CHAPTER 2: THE PROCESS OF INTERACTION DESIGN
2.2.1 Understanding the Problem Space
2.1 Introduction
The chapter discusses the process of interaction design, which involves four phases (Discover,
Define, Develop, and Deliver), iterated for creating interactive products. Interaction design follows
the philosophy of user-centered design, involving users throughout development. The chapter
explores user research, generating designs, and the lifecycle model of interaction design.
2.2 What is Involved in Interaction Design
Interaction design has specific activities focused on discovering requirements for the product,
designing something to fulfill those requirements, and producing prototypes that are then
evaluated. In addition, interaction design focuses attention on users and their goals.
Figure 2.1 The double diamond of design
What Is Involved In Interaction Design?
Design involves making trade-offs to balance conflicting requirements, such as deciding how much
choice to give users versus how much direction to offer in a system. Generating alternative solutions
is important in most design disciplines, including interaction design. Involving users in the design
process requires effective communication and capturing designs in a form that allows for review
and improvement. This can be achieved through a combination of techniques, such as sketches,
diagrams, and prototypes, which are especially important when working with non-specialists.
Deciding what to design is key, and exploring the problem space is one way in which to decide. This
is the first phase in the double diamond, but it can be overlooked by those new to interaction
design. By this we mean working out how to design the physical interface and what technologies
and inter- action styles to use, for example, whether to use multitouch, voice, graphical user
interface, heads-up display, augmented reality, gesture-based, and so forth. The problem with
starting here is that potential users and their context can be misunderstood, and usability and user
experience goals can be overlooked.
When designing an interactive product, it's important to understand the problem space before
deciding on the physical interface and technology to use. This involves identifying the current user
experience, why a change is needed, and how it will improve the user experience. The process is
typically a team effort, which may involve conflicting perspectives, but spending time reflecting on
ideas and justifying design decisions can lead to better outcomes. Designers are expected to be able
to present their rationale in both business and design language.
BOX 2.1
Four Approaches to Interaction Design
Dan Saffer (2010) suggests four main approaches to interaction design, each of which is based
on a distinct underlying philosophy:
 User-centered design
 Activity-centered design
 Systems design
 Genius design.
2.2.2 The Importance of Involving Users
The importance of involving users in interaction design cannot be overstated.
Unfortunately, in the past, developers often relied solely on their own judgment or consulted with
only a select group of individuals, such as managers or experts, to inform their design decisions.
However, involving these "proxy" users or experts does not necessarily provide the same
perspective as the target user who will use the product or system on a regular basis.
Involving users in the design process allows for direct feedback and insights into how users
interact with the product or system in their daily lives. This feedback can inform the design process
and help to create a product that is more intuitive, efficient, and enjoyable to use.
By prioritizing user involvement in the design process, designers can create products that are more
likely to be adopted and used successfully. Ultimately, involving users in the design process is crucial
to creating products that meet the needs of the user and result in a positive user experience.
Interaction design is a process of designing digital products, services, and systems that are
intuitive, easy to use, and effective. It involves creating user experiences that are seamless,
efficient, and satisfying.
User involvement has been shown to have a positive effect on user satisfaction and system use.
However, the level and type of user involvement need careful consideration and balance. Here are
some key findings from recent research on user involvement in interaction design:
 User involvement has a positive effect on user satisfaction and system use (Uli Abelein et
al., 2013).
 User participation can increase developer satisfaction for new products, but user
satisfaction is higher when participation is low (Ramanath Subrayaman et al., 2010).
 High levels of user involvement can generate conflicts and increased reworking (Ramanath
Subrayaman et al., 2010).
 The kind of product being developed, the kind of user involvement possible, the activities
in which they are involved, and the application domain all have an impact on the
effectiveness of user input (Bano and Zowghi, 2015).
 Involving users at earlier stages of innovation results in more creative ideas, whereas
involving users at later stages mainly results in suggestions for service improvement (Peter
Richard et al., 2014).
 The levels and types of user involvement require careful consideration and balance (Kurt
Schmitz et al., 2018).
2.2.3 DEGREES OF USER INVOLVEMENT
User involvement in the development process can take many forms, from full-time engagement to
targeted participation in specific activities. Here are some key considerations to keep in mind when
determining the degree of user involvement for a project:
 Different degrees of user involvement are possible, ranging from fully engaged throughout
all iterations of the development process to targeted participation in specific activities (Uli
Abelein et al., 2013).
 Co-opting individual users onto the design team can be both beneficial and challenging, as
they may become out of touch with their user community if fully engaged or have a high
workload if part-time (Uli Abelein et al., 2013).
 User engagement throughout development can provide continuous input, but specific
activities may limit the user's input (Uli Abelein et al., 2013).
 Techniques like personas can help keep users' concerns at the forefront of developers'
minds when user involvement is limited (Uli Abelein et al., 2013).
Interaction design is a process that involves the creation of digital products that meet the needs
of users. User involvement is a key component of this process, and there are different degrees of
user involvement that can be used to inform the design process.
Degrees of User Involvement:
 Fully engaged throughout all iterations of the development process
 Targeted participation in specific activities
 Small groups of individual users in face-to-face contexts
 Hundreds of thousands of potential users and stakeholders online
Examples of User Involvement:
 Online Feedback Exchange (OFE) Systems
 Crowdsourcing design ideas
 Citizen engagement
 Participatory design
The circumstances of the project affect what is realistic and appropriate. If the end-user groups are
identifiable, for example, the product is for a particular company, then it is easier to involve them.
If, however, the product is intended for the open market, targeted activities and online feedback
systems may be employed.
BOX 2.2
User Involvement After Product Release
Once a product has been released, a different kind of user involvement is possible-one that captures
data and user feedback based on day-to-day use of the product. The prevalence of customer
reviews has grown considerably in recent years, and they significantly affect the popularity and
success of a product (Harman et al., 2012). These reviews provide useful and far-ranging user
feedback.
2.2.4 What Is a User-Centered Approach?
The real users and their goals, not just technology, are the driving force behind product
development. As a consequence, a well-designed system will make the most of human skill and
judgment, will be directly relevant to the activity in hand, and will sup- port rather than constrain
the user. This is less of a technique and more of a philosophy.
When the field of HCI was being established, John Gould and Clayton Lewis (1985) laid down three
principles that they believed would lead to a "useful and easy to use computer system."
These principles are as follows:
1. Early focus on users and tasks: The first step in designing a user-centered product is to
understand who the users will be by studying their cognitive, behavioral,
anthropomorphic, and attitudinal characteristics. This involves observing users doing their
normal tasks, studying the nature of those tasks, and involving users in the design process.
This principle can be expanded and clarified through the following five further
principles:
Principle 1: Users' tasks and goals are the driving force behind the development.
Principle 2: Users' behavior and context of use are studied, and the system is designed to
support them.
Principle 3: Users' characteristics are captured and designed for.
Principle 4: Users are consulted throughout development from earliest phases to the
latest.
Principle 5: All design decisions are taken within the context of the users, their activities,
and their environment.
 2. Empirical measurement: During development, reactions and performance of intended
users to printed scenarios, manuals, etc., are observed and measured. Later, users interact
with simulations and prototypes, and their performance and reactions are observed,
recorded, and analyzed.
3. Iterative design: Design and development are iterative, with cycles of design-test-
measure-redesign being repeated as often as necessary. When problems are found in user
testing, they are fixed, and then more tests and observations are carried out to see the
effects of the fixes.
210). The classic lifecycle model for interaction design shows how the four activities of interaction
design are related and incorporates the three principles of user-centered design.
The four activities of interaction design are discovering requirements, designing alternatives,
prototyping, and evaluating. These activities are iterative, and the final product emerges in an
evolutionary fashion from an initial idea to the finished product.
Different lifecycle models have different emphases on activities, relationships, and outputs.

