H23HG3: Hydraulics and Geotechnics 3

Unit 2
Pore water pressure
and
effective stress
Dr Dariusz Wanatowski
School of Civil Engineering
The University of Nottingham
(February 2008)

Outline of Unit 2

2.1 Pore water pressure

2.2 Total and effective stress
2.3 Measurement of pore pressure
2.4 Summary
2.5 Example problems

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 2.1 Pore water pressure

• Groundwater and hydrostatic pressure

(water at rest)
• Water table (phreatic surface)
• Negative pore pressure (suction)

Pore water pressure

Groundwater and hydrostatic

pressure
• In general, the water in the voids (pores) of
an element of saturated soil will be under
pressure, either due to the physical location of
the soil or as a result of external forces.
• The water in the pores of a soil is called
pore water.
• The pressure within this pore water is the
pore water pressure or pore pressure (u).
It is measured relatively to the atmospheric
pressure.
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2
 Pore water pressure

Groundwater and hydrostatic

pressure (contd.)

The pore water can be:

static ⇒ the hydrostatic pressure
depends on the depth below the water
table
seeping through the soil under
hydraulic gradient
WT

Static Seeping
5

Pore water pressure

Groundwater and hydrostatic

pressure (contd.)
• Under hydrostatic conditions the
pore pressure at depth d below the
water surface is given by the σ
hydrostatic pressure:
d
u = γw d
u

• It is convenient to think of pore

pressure represented by the column
of water in an imaginary standpipe;
the pressure just outside being equal
to that inside.
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3
 Pore water pressure

Water table (phreatic surface)

• The natural static level of water in the

ground is called the water table or the
phreatic surface (or sometimes the
groundwater level).
• Under conditions of no seepage flow,
the water table will be horizontal. (e.g.,
as in the surface of a lake).

Pore water pressure

Water table (contd.)

Unsaturated zone

Saturated zone

4
 Pore water pressure

Water table (contd.)

• The magnitude of the pore pressure at the
water table is zero. Below the water table,
pore pressures are positive.
free water
surface

water table
hw
u = γ w hw hw

We call hw pore water

pressure head or u u
pressure head

In conditions of steady-state or variable seepage flow, the

calculation of pore pressures becomes more complex.
9

Pore water pressure

Negative pore pressure (suction)

• Below the water table, pore pressures are

positive. In dry soil, the pore pressure is
zero. Above the water table, when the soil is
saturated, pore pressure will be negative.

Dry (u=0)
u = -γγw hw ? Unsaturated
(negative u)

-u Saturated
-hw (negative u)

Why? +hw +u
Saturated
(positive u)

u = γwhw

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5
 Capillary rise

• The height above the water table to which

the soil is saturated is called the capillary
rise, and this depends on the grain size and
type (and thus the size of pores):

in coarse soils capillary rise is very small
 gravels < 0.03m
 sands < 0.30m

in fine soils capillary rise can be high
 in silts it can be up to 2m
 in clays it can be over 20m

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Any example of negative pore water pressure?

The pore water pressure in sand castles is negative.

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6
 2.2 Total and effective
stress
• Total stress
• Effective stress
• Terzaghi’s effective stress principle
• Mohr circles for total and effective
stresses
• Changes in effective stress

13

Total and effective stress

Sources of stress in the ground

• Geostatic stresses (or body stresses, or
in-situ stresses): caused by gravity acting
on the soil or rock.
These stresses are naturally present in
the ground.

• Induced stresses : caused by external

loads, such as foundations, vehicles, or
fluid in a storage tank, etc.
These are normally caused by human
activities.

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7
 Total and effective stress

Total stress
• The total vertical stress acting at a point
below the ground surface is due to the weight
of everything lying above: soil, water, and
surface loading.
• Total stresses are calculated from the unit
weight of the soil. ground surface

σv
σv = γ z z
σh σh
• Vertical total stress
increases with depth σv
and unit weight.

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Total and effective stress

Induced stress

External load, ∆σz, over a large extend

∆σz
∞ ∞
∆σz

There are several more precise methods to calculate the

stress distribution in the ground resulted from external load.

