the
Tianbao Era, and the Tang Dynasty, so that readers who don't know about Chinese history can have
an idea about when this happened. The translator also adds a brief explanation of frontier points put
between dashes, so that readers know what this means. The technique of addition is used in English
translation to add background information to the source language text. We can also use footnotes to
explain the cultural elements in a source language. For example, I am a Hindu because of sculptured
cones of red kumkum powder and baskets of yellow turmeric nuggets, because of garlands of
flowers and pieces of broken coconut, because of the clanging of bells, to announce one's arrival to
God, because of the reedy nadaswaram and the beating of drums, because of the patter of bare feet
against stone floors down dark corridors pierced by shafts of sunlight, because of the fragrance of
incense, because of flames of arati lamps circling in the darkness, because of the bhajans being
sweetly sung, because of elephants standing around to bless, because of colourful murals telling
colourful stories, because of foreheads carrying, variously signified, the the same word, faith. This
paragraph is taken from the novel, Life of Pi. Several words in this paragraph are about Indian
culture or Hinduism, to be specific. And some of these words need to be explained so that their
meanings are clear. The word arati, for example, is a Hindu religious ritual of worship. When
performing arati, the priest circulates a lamp or arati lamp to all those present. They cup their
downturned hands over the flame, and they raise their palms to their forehead, so that blessing is
passed from the devote's image to the flame and to the devotee. This should be explained so that the
readers know what is going on, but it cannot be explained in a few words. And it would interrupt the
reader's reading if several sentences of explanation are put in the parentheses. So we can use a
footnote to explain it. The word nadaswaram also needs explanation as it is an Indian musical
instrument that does not have an equivalent in Chinese. We transliterate it into [FOREIGN] to
indicate this is an exotic musical instrument, and uses a footnote to describe what it is. Not all
words with cultural meanings, however, need to be explained. Words such as kumkum powder,
turmeric nuggets, and bhajans are not familiar to the Chinese readers. But we do not use footnotes
or additions to explain them because they would not hinder the reader's understanding. From the
Chinese translation, [FOREIGN] or kumkum powder, and [FOREIGN] or turmeric nuggets. The
readers can guess what they are. They don't need to know the exact meaning to understand this
paragraph. Let's discuss the translation of two more words. The word bhajan means a devotional
song in the Indian language. Translated into Chinese, it is [FOREIGN]. As the meaning is clear,
there is no need to make any addition or footnote. The last word that we should pay attention to is
God. We know the Chinese for God is [FOREIGN]. But can we translate this God here into
[FOREIGN]? This paragraph describes the religious ritual of Hinduism. And we know that Hindus
do not believe in a God that Christians believe in, besides, Hinduism is polytheism. In other words,
the Hindus believe in many gods instead of one God. The word God here cannot be translation into
[FOREIGN]. It is translated into [FOREIGN]. Here is the Chinese translation. [FOREIGN] In this
example, we can see the different methods we use when translating culture elements. Some can be
directly translated without any explanation while others need to be explained. To explain these
words, we can use additions or footnotes. Some words seem familiar, but they may have different
meanings in different cultures. We should choose the correct meaning in a specific culture to
translate them.

M5L2 Translating Idioms within the Cultural Context

All languages have a lot of idioms. While native speakers use them spontaneously, speakers of
another language may find them difficult to understand. Many idioms are derived from our daily
experiences, and our feelings about them. And historical events, and our understanding of them.
And these can vary from culture to culture. To correctly translate idioms, we must know the cultural
origin of them. For example, what does born with a silver spoon in one's mouth mean? According to
the Western customs, after a child is born, his or her godfather or godmother, gives the child a silver
spoon to wish them wealth. If a child is born with a silver spoon in his or her mouth, or he or she is
born in a wealthy family, then the gift of a silver spoon is not necessary or the child is born to be
wealthy. Now that we know the customs, we can translate this idiom into [FOREIGN]. What does
one's cup of tea mean. This idiom was first used in the Victorian age when tea became popular.
People liked different teas. Some liked Chinese tea, some liked Indian tea. They also liked drinking
tea differently. Some liked strong tea, some liked weak tea. Some liked to add milk or sugar or
lemon to the tea, hence the saying, that's not my cup of tea. One's cup of tea is later used to refer to
a person suited to one's taste. Or a thing someone likes. In Chinese [FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN].
How do we translate the apple of discord? This idiom comes from Greek mythology. Peleus the
hero and Thetis the Nereid did not invite Eris, the Goddess of discord to their wedding. Eris
inscribed on the golden apple the words to the fairest and passed it at the wedding causing a dispute
among Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. The three goddesses asked the Trojan Prince, Paris to be the
judge, and each bribed him, hoping that he would give the apple to her. Hera promised him
Kingdom, Athena promise him wisdom, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in
the world. Paris handed the golden apple to Aphrodite. He got the love of Helen, Queen of Sparta
and took her to Troy. This led to the Trojan War. That's why we can translate this idiom into
[FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN]. The Chinese idiom [FOREIGN] is originated from the book
[FOREIGN]. In the story, a peasant who lived in the warring states period was working in the fields
when a hare ran into a tree and died. The peasant took the hare home and had a good dinner. After
that, he waited by the tree every day instead of working in the fields, hoping that another hare
would run into the tree. If we translate this idiom into, wait by the tree for the hare, the English
readers who don't know the story will not know what it means. We need therefore, to look for an
English idiom or idioms that mean hoping for good results, rewards or gains without working hard.