2.2.5 Four Basic Activities of Interaction Design Understanding the lifecycle model for interaction design is important to be able to perform the
activities effectively and to engineer a usable product that meets the prescribed user experience
The four basic activities for interaction design are as follows: and usability criteria and changing nature of the user experience.

1. Discovering Requirements Handout

- Discovering requirements is the first step in the double diamond of design. It is the
process of understanding the target users and what support an interactive product
could provide. The understanding is gained through data gathering and analysis. The
requirements activity is critical as it forms the basis of the product and underpins
subsequent design and development.

2. Designing Alternatives Handout

- Designing alternatives is the core activity of designing and involves proposing ideas
for meeting the requirements. For interaction design, this can be viewed as
conceptual and concrete design.

3. Prototyping Handout
- Prototyping is part of the Develop phase of the double diamond. It involves designing Figure 2.5 A simple interaction design lifecycle model
the behavior of interactive products as well as their look and feel. The most effective
way for users to evaluate such designs is to interact with them, and this can be
achieved through prototyping.
Design Principles
4. Evaluating Handout Design principles are used by interaction designers to aid their thinking when designing for the
- Evaluating is the process of determining the usability and acceptability of the product user experience. Design principles are derived from a mix of theory-based knowledge, experience,
or design. It is measured in terms of a variety of usability and user-experience and common sense. They tend to be written in a prescriptive manner, suggesting to designers what
criteria. to provide and what to avoid at the interface—if you like, the dos and don’ts of interaction design.
More specifically, they are intended to help designers explain and improve their designs.