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8
 Total and effective stress

Soil Particle Interaction

• An assemblage of particles is subjected to an
external stress state of σ1 and σ3 results in a
complex set of normal and shear forces at each
contact point. σ1

• These forces are o

responsible for the

friction between the σ3 σ3
particles and hence
for the frictional
characteristics of
the soil as a whole. o

σ1

An arrangement of soil particles

under stress
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Total and effective stress

Soil Particle Interaction

• If we cut through the assemblage then the
resultants of all the interrupted forces averaged
over the cut surface area of the assemblage, and
suitably resolved, must equal the originally
imposed stresses. σ1
σ1

o
o

σ3 σ3
σ3

o
o
σ1

Internal forces on soil

Soil particles under stress
particles under stress
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9
 Total and effective stress

Effect of Pore Pressure

• When all the pores in a soil had been filled with
water at pressure u we have to provide smaller
particle to particle resultants along the cut line
because part of the stress to balance σ1 and σ3 is
provided by the pore water pressure
σ1 σ1

o o

σ3 σ3
+ u

o o

Internal forces on soil Effective forces on soil

particles under stress particles under stress
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Total and effective stress

Effect of Pore Pressure

• The pore pressure acts to reduce the inter-
particle forces and, hence, to reduce the
friction at those contact points and thus to
reduce the strength of the soil which is largely
frictional in character.
• Thus a soil with pore water at a pressure is
weaker than the same soil dry.
σ1

σ3
+ u

o 20

10
 Total and effective stress

Effective stress – submerged

sphere analogy

0.1 m3 0.1 m3

Total stress W
W
=W

Effective stress
= W – FB
= 2.6 kN – (0.1 m3 x 9.8 kN/m3)

21

Total and effective stress

Horizontal effective stress

• Any change in vertical effective stress (σv’)
also results in a change in the horizontal
effective stress (σh’)
• The ratio of horizontal to vertical effective
stress is defined as the coefficient of lateral
earth pressure, K
• Special case (εh=0) σv’
'
⇒ the coefficient of σ h σh’
lateral earth K= '
pressure at rest, K0 σ v

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11
Terzaghi’s effective stress principle

σ’ = σ – u
Pore
Effective Total water
stress stress pressure

It is the EFFECTIVE STRESS that

controls the shear strength and
deformation of soil

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“Father” of Soil Mechanics

“In soil mechanics the
accuracy of computed
results never exceeds that
of a crude estimate, and
the principle function of
theory consists of teaching
us what and how to
observe in the field.”
Karl von Terzaghi • Concept of Effective Stress
(1883-1963)
• Bearing Capacity Theory
• Consolidation Theory
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12
 Total and effective stress

Mohr circles for total and effective

stresses
• Mohr circles can be drawn for both total and
effective stress.
• The points E and T represent the total and
effective stresses on the same plane.

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Total and effective stress

Mohr circles for total and effective

stresses (contd.)

• The two circles are displaced along the normal

stress axis by the amount of pore pressure (σσn =
σ’n + u), and their diameters are the same.
• The total and effective shear stresses are equal
(ττ’n = τ’).

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 Total and effective stress

Changes in effective stress

• In some analyses it is better to work in changes
of quantity, rather than in absolute quantities
• The effective stress expression becomes:

∆σ = ∆σ - ∆u
∆σ´
• If both total stress and pore pressure change by
the same amount, the effective stress remains
constant.
• A change in effective stress will cause:

a change in strength

a change in volume.
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Total and effective stress

Changes in effective stress (contd.)

In practice, how can the effective stress be changed?

Fine soil

Hydrostatic pore water pressure

Loading due to embankment Changes in water table level

(e.g. dewatering)

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14
 Changes in effective stress

Changes in strength
• The critical shear strength of soil is proportional
to the effective normal stress.
• Thus, a change in effective stress brings about a
change in strength.
’ Failure
line

’
’
’

• Therefore, if the pore pressure in a soil slope

increases, effective stresses will be reduced by ∆σ'
∆σ
and the critical shear strength of the soil will be
reduced by ∆τ’.
∆τ
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Changes in effective stress

Changes in strength (contd.)

Sometimes this may lead to slope failure.

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15
 Changes in effective stress

Changes in volume
• Immediately after the construction of a
foundation on a fine soil, the pore pressure
increases, but immediately begins to drop
as drainage occurs.
• The rate of change of effective stress under
a loaded foundation will be the same as the
rate of change of pore pressure, and
this is controlled by the permeability of
the soil.

Loading due to embankment

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Changes in effective stress

Changes in volume (contd.)

