HIGH VOLTAGE

ENGINEERING & HIGH

VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION
(EE4103)

Faculty: Dr Susmita Kar

LECTURE 1:INTRODUCTION
 SYLLABUS (HVE)
• Introduction: Design, planning and layout of H.V. laboratories
• Conduction and breakdown in Gaseous Dielectrics: Townsend's current growth
equation, current growth in the presence of secondary processes, and streamer
theory of breakdown in gases. Breakdown in non-uniform fields and corona.
• Conduction and Breakdown in Liquid dielectrics: Pure liquids and commercial
liquids, conduction and breakdown in commercial liquids.
• Breakdown and pre-breakdown phenomena in solid Dielectrics: Intrinsic
breakdown, electromechanical breakdown, thermal breakdown.
• Generation of High voltages: Generation of high D.C. voltage, high A.C. voltage,
impulse voltage, impulse current, tripping and control of impulse generators.
• Measurement of high voltages and current: Measurement of high D.C., A.C. and
impulse. Measurement of D.C. resistivity, dielectric constant and loss factor, partial
discharge and Condition monitoring.
• H.V. Testing of Electrical Apparatus: Testing of insulators, bushings, isolators,
circuit breakers, cables, transformers, and surge diverters.
 SYLLABUS (HVDC Transmission)
• DC Power Transmission Technology: Introduction, Comparison of AC and DC
Transmission, Application.
• Analysis of HVDC Converters: Choice of converter configuration, Graetz circuit,
Convertor bridge characteristics, Characteristics of a twelve pulse converters,
• Converter and HVDC system Control: Principles of DC Link control, Converter control
characteristics, System control hierarchy Firing angle control, current and extinction
angle control, Starting and stopping of DC link, Power Control.
• Smoothing Reactor and DC Line: Smoothing reactors, DC Line, transient over
voltages in DC Line, Protection of DC line, DC breakers, Monopolar operation, Effects
of proximity of AC and DC Transmission lines.
• Reactive Power Control: Reactive power requirements in steady state, Sources of
reactive power, Static var systems, Reactive power control during transients.
• Harmonics and Filters: Generation of Harmonics, Design of AC Filters, DC Filters,
Carrier frequency and RI noise.
• Multiterminal DC systems: Potential applications of MTDC systems, Types of MTDC
systems, control and protection of MTDC systems, Control and protection of MTDC
Systems study of MTDC systems.
 TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCES
BOOKS
Essential Reading:

1. M. S. Naidu and V. Kamaraju, High Voltage Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill

, 1995
2. E.W. Kimbark, Direct Current Transmission-vol.1, Wiley Inter science, New
York , 1971
Supplementary Reading:

1. J. Kuffel and W. S. Zaengl, High Voltage Engineering: Fundamentals,

Newnes , 2000.
2. J. Arrillaga, HVDC Transmission, IET, peter pereginver Ltd., London, U.K ,
1998
 LEVEL OF VOLTAGE
All over the world the voltage levels are classified as:
– Low (70 to 600V AC).
– Medium (0.6 to 33 kV AC).
– High (33 to 220 kV)
– Extra high voltage (220 to 760kV) and
– Ultra high voltages (Above 800kV)

However , the exact magnitude of these levels vary from country to country. Thus, this
is inappropriate system of technical terms for the voltage levels.
• Further, in most part of the world even 440 V is considered to be high voltage since
it is dangerous for lives.
• Thus, it is always better to mention the voltage level directly rather mentioning any
set nomenclature .
 VOLTAGE AT DIFFERENT SECTION
OF THE POWER SYSTEM
Generation :
Three phase synchronous generators: 440 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV (small generators) ,
11 kV (110 & 220 MW)
21.5 kV ( 500 MW), 33 kV (1000 MW)
[limitation due to machine insulation requirement]