In English we can say, wait for windfalls or wait for gains without pains. It's a pity that the image of
the hare is lost in the translation. But it's still better than the direct translation which does not make
sense for the English readers. The idiom [FOREIGN] is from a poem written by Lu You a famous
poet in the Song Dynasty. The sentence is [FOREIGN]. It originally describes the scene of shady
green willows and blooming bright flowers. When Hillary Clinton gave a speech at the Shanghai
World Expo, she quoted Lu You's poem. After endless mountains and rivers that leave doubt
whether there is a path out, suddenly one encounters the shade of a willow, bright flowers and a
lovely village. This is a direct translation of this sentence. Now this idiom is also maybe more often
used to describe a ray of hope or a favorable turn in a difficult situation. To express this meaning,
we can translate this idiom into a sudden glimpse of hope in the midst of bewilderment.
[FOREIGN] comes from the essay [FOREIGN] refers to the blue color used in dye and
[FOREIGN] refers to the indigo plant from which the blue color is extracted. This idiom is a
metaphor of students who surpass their teachers. If we translate this idiom directly, the readers will
not know its figurative meaning. If we translate this figurative meaning, the image of blue and
indigo plant will be lost. Our solution is to translate it directly and then add this figurative meaning
as an explanation. Blue comes from the indigo plant but it's bluer than the plant itself - the disciple
surpasses the master. Sometimes, two idioms in two languages have similar meanings. But because
they both have strong cultural connotations, they cannot be translated into each other. For example,
can we translate, to teach grandmother to suck eggs into [FOREIGN]. To teach grandmother to suck
eggs means to give advice to someone about a subject that they already know more about than you.
This idiom is similar in meaning to the Chinese idioms [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] which all
mean to show off in front of experts. If we translate, to teach grandmother to suck eggs, into
[FOREIGN] or vice versa, the strong cultural connotation and flavor are lost. If we translate the
idioms literally, the readers may be confused. The Chinese readers don't suck eggs and don't
understand what it means to teach grandmother to suck eggs. The English readers don't know what
[FOREIGN] is. Depending on the context, we can use addition to translating the idioms.
[FOREIGN] for example can be translated into show off one's skills with the axe before Lu Ban the
master carpenter - not to recognize one's abilities. Can we translate [FOREIGN] into like father, like
son. The implied meaning of the Chinese idiom [FOREIGN] is that the family and class one is born
into decides the kind of person he is and the things he does. If a man is born into a noble family, he
will be a noble man. Otherwise, he does not have a noble heart or perform noble deeds. The English
idiom, Like father like son, seems to be similar to the Chinese idiom but it does not have this
implication. The two idioms cannot be translated into each other. The Chinese idiom can be
translated into, a born dragon will never behave like a rat. The English idiom can be translated into
[FOREIGN] or [FOREIGN] Can we translate [FOREIGN] into, Don't bite the hand that feeds you?
[FOREIGN] is an idiom known to many people. And [FOREIGN] is the explanation of it. The
English idiom, Don't bite the hand that feeds you, has the opposite meaning. We can translate
[FOREIGN] into bite the hand that feeds you. And translate, Don't bite the hand that feeds you, into
[FOREIGN] Sometimes, one English idiom and one Chinese idiom seem to be similar to each other.
But actually, the different cultures they are used in do not give them the same meanings. We have to
make sure we know that exactly meanings before we translate them. For example, bark at the moon
versus [FOREIGN] In both idioms, there is the image of dog. But the dog that barks at the moon
wants to scare them all. While the dog that barks at the sun feels frightened when seeing the sun
because it is from [FOREIGN], a place where the sun seldom comes out and therefore does not
know what the sun is. The English idiom means, to make an outcry to no effect. The Chinese idiom
means, to make a fuss over nothing. A second example, give a dog a bad name and hang him versus
[FOREIGN] Give a dog a bad name and hang him, seems to mean to give a dog a bad name and
then use his bad name as an excuse to hang him. If this is the real meaning of this idiom, then it can
be translated into [FOREIGN]. Actually however, this idiom means when we give someone a bad
name, no matter it's true or not. This person can never clear himself. In meaning, it is similar to
[FOREIGN]. The Chinese idiom [FOREIGN] means if we want to blame someone or frame a case
against someone, we can always find an excuse to do so. It is similar to, he who has a mind to beat
his dog will easily find a stick. Another example, When the cat's away, the mice will play versus
[FOREIGN] Central will also as it turns out was. These two idioms seem so similar to each other
that I often see people translate them into each other. Unfortunately, however, they are wrong. The
English idiom means, when a manager is away, people will ignore the rules and do whatever they
want to. We can translate it into [FOREIGN]. The Chinese idiom means when the best, strongest,
bravest one is not present, the second raters will be in important positions. We can translate it into,
in absence of lions, monkeys will rule the jungle. We notice here that the tiger is translated into the
lion. That's because while the tiger is the king of beasts in Chinese culture, in the Western culture,
the lion is the king of the jungle. Idioms add richness to a language. To keep this richness, we need
to keep the idioms in our translation. To keep the idioms, we need to know their cultural origin and
meanings.

M5L3 Translating Advertisements with the Target Culture in Mind

This lesson is about the translation or advertisements. Brand names and trademarks are all
considered to be advertisements in this lesson, as they are not just names of businesses or products.
They play their role of advertisements. Some brand names and trademarks give us a deep
impression. And we remember them, and give attention to products or businesses because of them.