2.2.6 A Simple Lifecycle Model for Interaction Design BOX 2.3

Interaction design involves a series of activities that are related to each other. The term " lifecycle
model" or "process model" is used to represent a model that captures these activities and how
they are related. A simple process is adequate for projects involving only a few experienced
developers, but for larger systems, a more complex process is necessary to engineer a usable
product.
Many lifecycle models have been proposed in fields related to interaction design, such as software
engineering lifecycle models (waterfall, spiral, and V models) and HCI models (Star and ISO 9241-
Google Design Sprint
The Google Design Sprint is a structured approach to design that supports rapid ideation and
testing of potential solutions to a design challenge. Developed by Google Ventures, the sprint is
divided into five phases, with each phase completed in a day. This means that in just five days, a
team can go from a design challenge to a tested solution that has been validated by customers.

Figure 2.6 The five phases of the Google Design Sprint
The first phase, Setting the Stage, is where the team chooses the right design challenge, gathers the
right team, and organizes the time and space to run the sprint. This involves selecting the challenge
to be addressed, gathering the team, and planning the sprint schedule.
The second phase, Unpack, is focused on making a map of the challenge and choosing a target, that
is, a part of the challenge that can be achieved in a week. This phase helps to identify the key issues,
questions, and concerns related to the challenge, and narrow down the focus of the sprint.
The third phase, Sketch Competing Solutions, is dedicated to generating solutions to the problem.
The emphasis is on individual creativity rather than group brainstorming, and the team members
work independently to come up with their own ideas. The ideas are then shared with the group, and
the team selects the most promising solutions.
The fourth phase, Decide on the Best, is focused on critiquing the solutions generated in the
previous phase and choosing the one most likely to meet the sprint’s challenge. The team produces
a storyboard to illustrate the solution and ensure everyone is aligned on the direction.
The fifth phase, Build a Realistic Prototype, is where the team turns the storyboard into a realistic
prototype that customers can test and provide feedback on. This is where the team creates
something tangible that people can interact with and provide feedback to help refine the solution
further.
The final phase, Test with Target Customers, is focused on getting feedback from five customers and
learning from their reactions. This phase provides real-world feedback on the prototype and helps
to ensure that the solution meets the needs of customers.
Box 2.4 The Research in the Wild (Adapted from Rogers and Marshall (2017))
Research in the Wild (RITW) is an approach to developing and evaluating technology solutions in
everyday living. The focus of RITW is to create and evaluate new technologies and experiences in
situ, meaning in real-world settings rather than in the laboratory. The approach supports designing
prototypes that experiment with new technological possibilities that can change and even disrupt
behavior, rather than ones that fit in with existing practices.
The results of RITW studies can be used to challenge assumptions about technology and human
behavior in the real world and to inform the re-thinking of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
theories. The perspective taken by RITW studies is to observe how people react to technology and
how they change and integrate it into their everyday lives.
The framework for RITW studies (Figure 2.7) includes four key activities: designing, prototyping,
evaluating technology and ideas, and considering relevant theory. These activities focus on
designing, prototyping, and evaluating technology and ideas and are one way in which requirements
may be discovered. Any one RITW study may emphasize the elements of the framework to a
different degree.
The first activity, technology, is concerned with appropriating existing infrastructures/devices, such
as Internet of Things toolkits or mobile apps, or developing new ones for a given setting, such as a
novel public display. The second activity, design, covers the design space of an experience, such as
iteratively creating a collaborative travel planning tool for families to use or an augmented reality
game for playing outdoors.
The third activity, in situ study, is concerned with evaluating in situ an existing device/tool/service or
novel research-based prototype when placed in various settings or given to someone to use over a
period of time. The fourth activity, theory, involves investigating a theory, idea, concept, or
observation about a behavior, setting, or other phenomenon using existing ones or developing a
new one or extending an existing one.
Overall, RITW is a valuable approach to developing and evaluating technology solutions in real-
world settings. It allows researchers to observe how people react to technology and how they
change and integrate it into their everyday lives.
2.3 Some Practical Issues
Practical application of user-centered design and the simple lifecycle of interaction design
introduced.
These issues include:
 Who are the users?
 What are the users’ needs?
  How to generate alternative designs
 How to choose among alternatives
 How to integrate interaction design activities with other lifecycle models
 Who are the users?
Identifying users is important for designing and developing products that meet their needs and
preferences. Identifying users can be complex and may require considering a diverse range of
factors such as user demographics, contexts of use, and stakeholder interests. Identifying the
stakeholders for a project helps to decide who to involve as users and to what degree, but
identifying relevant stakeholders can be tricky.
 What are the user’s needs?