• ac Transmission : 110 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 380 - 400 kV, 500 kV, 765 - 800 kV, 1000 kV and
1150 kV exist.
Work on 1500 kV is complete. In three phase power system, the rated voltage is always given
as line to line, rms voltage .
• d.c. transmission : dc single pole and bipolar lines :
± 100 kV to ± 500 kV
Distribution :
• Three phase
440 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 33 kV, 66 kV
With the increase in power consumption density, the power distribution voltage levels are at
rise because the power handling capacity is proportional to the square of the voltage level.
 VARIOUS APPLICATION OF HIGH
VOLTAGES
Power Systems Industry Research laboratories
For transmission of Electrostatic Nuclear research,
large power over long precipitator (upto particle accelerator, Van
distance 100kV), Electrostatic De Graph Generators
Painting, automobile etc.
ignition coil, X-ray
equipments

Despite the various uses of High voltages, it necessitate careful design

of its insulation (Dielectric)and the electrostatic field profile.
For achieving reliability and economy:
•Knowledge of deterioration of insulation
•How to increase voltage stress for optimum design of insulator
•Corona discharge
 WHAT IS HIGH VOLTAGE
ENGINEERING?
• AC Voltage > 1000V {HVAC}
• DC Voltage > 1500 V {HVDC} HIGH VOLTAGE
• Application of above voltages in Gaseous, solid & liquid Medium
• High Voltages mainly applicable for
– Design of Dielectric
– Design of protective devices
 DIELECTRICS (OR DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS)
A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical insulator that can be
polarized by an applied electric field.

Properties of Dielectric materials are :

– Bad/ poor conductor of electricity
– High dielectric strength
– It should efficiently supports electric field
– Should have high thermal stability
– Should be chemically inert
– Non-inflammable
– Good heat transfer capability
– Low cost.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIELECTRICS

Gaseous Solid Liquid Composite

Air, SF6, PVC, Natural Mineral oil, Impregnated
Vacuum, rubber, Ceramics, petroleum etc Paper.
Nitrogen(N2), Mica etc. (Combination of
Carbon Dioxide any two dielectric
(CO2), such as gas-solid,
Dichlorodiflurom solid-liquid,
ethane(CCl2F2/Fr liquid-gas)
eon) etc.
WHAT IS DIELECTRIC STRENGTH?
• It is the maximum dielectric stress the material can withstand.
• Unit: Voltage per distance(V/cm, Kv/cm)
• Dielectric strength of material may be affected with pressure, temperature,
humidity etc.
WHAT IS DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN ?

• When applied voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage current starts flowing
through the dielectric medium or we can say failure of dielectric to
withstand applied voltage.

• E.g. Let break down voltage of material is 1000mV /cm. However I have
applied 1005mV/cm, then the insulating properties of the dielectric material
lost.
 BREAKDOWN IN GASEOUS
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
• Ionization process (Townsend Theory)
• Streamer theory (Avalanche breakdown)
• Corona discharge
• Paschen’s law(Paschen’s breakdown)
• Breakdown in electronegative gas
These are the different phenomena in gaseous dielectric breakdown.
IONIZATION PROCESS IN GASEOUS
DIELECTRIC
• When High Voltage applied in gaseous medium the gas losses its dielectric
and starts conducting . It losses its electrical properties.
Types of Ionization
– Primary Ionization
• Ionization by collision
• Photo Ionization
– Secondary Ionization
 IONIZATION BY COLLISION
•The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the
simultaneous production of a positive ion is called ionization.
•In the process of ionization by collision, a free electron collides with a neutral
gas molecule and gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.

•where , A is the gas atom, A+ is the positive ion and e− is the electron.
 PHOTO IONIZATION
Photo-ionization occurs when the amount of radiation energy absorbed by an atom or
molecule exceeds its ionization potential.

• There are several processes by which radiation can be absorbed by atoms

or molecules, Such as
– excitation of the atom to a higher energy state, and
– continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation
of diatomic molecule or direct ionization, etc.
TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH
EQUATION
As we know, in ionization by collision
when one electron collides with a
neutral particle, a +ve ion and an
electron are formed. Thus,
– Let α = the average no. of ionizing
collisions made by an electron per
cm travel in the direction of the
field. (Townsend’s first ionization
coefficient)
– nx = No. of electrons at a distance
of ‘x’ from the cathode
– When these nx electrons travel a
further distance of dx then no. of
electrons are ‘α nxdx’
TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH
EQUATION
 SECONDARY IONIZATION
Formation of secondary electrons
• Electron emission due to positive ion impact: positive ions are formed
due to ionization by collision or photo ionization. Being positively charged,
the positive ion (A+) will travel towards the cathode & bombard to cathode
and produce secondary electrons. This is called secondary ionisation..