In today's commercial world, we are surrounded by all kinds of products and services. We see the
brand names, trademarks, and slogans all the time. One factor involved in designing the brand
names, trademarks and slogans, is culture. As they are social and cultural products. They aim at an
audience in a specific culture. And are therefore influenced by the audiences' values, traditions,
customs, religious beliefs, moral principles. Aesthetics, social and political systems, and so on, and
so forth. When we translate the brand names, trademarks, and slogans with imprints of one culture
into another language, aiming at an audience in another culture, we should consider the difference
between the two cultures. So that our translations work in a target language culture. Let's look at
some brand names and trademarks first. For example, Bing is a search engine. In Chinese, it is
[FOREIGN], which is a good translation. The pronunciation of [FOREIGN] is similar to Bing. And
the two characters make us think of the Chinese idiom, [FOREIGN], which is very important for a
search engine. The Chinese translation takes in to consideration both the pronunciation and the
meaning of the English word. And tells the important characteristic of this product. The second
example. BMW is the abbreviation of Bayerische Motoren Worke, which means Bavarian Motor
Works. Or, in Chinese, [FOREIGN]. This name has no appeal to the customers. A new name must
be found for this car. The Chinese translation that we use now selects [FOREIGN], of all the
Chinese characters whose [FOREIGN] begins with B. And [FOREIGN], of all the Chinese
characters whose [FOREIGN] begins with M. So that BMW becomes [FOREIGN]. In Chinese
people's minds [FOREIGN], a horse with a noble pedigree and all the desirable characteristics, is
priceless. This translation attracts customers who like cars with excellent performance and speed.
The third example. LinkedIn is a social networking site, whose goal is to allow its members to
establish networks of people they know professionally, to get linked to people. The name LinkedIn
tells the purpose of this site, clearly. Translated into Chinese, it is [FOREIGN]. These words could
be used in so many different contexts. They do not tell the potential users, what product, or service
it is. [FOREIGN], is a good translation of the English name. The Chinese translation we use now,
[FOREIGN], appeals to professionals. The word [FOREIGN], in Chinese, is a transliteration of the
first syllable of linked. And the word [FOREIGN], is a transliteration of the word in. Put together,
the two characters [FOREIGN] make the Chinese customers think of [FOREIGN], leaders. And
[FOREIGN], elites. It hints to those who use this social media, to find jobs and to get to know
people, that they are leaders and elites. Or potential leaders and elites. Maybelline was created by
Thomas Lyle Williams in 1915. He got the idea from his sister, Mable. Who applied a mixture of
Vaseline and kohl dust to her eyelashes, to give them a darker and fuller look. The name Maybelline
is based on her name and Vaseline. What attracts the customers is not the history of the product, but
the effects it has. As a beauty product, its name should suggest to users that they will become
beautiful after using it. The Chinese name, Maybelline is the transliteration of Maybelline. Of all
the Chinese characters that sound similar to Maybelline, [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are selected.
Because this product is aimed at women who want to make themselves beautiful. And these words
hint to them, that the product can make them as beautiful as flowers. [FOREIGN] and Goldlion are
two names for the same line of product. The Chinese trademark is not [FOREIGN], which is a
translation of Goldlion. And English trademark, Goldlion, is not [FOREIGN], which is the
[FOREIGN] of [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN] doesn't mean anything to the English speaking
customers. But Goldlion makes them think of the manner of a king, as the lion is the king of the
jungle. Men who wear Goldlion clothes are associated with the king. In Mandarin, [FOREIGN] has
a good meaning. But in Cantonese, [FOREIGN] sounds similar to [FOREIGN], which means, to
lose. To avoid this association, [FOREIGN] is not used as the trademark. Instead, lion is
transliterated into [FOREIGN], which means profits pour in. This name attracts customers.
[FOREIGN], means the collection of the essence of a hundred, or many herbs. China has a long
history of using herbs as medicine, and as skin care. Many Chinese people believe they are
effective, with no or little side effect. In the English speaking world, however, there are not as many
people who know about the effectiveness of herbs. Or are willing to try the herbs. The word
herborist may not attract many customers. Huawei, as its name suggests, has achieved great success
in China. Its products are sold overseas. And using the [FOREIGN] may help with the recognition
of this company name and trademark. But for non-Chinese speakers, it really doesn't make any
sense. [FOREIGN] is a brand name of batteries. In Asia, white elephants are valued because they
are rare. In English, however, white elephants refer to a possession that is useless or troublesome.
Especially one that is expensive to maintain, or difficult to dispose of. Who would want batteries
that are useless, troublesome, expensive to maintain, and difficult to dispose of? The translation of
[FOREIGN] into white elephant, is definitely a failure. Because it does not consider the culture of
the target customers at all. Now, let's look at the translation of slogans. Advertisements have
become part of our life. No matter what we think of them, we cannot avoid them. Well written
slogans, can help products and service providers win over customers, and win the market. The first
example, [FOREIGN]. The English translation. Your life is very busy. Our long card can make it
easy. [FOREIGN] is the slogan of a credit card issued by China Construction Bank. It is modeled on
a sentence from the well-known essay entitled, [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN], or Chinese dragon, is a
legendary creature in Chinese mythology and folklore that symbolizes power, strength, and good
luck. The image of the Chinese dragon is very much liked by the Chinese people. The dragon in
Western culture, however, is usually a monster that symbolizes evil and chaos. Maybe that is why
[FOREIGN] is not translated into dragon. To use the [FOREIGN] is not a good idea either. It might
be confused with the English word long. Why is the card long? I don't know. I know that definitely,
this sentence is long and [FOREIGN]. And the English is bad. The second example, [FOREIGN].