Determining users' needs is not as simple as asking them what they want or need, as they may not
be aware of all the possibilities. It requires exploring the problem space, investigating users and
their activities, and trying out ideas with potential users to see what works. It's also important to
consider users' goals, usability goals, and user experience goals, rather than solely relying on
stakeholders to articulate requirements for a product. It's important to remember that designers'
ideas may not necessarily align with those of the target user group, so involving users in the design
process and obtaining authentic feedback is crucial. Determining what product to build is not simply
a question of asking people “What do you need?” and then supplying it, because people don’t
necessarily know what is possible. It may be tempting for designers simply to design what they
would like to use themselves, but their ideas would not necessarily coincide with those of the target
user group, because they have different experiences and expectations.
 How to generate Alternative Designs?
A common human tendency is to stick with something that works. While recognizing that a better
solution may exist, it is easy to accept the one that works as being “good enough.” Settling for a
solution that is good enough may be undesirable because better alternatives may never be
considered, and considering alternative solutions is a crucial step in the process of design. A more
pragmatic answer to this question, then, is that alternatives come from seeking different
perspectives and looking at other designs. The process of inspiration and creativity can be enhanced
by prompting a designer’s own experience and studying others’ ideas and suggestions. Deliberately
seeking out suitable sources of inspiration is a valuable step in any design process. These sources
may be very close to the intended new product, such as competitors’ products; they may be earlier
versions of similar systems; or they may be from a completely different domain.
 How to Choose Among Alternative Designs?
Choosing among alternatives is mostly about making design decisions: Will the device use keyboard
entry or a touch screen? Will the product provide an automatic memory function or not? These
decisions will be informed by the information gathered about users and their tasks and by the
technical feasibility of an idea. Broadly speaking, though, the decisions fall into two categories:
those that are about externally visible and measurable features.
BOX 2.5
A Box Full of Ideas
The TechBox is a collection of engineering and design materials that is used by IDEO, a creative
design company, to inspire and facilitate brainstorming sessions. The TechBox is divided into
categories such as Amazing Materials, Cool Mechanisms, Interesting Manufacturing Processes,
Electronic Technologies, and Thermal and Optical. Each item in the TechBox is labeled with its name
and category, and there is an online catalog that provides further information about each item,
including its origins and potential uses.
The TechBox is maintained by a curator in each of IDEO's offices, and anyone can submit new items
for consideration. As items become outdated or commonplace, they are removed from the TechBox
to make room for new and more interesting materials. Overall, the TechBox is a valuable resource
for IDEO's designers, providing them with the inspiration and tools they need to create innovative
designs and solve complex problems.
DILEMMA
Copying for Inspiration: Is It Legal?
What is Copyright?
Copyright covers the expression of an idea and not the idea itself. This means that while there are
numerous smartphones all with similar functionality, this does not represent an infringement of
copyright as the idea has been expressed in different ways and it is the expression that has been
copyrighted. Copyright is free and is automatically invested in the author, such as the writer of a
book or a programmer who develops a program, unless they sign the copyright over to someone
else.
Employment contracts often include a statement that the copyright relating to anything produced in
the course of that employment is automatically assigned to the employer and does not remain with
the employee.
What is Patenting?
Patenting is an alternative to copyright that does protect the idea rather than the expression of
the idea. There are various forms of patenting, each of which is designed to allow the inventor to
capitalize on their idea. For example, Amazon patented its one-click purchasing process, which
allows regular users to choose a purchase and buy it with one mouse click (US Patent No. 5960411,
September 29, 1999). This is possible because the system stores its customers' details and
recognizes them when they access the Amazon site again.
Creative Commons and Open Source
In recent years, the creative commons community has suggested more flexible licensing
arrangements that allow others to reuse and extend a piece of created work, thereby supporting
collaboration. In the open-source software development movement, for example, software code is
freely distributed and can be modified, incorporated into other software, and redistributed under
the same open-source conditions. No royalty fees are payable on any use of open-source code.
These movements do not replace copyright or patent law, but they provide an alternative route for
the dissemination of ideas.
Conclusion
The dilemma for designers comes in knowing when it is acceptable to use someone else's work as a
source of inspiration and when they are infringing copyright or patent law. The issues are complex
and detailed and may require consultation with a legal professional. Understanding copyright and
patent law is crucial for designers to create new designs while respecting the rights of others.
Bainbridge (2014) is a useful resource to understand this area better.
Handout:
Usability Engineering: An Approach to Interaction Designs
Usability engineering is an approach to interaction design that focuses on specifying quantifiable