When total energy of positive ion (kinetic

energy + ionization energy) is greater
than twice the work function of the
metal one electron will be ejected and
second electron will neutralize the ion.
 SECONDARY IONIZATION
• Electron emission due to metastable and neutral atoms: A meta-stable
atom or molecule is an excited particle whose lifetime is very large (10-
3s) compared to the lifetime of an ordinary particle (10-8s).

• Electrons can be ejected from the metal surface by the impact of excited
(metastable) atoms, provided that their total energy is sufficient to
overcome the work function.

• Neutral atoms in the ground state also give rise to secondary electron
emission if their kinetic energy is high ( ≈ 1000 eV).
 CURRENT GROWTH IN SECONDARY
IONIZATION
• The single avalanche process in the primary ionization becomes complete
when the initial set of electrons reaches the anode.

• However, the electrons amplify by exp(αd), thus, the probability of

additional new electrons being liberated in the gap by other mechanisms
(mechanism of secondary ionization) increases, and these new electrons
create further avalanches. (Secondary electrons)
Mechanism of secondary ionization
– Electron emission due to positive ion impact
– Electron emission due to photon
– Electron emission due to metastable and neutral atoms

• The net number of secondary electrons produced per incident positive ion,
photon, excited particle, or metastable particle, and the total value of γ is the
sum of the individual coefficients due to the three different processes, i.e. γ =
γ1 +γ2 +γ3.
 CURRENT GROWTH IN SECONDARY
IONIZATION
‘γ’ is called the Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient and is a
function of the gas pressure p and E/p.
CURRENT GROWTH IN SECONDARY
IONIZATION
 SECONDARY IONIZATION
• Electron emission due to photons: To escape an electron from a
metal , enough energy should be given. This energy can be supplied in
the form of a photon of ultraviolet light of suitable frequency.
• Electron emission from a metal surface occurs when

hν ≤ ɸ
Where, ‘ɸ’ is the work function of the metallic electrode (eV).
‘ν’ is threshold frequency .
‘h’ is the Planck’s constant (6.62 × 10-34 m2kg/s)

• If the incident radiation has a greater frequency than the threshold

frequency, then the excess energy goes partly as the kinetic energy of the
emitted electron and partly to heat the surface of the electrode.
Townsend’s Breakdown Criteria
Limitation of Townsend’s Theory
 Example from Townsend’s current growth
• A steady current of 600 μA flows through the plane electrode separated
by a distance of 0.5cm when a voltage of 10kV is applied. Determine the
Townsend’s first ionisation coefficient if a current of 60 μA flows when the
distance of separated is reduced to 0.1 cm and the field is kept constant
at the previous value.
Since the field is kept constant (i.e., if distance of separation is reduced, the voltage is also
reduced by the same ratio so that V/d is kept constant).

I = Io ex

Substituting two different sets of values,

we have 600 = Io e0.5 and 60 = Io e0.1

or 10 = e0.4 or 0.4 = 1n 10

0.4 = 2.3026

= 5.75 ionizing collisions/cm.