The translation is east or west, Guilin landscape is best. [FOREIGN] is originally not a slogan. But
it has been a calling card of the city Guilin for such a long time, that it has an advertising effect. It is
said that the municipal government of Guilin held a translation contest, in order to find a best
translation for the slogan. Of all the translations, this one stands out. East or west, Guilin landscape
is best. This is modeled on the English idiom, east or west, home is best. It translate the word
[FOREIGN] into English, and makes the English visitors feel close to it. Because the slogan sounds
familiar to them. The next example. A diamond is forever. The translation is [FOREIGN].
[FOREIGN] is the translation of, a diamond is forever. [FOREIGN] is an addition. Whatever
translation technique is used, it must be used for a reason. The reason for adding this second
sentence is that many Chinese people, especially older people, want to leave something to their
children and grandchildren. This translation appeals to the Chinese customer's emotions and values.
Consumer psychology is an important consideration in advertising. And consumer psychology is
very much influenced by culture. The target customer's culture, therefore, should always be in the
mind of a translator when they translate advertisements.

M6L1 Translating Scientific Writings

 In this part of our course we're going to discuss the translation of different genres of writing
including scientific writings, legal documents, public speeches, and literary works. This first lesson
is about the translation of scientific writings. In scientific writings we expect to find many technical
terms and rigorous logical reasoning, and we often find plain language and long and complicated
sentences. Let's look at a few examples to see how such writings are translated. The first example,
balance, controlled in part by the vestibular system, depends on the inner ears, which have three
semicircular canals to detect the rotation of the head. In addition, receptors containing calcium-
carbonate crystals help the body detect gravity and changes in motion such as stopping and starting.
Sometimes the crystals can become dislodged and can enter one of the semicircular canals, playing
havoc with one's sense of balance and causing benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV). The
disorder is usually the result of aging, trauma to the head, or an infection of some kind. As we have
discussed earlier, before we start to translate we'd better read through this paragraph. This paragraph
is about the cause of BPPV, a type of vertigo. Next, let's find out if there are any technical terms that
we don't know. Vestibular system, semicircular canal, receptor, calcium-carbonate crystal, and
benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, all these will need to be looked up. Now we can do the
translation. Here we have a version of Chinese translation, let's study it and see if the technical
terms are correctly translated, if the sentence structure is correctly understood, if the logical
relationship is correctly expressed, and if the language is clear, concise, and coherent. [FOREIGN]
(BPPV) [FOREIGN]. The main clause of the first sentence is balance depends on the inner ears.
The subject balance and object inner ears are respectively modified by a past participle clause and
an attributive clause, and the attributive clause includes an infinitive. Participle clauses can usually
be translated into attribitives, however if we translate balance controlled in part by the vestibular
system into [FOREIGN], the translation does not read very Chinese. We can consider translating
this part into a short sentence without changing the word order. [FOREIGN]. The attributive clause
is too long to be put in front of the phrase it modifies so we can translate this part into a separate
sentence, this means we have to divide the first sentence into two sentences. Infinitives can be
translated into attributes, so that have three semicircular canals to detect the rotation of the head
becomes [FOREIGN]. The term semicircular canal, however, may not be familiar to the readers so
we need to add an explanation, after the addition the attribute becomes too long. As we have done
with the first part of the English sentence, we translate this part into a short sentence without
changing the word order. Finally, in this context the word balance refers to [FOREIGN] of the
human body. Having made this analysis and used the translation techniques of addition and
division, we'll translate the first sentence into what we see now, a long complex sentence is
translated into two short sentences which makes the point clearly. Now let's look at the third
sentence and focus on the logical relationship in it. Playing havoc with one's sense of balance and
causing BPPV are consequences of the crystal entering the semicircular canals, and BPPV is the
consequence of playing havoc with one's sense of balance. In the Chinese translation the pronoun
[FOREIGN] is added as a translation to connect the two parts of the sentence, and the conjunction
[FOREIGN] is added to make explicit the relationship between playing havoc with and BPPV.