measures of product performance, documenting them in a usability specification, and assessing the
product against them. This approach has been developed over many years with various proponents,
and it is commonly used in health informatics.
The process of writing down formal, verifiable, and measurable usability criteria is a key
characteristic of usability engineering. By doing so, it becomes easier to capture different views of
quality, clarify expectations, provide a benchmark for comparing products and prototypes, and form
a basis for choosing among alternatives.
Other Ways of Choosing Between Alternative Designs
In addition to usability engineering, other ways of choosing between alternative designs include:
1. Letting Users and Stakeholders Interact with the Designs
Users and stakeholders should interact with the designs and discuss their experiences, preferences,
and suggestions for improvement. Designs must be in a form that can be reasonably evaluated by
users, not in technical jargon or notation that seems impenetrable to them. This process can inform
the choice between alternative designs.
1. Letting Users and Stakeholders Interact with the Designs
Users and stakeholders should interact with the designs and discuss their experiences, preferences,
and suggestions for improvement. Designs must be in a form that can be reasonably evaluated by
users, not in technical jargon or notation that seems impenetrable to them. This process can inform
the choice between alternative designs.
3. A/B Testing
A/B testing can be used when a deployable version of the product is available to collect data from
actual use to inform the choice between alternative designs. This involves deploying two different
variations and collecting data from actual use that is then used to inform the choice.
2.3.5 How to Integrate Interaction Design Activities Within Other Lifecycle Models
Interaction design involves various disciplines contributing to its development, including software
development. Integrating interaction design activities within software development has been a topic
of discussion for many years. This handout aims to provide guidance on how to integrate interaction
design activities within other lifecycle models, specifically software development models, with a
focus on agile software development.
Agile Software Development: Agile software development is an iterative approach to software
development that emphasizes flexibility, collaboration, and the delivery of working software.
Agile methods stress the importance of iteration, early and repeated user feedback, being able to
handle emergent requirements, and striking a good balance between flexibility and structure.
The following are the most popular agile software development methods:
1. eXtreme Programming (XP)
2. Scrum
3. Kanban
4. Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
Integration of Interaction Design Activities: To integrate interaction design activities within the
agile software development lifecycle, the following steps can be followed:
1. Start with the user: In agile software development, user needs and feedback are critical.
Begin the design process by understanding user needs and developing user personas.
2. Collaborate with the development team: Interaction designers should work closely with
developers and other team members to ensure that the design meets the project's
requirements.
3. Conduct design sprints: Design sprints are a great way to quickly develop and test ideas.
During a design sprint, designers work collaboratively to ideate and prototype solutions.
4. Incorporate user feedback: Iterative testing and user feedback are critical to agile
software development. Designers should incorporate user feedback and adjust the design
accordingly.
5. Test frequently: In agile software development, testing is integrated throughout the
development process. Interaction designers should participate in testing and provide
feedback to the development team.
6. Document the design: While agile software development emphasizes working software
over documentation, it is still essential to document the design to ensure consistency and
facilitate future updates.
Conclusion: Integrating interaction design activities within the software development lifecycle,
specifically agile software development, can enhance the overall user experience and produce
better-designed software. Interaction designers should collaborate closely with the development
team, conduct design sprints, incorporate user feedback, test frequently, and document the design
to ensure a successful integration.
The integration of interaction design activities within agile software development requires close
collaboration with the development team and the customer. The agile approach emphasizes tight
iterations and feedback and collaboration with the customer. However, integrating agile methods
with interaction design practices can be challenging, as many companies have experienced.
To successfully integrate interaction design activities within agile software development, the
following best practices can be followed:
1. Communicate regularly with the business and the customer to ensure that the design
meets their requirements.
2. Conduct user research to understand user needs and develop user personas.
3. Collaborate closely with the development team to ensure that the design meets the
project's requirements.
4. Conduct design sprints to quickly develop and test ideas.
 5. Incorporate user feedback and adjust the design accordingly.
6. Test frequently to ensure that the design meets the project's requirements.
7. Document the design to ensure consistency and facilitate future updates.

The method is called extreme because it pushes a key set of good practices to the limit; that is, it is
good practice to test often, so in XP the development is test-driven, and a complete set of tests is
executed many times a day. It is good practice to talk to people about their requirements, so rather
than having weighty documentation, XP reduces documentation to a minimum, thus forcing
communication, and so on.