 Streamer Theory
•Also known as Avalanche breakdown
•Applicable for gaseous and solid dielectric
•It basically gives current multiplication under HV
•Applicable in non-uniform electric field.
•Streamer (or finger like structure)
How it form ?
•Application of HV
•Energy gain by electron > ionization energy
•Avalanche
•Group of avalanche form space charge
•Space charge form a new electric field
•New electric field leads to formation of new avalanche.
•As a result breakdown of dielectric occurs
 Streamer Theory
Application
•Ozone production
•Air and water purification
•Plasma medicine
Explanation
Due to the drawbacks in Townsends theory, Streamer theory came.
•According to Townsend, breakdown use to happen in 10-5s, however it
actually happens in 10-8s (Time lag).
•Diffuse discharge, no unique direction. Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve)

Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve) - + e- +

+ e-
- + -
- e - + + e e- +
-
+ + e
e-
- e- + - + + e- e- +
+ e-
- e- + - + e-
+

- e- +
E1 E2 E3

As electron is lighter than +ve ion, it move faster towards the anode.
 Streamer Theory
Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve) Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve)

- + e- + - + e- +
+ e- + e-
- + + e-
e-
+ - + + + + e-
e- e- e- +
-
+ + e +
-
e- - -
e- - -
- + + e e + - + + + + e e- e e +
+ e- + e-
- -
- + e + - + e +

E1 E2 E3 E1 E2 E3

•Free electrons move towards the head of avalanche, creating further avalanche.
•As electrons move rapidly by leaving behind +ve ions and the field E3 will be
enhanced in the form of head.
•If we see the field behind the head E2, the field is in opposite direction to the
applied field, so that total field strength become lesser & lesser.
•It also enhance the field between the cathode and tail
 Streamer Theory
Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve)

- + e- +
+ e-
- + + + + e-
e- e- e- +
+ e-
- - -
- + + + + e e- e e +
+ e-
- + e- +

E1 E2 E3

•Due to the enhanced field between the head and the anode, space charge
increases causing the further enhancement of the field around the anode.
•The process is very fast and +ve space charge extends to the cathode very
rapidly resulting in the formation of the streamer
•Streamer are transient (exist for very short duration) & filamentary, which
makes the different form corona discharge.
 Streamer Theory
Post Streamer Effect

Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve) Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve)

+ + + +
- -
+ + + + + + + + - + - + - + - + - +
- + + + + + + + - - + - + - + - + - + +
+ +
+ + + + + + + + + - + - + - + - + - +
+
- -
+ + + + + + + + - + - + - + - + - +
- + + + - +

As soon as the streamer tip approaches to the cathode, a cathode spot is

formed and a stream of electrons rush from the cathode to neutralise the
positive space charge in the streamer, this results in a spark and the spark
breakdown has occurred.
 Paschen’s Law
•It is based on study about breakdown voltage of different gaseous dielectric
materials
•His study consider the effect of pressure and distance (what Townsend had not
considered for his study) on breakdown voltage of various gases .
•His study found that breakdown voltage is a function of product of pressure and
distance.
V=f (pd)
•He had plotted a graph of breakdown voltage(V) vs pd of various gases. Figure
shows an example.
Derivation of Paschen’s Law
Derivation of Paschen’s Law
Breakdown in Electronegative Gas
Breakdown in Electronegative Gas
 Corona Discharge
• In uniform electric field, a gradual increase in voltage across a gap
produces a breakdown of the gap in the form of a spark without any
preliminary discharges. However, in non-uniform electric field, an increase
in voltage will first cause a discharge in the gas to appear at points with
highest electric field intensity, namely at sharp points or where the
electrodes are curved or on transmission lines. This form of discharge is
called a corona discharge and can be observed as a bluish luminescence.

Consequence of Corona
– a hissing noise
– Violate glow
– Formation of ozone
– Considerable loss of power from high-voltage transmission lines,
– deterioration of insulation due to the combined action of the
bombardment of ions and of the chemical compounds formed during
discharges.
– Corona also gives rise to radio interference (interference of power
lines with communication lines)
 Corona in Power Lines
• When the potential difference between two electrode (or two parallel
polished wire) is greater than a threshold value (called critical disruptive
voltage),corona phenomenon starts but it is not visible.
• The voltage gradient required to produce visual corona in ac is called as
corona inception field and is given as

For parallel wire

For coaxial wire

 Liquid Dielectrics Breakdown
The different phenomenon (theory related to) in liquid dielectric
breakdown are as follows:
•Suspended particle theory
•Cavitations & bubble mechanism
•Electro-convection Breakdown
•Electronic Breakdown
•Power law

These are the theories supporting liquid dielectric breakdown. Each has
advantages and disadvantages. So we can not trace one single theory
rather we have to inculcate all five theories.
 Factors Affecting Liquid Dielectrics
Breakdown
Because of these factors the dielectric properties of liquid
dielectric materials getting spoiled/ damaged.