Here's another example, let's read it through first to see what this is about. [FOREIGN]. Here is the
English translation, situated between the subtropical zone and the north temperate zone, Dafeng has
four distinct seasons and transitional, oceanic, and monsoonal climates. The transitional climate
brings abundant sunlight, heat, and precipitation, which is good for temperate crops. The oceanic
climate features a slow rise in temperature in spring and a slow drop in temperature in fall. The first
frost comes late and the frost-free period is long. Influenced by the monsoonal climate, the city is
exposed to continental monsoons and cold air in winter, when there is little rain. Northwest wind,
low temperature and frost often hit this area. In summer the ocean winds from the southeast bring
plenty of rainfall and high temperature at the same time. In the transitional seasons of spring and
fall the climate changes between being dry, wet, warm, and cold. In this paragraph there are quite
some technical terms, such as [FOREIGN], all these need to be correctly translated. Besides these
technical terms other words and phrases need our attention too. For example there are three
[FOREIGN] in this paragraph, [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN]. The word [FOREIGN] here does not
mean represent, manifest, or express, but is characterized by. Considering the context, and to give
some variety to the language, would translate this phrase into brings features and influenced by,
respectively. Another example, how do we translate [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] in the fourth
sentence? Influenced by is the correct translation of [FOREIGN], but in the translation the phrase
exposed to is used instead of influenced by. Exposed to means [FOREIGN], which is followed by
something unpleasant, in this case the cold weather. Similarly, [FOREIGN] is translated into
northwest wind, low temperature, and frost often hit this area, the word hit is used to emphasize the
severity of the weather. We also need to make an analysis of the sentence structures. This paragraph
includes quite a few parallel parts separated by commas, if we translate these without making any
adjustments the English sentences would have loose structures. Take this sentence as an example,
[FOREIGN]. Five characteristics of the winter climate are listed in this sentence, each comes in a
different structure, this gives a quick tempo and some diversity in structure to the sentence and is
typical in Chinese writing. Directly translated, it would be influenced by continental monsoons and
cold air in winter, often has northwest wind, is characterized by little rainfall, and often has low
temperature and frost, this English sentence is loosely structured. When we analyze the relationship
between these parts we see that [FOREIGN] is the main characteristic of the winter climate, while
[FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are the four specific manifestations of this characteristic. Of these,
[FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are all related to the cold weather, but [FOREIGN] is not. With this
understanding we can divide the sentence into two sentences, each describing one characteristic or
one group of characteristics so that all the characteristics are well arranged and the relationships
between them are made very clear. Let's look at one more sentence. [FOREIGN]. The word
[FOREIGN] indicates a cause and effect relationship between the southeast wind, and the rain and
heat. Now let's look at the cause and effect respectively. In the part about the cause, what is the
relationship between the ocean winds and the southeast winds? Actually, they are the same. In the
part about the effect two points are made, there is plenty of rain, [FOREIGN], and there is rainfall
and high temperature at the same time, [FOREIGN]. The rainfall, [FOREIGN], is the same rainfall,
[FOREIGN], there is no need to translate the same thing twice. The English translation in summer
the ocean winds from the southeast bring plenty of rainfall and high temperature at the same time,
includes all the information in a Chinese sentence, makes the relationship between different parts
very clear, and is concise, tightly structured, and fluent. From the above two examples we can see
that in the translation of scientific writings the correct understanding and expression of technical
terms, sentence structures, and logical relationships are very important. The translation should also
be clear, concise, and coherent.

M6L2 Translating Legal Documents

Compared with other genres of writing, legal writing has its own characteristics. In legal writings
you find a lot of legal terms, strict logic, formal language, and specific formats. The translator has
no freedom in translation. Let's take a look at a translation of legal terms first. Many legal terms
come from the words and phrases that we use in our daily life. But when used in legal documents,
these terms acquire special meanings. This table can give us an idea of what this means. Although
these words have multiple meanings in daily life, each of these words, as a legal term, has only one
specific meaning. And this meaning cannot be changed. For example, the word instrument in the
table can mean [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN]. But as a legal term, it can only mean [FOREIGN].
The word issue can mean [FOREIGN]. As a legal term it means [FOREIGN]. The word
[FOREIGN] can mean one, [FOREIGN] two, [FOREIGN] three [FOREIGN]. As a legal term it can
only refer to the third meaning. The word [FOREIGN] can mean one, [FOREIGN] two,
[FOREIGN] and three [FOREIGN]. As a legal term, it has only one meaning, [FOREIGN] which is
the first one. Quite a few legal terms originate from ancient French, Latin Old English, etc. These
terms have not changed with the time, and are still used in legal writings today. Proper use of these
terms give the legal writings a formal, solemn, and authoritative feel. This table lists a few of the
terms that are often used and their origins. Sometimes I use differently in legal writing from how
they are used in daily life. For example, [FOREIGN] is a verb phrase, but in legal writing it is often
used as the subject, or object is that of the predicate. Another example, not proven is made up of not
and proven and because proven is a past participle, this phrase functions as an adjective in daily
usage. In legal writing, however, this phrase has become a noun. And can be used as the subject or
object. The last characteristic of legal terms that I want to mention is that many of them have a lot
of synonyms. Let's look at one example. Agreement means this distribution agreement, the recitals
set forth in the preamble herein. And all schedules attached hereto, as well as all amendments,
additions, restatements or modifications made hereto and thereto and all other documents
incorporated herein or therein by reference. In this example distribution agreement, recitals,
schedules, amendments, additions, restatements, modifications, are all synonyms. They are used
together so that no document that should be covered in the category of agreement is left out. Our
understanding of the characteristics of the legal terms, can help us in our translation of legal
writings. Next, let's see the style of legal writings. Legal writings are formal, solemn and do not
show any emotions. The sentences tend to be long and complex, they're often difficult to
understand. Let's study a few examples of the translation of legal writings. The first example,
[FOREIGN]. The original translation of this sentence is, this agreement expires in three years and
will be renewed automatically, the renewal period is one year, unless one party notices the other
party in written form 60 days before the agreement expires. This translation reads fluently and
seems to have all the details in the source language text. But does it really say exactly the same
thing that is said in the source language? In a Chinese sentence [FOREIGN], means after the current
agreement expires, it will be automatically renewed for one year and after one year, it will be
renewed for another one year and so on and so forth. This is not expressed in the translation. It will
be renewed automatically. The renewal period is one year. This may mean that the agreement will
be renewed only once. Also the Chinese [FOREIGN] is not translated, besides, some words used in
the translation. For example, before the agreement expires are not for formal. Let's see the revised
translation. This agreement shall remain in force for a period of 3 years and shall be automatically
renewed thereafter for successive periods of 1 year unless terminated by written notice from 1 party
to the other no less than 60 days prior to the expiry of the then current terms. In the revised
translation, the use or words, phrases, and terms such as remain in force, thereafter, and prior to the
expiry of and the careful handling of details, such as shall be automatically renewed for successive
periods of one year, make the sentence clear, formal, solemn, and strict. The second example, no
record found, based solely on the name or names and date of birth provided, a search of the
National Criminal Records repository maintained by the RCMP did not identify any records for a
person with the name or names and date of birth of the applicant. Positive identification that a
criminal record may or may not exist at the National Criminal Records repository can only be
confirmed by fingerprint comparison. Not all offenses are reported to the National Criminal
Records repository. A local indices check may or may not receive criminal record convictions that
have not been reported to the National Criminal Records repository. [FOREIGN] This example is a
criminal record check issued by the Royal Canada Mountain Police. In the Chinese translation, we
find technical terms. Fingerprint comparison is translated into [FOREIGN] instead of [FOREIGN]
or [FOREIGN]. Formal words, for example, can only be, is translated into [FOREIGN] instead of
[FOREIGN]. Or it's translated into [FOREIGN] instead of [FOREIGN]. And clear and concise
language. For example, based solely on, is translated into [FOREIGN] instead of [FOREIGN]. The
language is precise, objective, authoritative, and formal and expresses very well the characteristics
of legal writing. We mentioned at the beginning of this lesson, that the translator has no freedom in
translation of legal documents. But this doesn't mean that the translator cannot make any change to
the word order for grammatical reasons. The word order of the first sentence, for example, is
changed in a translation. The translator also explained the word indices. This word means
[FOREIGN]. But if local indices is translated into [FOREIGN], its meaning is not clear. According
to the context, the local indices refer to the criminal records kept at the local criminal records
repository. Therefore, it is translated into [FOREIGN]. Legal documents require the translator to be
very careful with the legal terms and to be familiar with and be able to effectively express the
formal tone and style of the text.

M6L3 Translating Public Speeches

This lesson is about the translation of public speeches. Depending on the purpose, the content, the
audience and the speaker, the styles of the speech can be very different. Some speeches are
humorous, some are theories, some are colloquial, some are formal. Some use simple and plain
language. Some use figure of speech and emotion laden vocabulary. The translator should be
sensitive to the different styles, and use the same in the translation. The translator should also be
aware that the translation is for an audience in a different culture. This speech was given by chair of
orthopedics and dermatology at Hong Kong University. When we read this speech, we feel as if we
were listening to someone we know telling us a story while sitting next to us. The very first word,
yes, sets the tone which is colloquial. Throughout the speech, plain language is used to express
genuine feelings. This is the Chinese translation. In the Chinese translation, we also find the
colloquial tone, plain language and genuine feelings. Here is another speech delivered by a teacher
from Nanjing University, at the 100 year anniversary of the university. Reading this speech, we can
clearly understand its powerfully delivered message. And strongly feel it's catching enthusiasm, and
emotional appeal. We're also impressed by its fluent language and rich idioms. The translators task
it to translate it into a speech that arouses, in the English speaking audience, the same feelings that
the Chinese speech arouses in the Chinese audience. We'll look at a few paragraphs as examples to
see how this is done, let's start with the salutation. [FOREIGN] At the begging of the speech, the
speaker addresses the audience. According to the Chinese custom, the speaker addresses
[FOREIGN] first, then [FOREIGN], the guest and finally the faculty and students. In English
speeches, however, a speaker does not follow this order. First of all, [FOREIGN] is not specifically
mentioned. Actually, the word [FOREIGN] in Chinese refers to people in high executive positions
which doesn't have an equivalent word in English. Secondly, the word [FOREIGN] should refer to
the distinguished guests because ladies and gentlemen are guests too. According to the custom of
the English speaking culture, this salutation is changed into distinguished guests, my fellow
colleagues, dear students, ladies and gentlemen. The translation of this salutation involves not only
language but also culture. The translator should be sensitive to culture issues and consider the target
language audience's culture. Now, let's see the first paragraph of the speech. [FOREIGN] The first
and the third sentence are quite straight forward. Let's focus on the second sentence. This sentence
walks the audience through the history of the university and introduced the topic of the speech. In
this sentence, we don't find words that are difficult to translate except two idioms, [FOREIGN] and
[FOREIGN]. The former refers to all kinds of difficulties, and the latter refers to all the changes the
university went through. The structure of this sentence is not complicated. The original translation
is, the expedition that our forefathers started in 1902 has reached a turning point today. After 100
years of hardships and great changes, Sanjiang Normal School has become Nanjing University. This
translation reads fluently and conveys the main idea of the original sentence. But it seems to lack
the complexity and the literariness of the source language. And does not fully express the pride that
arises from the long history and accomplishments during the 100 years. Let's analyze the sentence
and see if and how we can improve the translation. The key word of this sentence is [FOREIGN]
which is the centenary that is mentioned in the next sentence. This word should be the closest to the
next sentence, so that there is a natural transition between the two sentences. We should also
remember that the English speaking audience may not be familiar with the history of Nanjing
University. We need to briefly explain the history to them. We learned how to use addition to
provide background information. But in this case, we can do this by organizing the important events
in time order. In 1902, Sanjiang Normal School was established. 100 years later, it was developed
into Nanjing University. Doing the 100 years, many changes took place. Now, the university is at a
turning point. Now we can change the word order and revise the translation. Our forefathers started
an expedition in 1902 when they founded Sanjiang Normal School. Since then time has brought
great changes to the world, and Sanjiang Normal School has become Nanjing University. During
the 100 years we have been marching forward despite the trials and hardships, and now the
expedition has reached a turning point. In this revised translation, there is a clear emphasis on the
history of the university. For example, started an expedition. Since then, during the 100 years, and
now. There is a clear expression of pride in the accomplishments. For example, marching forward
despite the trials and hardships. There is a natural transition into the next sentence. The phrase
turning point is at the end of the sentence, which will be repeated in the next sentence. And the
English expression is idiomatic and literally. Here is the translation of the whole paragraph. Now
let's come to the second paragraph. [FOREIGN]. This is the English translation. Today is a special
day. Today the name Nanjing University gathers us together and arouses in us a sense of honor, a
sense of belonging, a sense of responsibility. We are proud, very proud to teach at Nanjing
University. We find repetitions in this paragraph which gives power and rhythm to the language.