– Presence of solid impurities in liquid dielectrics

– Gas bubbles
– Suspended particles
Desirable Properties of Liquid Dielectrics
• It should have high density
• It should have high dielectric strength
• It should be free from moisture content
• It should have high resistivity
• It should have good heat transfer characteristic
• It should be chemically stable/ inert.

Some Application of Liquid Dielectric materials

•Transformer oil
•In power cable
•In circuit breaker for arc quenching etc.

Examples of Liquid Dielectric materials

•Mineral oil
•Silicon oil
•Synthetic hydrocarbons etc.
 Suspended Particle Theory of liquid
Dielectrics
Let, permittivity of liquid dielectric material is ε1. Now consider case 1
Case 1: Some amount of solid dielectric such as dust, impurity, paper
particles, wooden pieces etc are present in liquid dielectric. Let,
Permittivity of solid impurities be ε2. And ε2 > ε1 .
Now, when HV is applied, the electric field move towards solid impurities as
ε2 > ε1.

Case 2: Some amount of gaseous impurities is present in liquid dielectric.

Let, Permittivity of gaseous impurity be ε2. , ε1 is permittivity of liquid
dielectric material and ε1 > ε2 .
Now, when HV is applied, a high electric stress result which move towards
liquid dielectrics, as a result stability of liquid dielectric materials changed.
Moreover the liquid dielectric will be conductive and dielectric breakdown
occurs. The total force generated in liquid dielectric is given by
 Cavitations and bubble Theory
This theory explains about the liquid dielectric breakdown due to presence of small
bubbles in liquid dielectric.

Reasons for bubbles in liquid dielectric

– Presence of gas pockets in electrode
– Irregular surface of electrode
– Change in temperature and pressure
– Change in hydrostatic pressure
• If bubbles form in liquid entire dielectric material (liquid) getting spoiled.
• Electric field in a gas bubble immersed in liquid dielectric (of permittivity ε2) is
given by

• Where E0 is the field in the liquid in absence of bubble. The bubble under the
influence of electric field E0 elongates keeping its volume constant. When Eb
equals the gaseous ionisation field, discharge takes place which leads to
decomposition of liquid and may followed by breakdown of liquid dielectrics
 Drawback of bubbles Theory
According to this, formation of bubbles in dielectric material spoil the
dielectric property of material (breakdown taken place) but they have not
given proper scientific explanations,
– How the bubbles have formed?
– When the bubbles formed ?
– Theoretical and practical values are not same (not matched)
Electronic breakdown of liquid dielectrics
 Electroconvection Breakdown of Liquid
Dielectric
• When a highly pure insulating liquid is subjected to high voltage, electrical
conduction results from charge carriers injected into the liquid from the
electrode surface. The resulting space charge gives rise to coulombic
forces which under certain conditions causes hydrodynamic instability,
yielding convecting current (eddy current) which may lead for breakdown
of liquid dielectric.
 Breakdown in Solid dielectrics
Types of solid dielectric materials
• Organic materials
– Paper
– Wood,
– Rubber etc
• Inorganic materials
– Mica
– Glass
– Porcelain
– synthetic polymers (Perpex, PVC, epoxy resins etc)
 Breakdown mechanisms in Solid
Dielectrics
When breakdown occurs, solids get permanently damaged while gases fully
and liquids partly recover their dielectric strength after the applied electric
field is removed.
The various breakdown mechanisms are:
– intrinsic or ionic breakdown,
– electromechanical breakdown,
– failure due to treeing and tracking,
– thermal breakdown,
– electrochemical breakdown, and
– breakdown due to internal discharges.
 Intrinsic Breakdown
• When voltages are applied only for short durations of the order of
0.1micro-sec, the dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very
rapidly to an upper limit called the intrinsic electric strength.
• Intrinsic breakdown depends upon the presence of free electrons which
are capable of migration through the lattice of the dielectric. Usually, a
small number of conduction electrons are present in solid dielectrics,
along with some structural imperfections and small amounts of impurities.
The impurity atoms, or molecules, or both, act as traps for the conduction
electrons up to certain ranges of electric fields and temperatures. When
these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons in addition to trapped
electrons are released, and these electrons participate in the conduction
process. Based on this principle, two types of intrinsic breakdown
mechanisms have been proposed.
– Electronic breakdown
– Avalanche / Streamer Breakdown
 Electronic Breakdown
• As intrinsic breakdown occurs in time of the order of 0.1microsec and
therefore is assumed to be electronic in nature. The initial density of
conduction (free) electrons is also assumed to be large, and electron-
electron collisions occur.
• When an electric field is applied, electrons gain energy from the electric
field and cross the forbidden energy gap from the valence to the
conduction band. When this process is repeated, more and more electrons
become available in the conduction band, eventually leading to
breakdown.
 Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown
An electron within the dielectric, starting from the cathode will drift towards
the anode and during this motion gains energy from the field and loses it
during collisions. When the energy gained by an electron exceeds the lattice
ionization potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to collision of
the first electron. This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an
electron avalanche. Breakdown will occur, when the avalanche exceeds a
certain critical size.