This characteristic of a source language is retained in the translation. The translation does more than
that. The first sentence, which is very long, is divided into two sentences so that the beginning of
the paragraph becomes more powerful. The word teacher in the last sentence is converted into a
verb for the same reason. The following paragraphs all begin with [FOREIGN], so that they parallel
with each other, while telling the four reasons why we're proud. There were idioms and quotations,
from classic Chinese writings in each paragraph, which is another special feature of this speech.
This is the first reason, why we're proud. [FOREIGN]. Logically, [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are
the reasons why we are proud. So we can combine these two sentences into one. We are proud of
the long history of Nanjing University and her profound tradition that nourishes us. The next
sentence with a comma that separates two clauses, can be divided into two sentences, because they
express two related but different ideas. The first generalizes the relationship between the ups and
downs of a nation and its universities. And the second is specifically about the relationship between
China and Nanjing University. The division gives clarity and conciseness to this part. Here's the
translation. The ups and downs of a university are the epitome of the ups and downs of a country.
The history of the Nanjing University manifests the profound changes from peril to prosperity our
country has experienced. In the next sentence, [FOREIGN] is the motto of Nanjing University. We
shall adopt to the official translation which can be found on the University website. The translation
of this sentence is with their wisdom, courage, and sense of responsibility, generation after
generation of teachers and students of Nanjing University have bred and developed the notion of
sincerity with aspiration, perseverance with integrity. The translation of the next sentence is, each of
us not only moulds and upholds this notion, but also benefits from this notion. I want two make two
points about the translation. First, the writer lists four words. [FOREIGN]. To achieve a balance,
which is very typical in Chinese writing. The English writing, however, there's no need for such
balance. And since [FOREIGN] and [FOREIGN] are synonyms, we don't need to translate both.
The second point is, [FOREIGN], are all converted into verbs in a translation, so as to make the
language more powerful. In the translation of the last two sentences, we need to find the most
appropriate words to translate [FOREIGN]. This is the translation. It steeled our spirit, evoked our
imagination and kindled our enthusiasm in the past, and it will continue to do so in the future. We
hold a celebration to commemorate this important day so that we can review the history of our alma
mater, and acknowledge this notion. Now, let's move on to the second reason why we are proud.
[FOREIGN] In our study of the translations of this paragraph, we're focused on the difference in
Chinese and English expressions. Let's use the second and the third sentence as examples. Chinese
writings do not emphasize logical relationship between words and sentences as much as English
writings do. For the Chinese audience, the meaning of this sentence is clear enough [FOREIGN]. A
direct English translation would be, after 100 years of changes, the relay baton of our alma mater
has been passed on to our hands. This may be confusing to the English readers. Where does this
come from? It comes from the metaphor of a relay race. Generation after generation of Nanjing
University faculty and students carry on the work of their predecessors, as if they were in a relay
race. To make this explicit we can translate the sentence into, during the 100 years Nanjing
University has experienced a lot in her racing forward. And now it's our turn to take over the relay
baton and go on with the race. The third sentence is similar to the second. If we translate
[FOREIGN] into, the ideal has become a blueprint, the meaning is not clear. The ideal of our
forefathers was to save the nation by means of education. [FOREIGN] Now, time has changed and
our blueprint is to build Nanjing University into one of the world's first rate universities.
[FOREIGN] Having made this clear, we can translate the sentence into, while our forefathers
cherished the ideal of saving the nation by means of education, now we work hard to make come
true the blueprint for building Nanjing University into one of the world's first-rate universities.
What is difficult to translate in the next sentence is [FOREIGN]. Quoted from Mencius. Some
popular translations of this quote were done by James Legge and David Hinton. Legge's translation
is, when heaven is about to confer a great office on any man. Hinton's translation is, so it is that
whenever heaven invests a person with great responsibilities. Neither is a complete sentence. They
did this for a reason. That is [FOREIGN] is indeed a adverbial clause. The complete sentence is
[FOREIGN]. We cannot use the ready translations but have to translate this ourselves. [FOREIGN]
refers to [FOREIGN]. We are lucky to have the opportunity to be entrusted with the mission. In
English the sentence is, we are lucky to be entrusted with this mission, to have the opportunity to
devote ourselves to this mission. The last sentence is not so difficult, we'll skip it. Now we have
studied most part of the speech and the translation in detail. I'll leave rest of the speech for you to
translate.

M6L4 Translating Literary Works

I'd like to begin this lesson with a quote from Edith Grossman, translator of Gabriel García
Márquez, Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes. She says that as literary translators, we write- or
perhaps rewrite- in language B a work of literature originally composed in language A, hoping that
readers of the translation will perceive the text, emotionally and artistically, in a manner that
parallels and corresponds to the esthetic experience of its first readers. This is the translator's grand
ambition. This is our ambition. How do we realize our ambition? We need to inform ourselves of
the background and the setting of the works we translate. To be sensitive to the connotations and
implications of words. And be able to express them. To be aware of the atmosphere they create. And
be able to recreate them. To forever sharpen our competence to translate the style of the writers.
Each writer has their own styles which is expressed in a selection of words and their combinations,
the length and formation of the sentences, the rhythm of the language and the pace of the narration,
and so on. This is one paragraph from Venice written by Jan Morris. The long winding sentences
give the writing a slow pace and a sense of heaviness. The selection, juxtaposition and pairing of
words, such as crumbled, precariously aged, threadbare ermine, and the pink of a summer sunset,
successfully depict Venice as a beautiful city that has gone through all the glories and vicissitudes
with a long history. This is the Chinese translation. In the translation, we find long winding
sentences, a slow pace, and a careful selection of words that describe the city as a beautiful place at
the risk of a disappearing and give the readers a sense of heaviness. This is an excerpt from the
essay entitled, "Sit, Stay, Whoa!", written by P.J. O' Rourke, American political satirist and
journalist. This is a funny piece of writing that satirizes the parents, educators, and pediatricians
who are supposed to be experts on child rearing, but actually don't know much about it. It criticizes
the idea that anyone, neighbors and random old ladies, can give advice on child rearing. It also
criticizes and makes fun of the father who takes every opportunity to find excuses to stay away
from his responsibility as a parent. The funny and satirical effect is achieved by discussing absurd
ideas with a calm, serious, and matter of fact tone. This style is retained in a Chinese translation.
Take this sentence as an example. [FOREIGN]. [FOREIGN] is considered and voted out, as if there
were really such an option. Take another example. [FOREIGN]. Again, satire is made clear by
calmly putting [FOREIGN] in the parentheses as examples of [FOREIGN] and using [FOREIGN]
as an example of [FOREIGN], pretending that these are real, good suggestions. Now let's look at
the third example which we're going to discuss in details. This example is taken from Canadian
writer Michael Ondaatje's novel, In the Skin of a Lion. Here's the excerpt. In the Skin of a Lion is
very characteristic of Ondaatje, both in theme and in language. He writes about people on the
margin and uses contrast between light and darkness to draw the reader's attention to their situation.
In this passage and in the whole novel there is a strong contrast between light and shadow,
brightness and darkness, which creates very rich black and white images. And when we read, we
feel as if we're looking at photos or watching a slide show. There is also an effect of fragmentation,
achieved by mixing long sentences and short sentences, and using nominal structures. The contrast
for the graphic images and effects of fragmentation need to be reproduced in the translation. In the
second paragraph, there was this sentence. The fast evaporation of darkness. Actually this is not
really a sentence, but rather a fragment of a sentence. Between the previous moment when the
workers walk in darkness and the next moment when a light emerges, this fragment of a sentence
invites us to focus on the transition between darkness and light. We translate it into [FOREIGN],
which depicts a vivid image. In the fourth paragraph, we also see fragmented sentences that depict
images of and contrast between light and darkness. Let's see a few versions of translation. None of
them reflect the style of the writer. Night and day, fall light, snow light. These three short fragments
give us three images that come one after another. They are meant for us to see. Night. Day. Fall.
Snow. They are not aimed at giving any explanation. These four translations make groundless
additions and blur these images. In the first translation, the focus is on the passing of time instead of
images. The second translation is almost a rewriting. The images are totally lost. The language of
the third and fourth translation is good, but in these two versions the images are merged, while in
the first language text, the images are distinct one from another and they should be kept as such.
[FOREIGN]. In the sixth paragraph we see a collage of images that allow us to catch a moment, an
action, a condition. We should keep the images in the translation. [FOREIGN]. In the seventh
paragraph, Lounging in mid-air, is another fragmented sentence. The Chinese translation keeps it as
it is. [FOREIGN]. Similarly, the fragments in the last paragraph should be kept as they are.
[FOREIGN]. Here are a few translations of the last paragraph. We notice the difference in style in
the first language and their translations. The last paragraph has four fragmented sentences, three of
which depict the same image, the bridge. However, the image is lost or not emphasized in the
translations. The translations are not good for another reason. They reveal the translator's lack of
understanding of the theme of this novel. One focus of his novel is the immigrants to Toronto in the
late 1910s. They built the city of Toronto, including this bridge, the Bloor Street Viaduct. But they
were treated as outsiders and were silent and invisible. As we read, we see the bridge there and we
are reminded of all the work done by the immigrants, how they worked day and night, summer and
winter, how they labored over the river of Don, how they risked their lives checking their rivets.
Now the bridge is constructed. It is named after Prince Edward. It will be recorded in history. But
where are the immigrants? They are nowhere to be seen, not at the ceremony celebrating the
completion of the bridge, not in historical records. As we see the images, we have mixed feelings,
feelings that cannot be described with words. In our translation, no word should be added. The two
words, the bridge, say much more than 1000 words. All these translations, however, are talking too
much instead of only presenting the image and letting the readers think and feel. The best thing we
can do is to keep the images, and the fragments. Well, we have seen a few examples of literary
translation. As we have mentioned, different writers write in different styles. Different works have
different themes and different historical, social, and cultural backgrounds. We need to understand
the works in all its aspects if we want to do a good translation. Finally, before we end this session,
let's read the Chinese translation of the entire passage and pay special attention to the highlighted
parts.