In practice, breakdown does not occur

by the formation of a single avalanche
itself, but occurs as a result of many
avalanches formed within the dielectric
and extending step by step through the
entire thickness of the material as shown
in Figure.
 Electromechanical Breakdown
When a dielectric material is subjected to an electric field, charges of
opposite nature are induced on the two opposite surfaces of the material and
hence a force of attraction is developed and the specimen is subjected to
electrostatic compressive forces and when these forces exceed the
mechanical withstand strength of the material, the material collapses.
If the initial thickness of the material is d0 and is compressed to a thickness d
under the applied voltage V then the compressive stress developed due to
electric field is
 Thermal Breakdown of Solid Dielectric
• When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current,
however small it may be, flows through the material.
• The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.
• The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by
conduction through the solid dielectric and by radiation from its outer
surfaces.
• Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the temperature of the
dielectric, plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat generated.
• The heat generated under dc stress E is given as

where, σ is the dc conductivity of the specimen.

• Under ac fields, the heat generated

where, f = frequency in Hz, δ = loss angle of the dielectric material, and

E = rms value.
The heat dissipated (WT) is given by

where Cv = specific heat of the specimen,

T = temperature of the specimen,
K = thermal conductivity of the specimen, and
t = time over which the heat is dissipated.

• Equilibrium is reached when the heat generated (Wdc or Wac) becomes

equal to the heat dissipated (WT).
• Breakdown occurs when Wdc or Wac exceeds WT.
Chemical and Electrochemical Deterioration
and Breakdown
In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric materials undergo
chemical changes when subjected to continuous electrical stresses. Some
of the important chemical reactions that occur are the following:
• Oxidation: In the presence of air or oxygen, materials such as rubber and
polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks.
• Hydrolysis: When moisture or water vapour is present on the surface of a
solid dielectric, hydrolysis occurs and the materials lose their electrical and
mechanical properties. Materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other
cellulose materials deteriorate very rapidly due to hydrolysis.
• Chemical Action: Even in the absence of electric fields, progressive
chemical degradation of insulating materials can occur due to a variety of
processes such as chemical instability at high temperatures, oxidation and
cracking in the presence of air and ozone, and hydrolysis due to moisture
and heat. Since different insulating materials come into contact with each
other in many practical apparatus, chemical reactions occur between
these various materials leading to reduction in electrical and mechanical
strength resulting in failure.
 Breakdown due to Treeing and Tracking
When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time, it fails
and normally two kinds of visible markings are observed on the dielectric
materials. They are
– the presence of a conducting path across the surface of the insulation;
and
– a mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting
path finally leading to the formation of a spark. Insulation
deterioration occurs as a result of these sparks.
• The spreading of spark channels in the form of the branches of a tree is
called treeing. Tracking is the formation of a continuous conducting paths
across the surface of the insulation mainly due to surface erosion under
voltage application. While in use, the insulator progressively gets coated
with moisture that causes increased conduction leading to the formation
of surface tracks.
• Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces
and a clean environment. The materials chosen should be resistant to
tracking. Sometimes moisture-repellant greases are used. But this needs
frequent cleaning and regreasing.
 Breakdown due to Internal Discharges
• Solid insulating materials, and to a lesser extent liquid dielectrics contain
voids or cavities within the medium or at the boundaries between the
dielectric and the electrodes.
• These voids are generally filled with a medium of lower dielectric strength,
and the dielectric constant of the medium in the voids is lower than that
of the insulation.
• Hence, the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that across the
dielectric. Therefore, even under normal working voltages the field in the
voids may exceed their breakdown value, and breakdown may occur.
C1 : capacitance of the void or cavity,
C2 : capacitance of the dielectric which is in series with the void, and
C3 : capacitance of the rest of the dielectric.
d1: thickness of the void
D2: thickness of the dielectric,
ε0: permittivity of the void
ε1: permittivity of the dielectric
When the applied voltage is V, the voltage across the void, V1 is given by

Usually d1 << d2, and if we assume that the cavity is filled with a gas, then

εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric.

When a voltage V is applied, V1 reaches the breakdown strength of the
medium in the cavity (Vi) and breakdown occurs.
 Example 1
• A solid specimen of dielectric has a dielectric constant of 4.2, and tan δ =
0.001 at a frequency of 50 Hz. If it is subjected to an alternating field of 50
kV/cm, calculate the heat generated in the specimen due to the dielectric
loss.

Solution: Dielectric heat loss at any electric stress E

For the specimen under study, the heat loss will be

 Example 2
• A solid specimen of dielectric with dielectric constant of 4.0, shown in the
figure has an internal void of thickness 1mm. The specimen is 1cm thick
and is subjected to a voltage of 80 kV(rms). If the void is filled with air and
if the breakdown strength of air can be taken as 30 kV(peak)/cm, find the
voltage at which an internal discharge can occur.

• the voltage that appears across the void is given as

where, d1=1 mm
d2=9 mm
ε0 = 8.89 × 10−12 F/m
ε1 = εr ε0 = 4.0 ε0
 The voltage at which the air void of 1 mm thickness breaks down is
3 kV/mm x 1 mm = 3 kV

V1 = 4V/13
30*10^3 = 4 V/13
V= 97.5 kV/cm
but the thickness of void is 1mm, so peak 9.75 kV will be
the voltage at which breakdown occurs.

The internal discharges appear in the sinusoidal voltage when the

voltage reaches a value of 9.75 kV .
Generation of High Voltages and Currents
 Importance and Application of High
voltage
• Importance of HVDC
– Electron microscope
– X-Ray
– Electrostatic precipitator
– Particle accelerator
– HVDC Transmission

• Importance of HVAC
– HVAC transmission
– Testing of power apparatus for EHV application

• Importance of Impulse voltage

– Testing purpose (Transformer, HV cables, switch gears) to simulate
high voltage that occurs in PS due to lightening or switching
 Methods of HV Generation
1. HVDC Generation
– HV Rectifier
• Half wave
• Full Wave
• Voltage doubler
• Voltage multiplier Circuit.
– Van De Graff Generator
– Cockcroft Walton type DC generator(Voltage multiplier circuit)
2. HVAC Generation
– HV Transformer
– Cascade Transformer
– Resonant Circuits
• Series
• Parallel
– Tesla Coil
3. Impulse Voltage and Current Generation
– Impulse Voltage Generator
• Single Stage
• Multi Stage
Generation of high direct-current voltages
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit
Full wave Rectifier Circuit
Voltage Doubler Circuit
Voltage Multiplier Circuit (Cockcroft-
Walton Voltage Multiplier Circuit)
THANK YOU