Example – an embankment on soft clay
, ’

t0 soft clay σ0,V0 ’t

’
ut

t0 t1 t t∞ time
t1 σ1,V0 V
V0
Vt
V
V∞
t∞ σ1,V∞
Und Consolidation
t0 t1 t t∞ time

More detail about volume change in

relation to drainage will be given in
Units 3 and 4.
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 2.3 Measurement of pore
water pressure

• Laboratory measurement

• Field measurement

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Measurement of pore water pressure

Laboratory measurement of pore

pressure

Laboratory measurement of pore

pressure is required in undrained
testing where soil properties are to
be measured in terms of effective
stresses and in model tests of
slopes which involve the loading
and unloading of beds of clay or the
change of water table.

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17
 Measurement of pore water pressure

Laboratory measurement of pore

pressure
• Traditionally, pore pressures are measured in the
drainage lines just outside a triaxial cell.

soil pore
pressure
transducer

• It is essential that the pore pressure measurement

system should be completely free of air and as stiff as
possible so that minimal amount of pore water flow is
required in order to register the changes in pore
pressure.
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Pressure transducers

soil pore
pressure
transducer

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 Measurement of pore water pressure

Laboratory measurement of pore

pressure (contd.)
• In research testing, miniature pore pressure
transducers may be mounted directly on a soil sample or
in a soil physical model so that the expected response
can be recorded by automated data acquisition system.

water
water

Pressure
Pressure transducers
transducers
installed
installedin in
thethe
soil soil

initial water
initial watertable
table
Lowpermeable
Low permeable
layer layer

80cm
80cm

Mid plane pore pressure probe Small scale physical model

provides a direct measurement of of slope
the specimen pore pressure at the
mid height of the sample.
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Measurement of pore water pressure

Field measurement of pore

pressure

• Pore pressures can be measured in the

ground with different types of piezometer.

Standpipe (Casagrande) piezometer

Pneumatic piezometer

Vibrating wire piezometer

Pressure transducers

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 Measurement of pore water pressure
Standpipe (Casagrande) piezometer
• The standpipe piezometer consists of a filter tip
joined to a riser pipe.
Advantages

Economical

Simple to read

Excellent long-
term reliability
Limitations

Reading requires a
man on site

Remote reading
not possible

Slow response

39

Measurement of pore water pressure

Pneumatic piezometer
• The piezometer contains
a flexible diaphragm.
• Water pressure acts on
one side of the
diaphragm and gas
pressure acts on the
other.
• Readings are obtained
with a pneumatic
indicator. Operating principle

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 Measurement of pore water pressure
Pneumatic piezometer (contd.)

• The piezometer is sealed in a

borehole, embedded in fill, or
suspended in a standpipe.
• Advantages

Reliable

Remote reading possible
• Limitations

Expensive to automate

So, reading requires a man
on site

Reading time increases with
the length of tubing

41

Measurement of pore water pressure

Vibrating wire piezometer
• The vibrating wire piezometer consists of a
vibrating wire pressure transducer and
signal cable.
• The piezometer converts water pressure to
a frequency signal via a diaphragm, a
tensioned steel wire, and an electromagnetic
coil.
• The readout device processes the signal,
applies calibration factors, and displays a
reading in the required engineering unit.
• It can be installed in a borehole, embedded in
fill, or suspended in a standpipe.

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 Measurement of pore water pressure
Vibrating wire piezometer (contd.)
• Advantages

Easy to read

High accuracy

Rapid response

Groutable (installed without
a sand filter or a bentonite
seal)

Easy to automate

Reliable remote readings
• Limitations

Must be protected from
electrical transients

Expensive
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Measurement of pore water pressure

Pressure transducers
• The pressure transducer is typically
suspended in a well.
• Water pressure acts on diaphragm of the
transducer.
• Strain gauges bonded to the inside of the
diaphragm sense the pressure and output
a signal that is proportional to the
pressure on the diaphragm.
• The signal is transmitted to the data
logger or readout device via a loop circuit.

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 Measurement of pore water pressure
Pressure transducers (contd.)
• Advantages

Highly resistant to electrical noise

Easy to read

Compatible with industrial data loggers

Suitable for dynamic monitoring
• Limitations

Less suitable for battery-operation (4-20mA the
circuits require more power)

Long term stability may not be good enough for
some application

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2.4 Summary

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 Summary - 1
• The total vertical stress acting at a point
below the ground surface is due to the weight
of everything lying above: soil, water, and
surface loading.
• Total stresses are calculated from the unit
weight of the soil.
ground surface

σv
z
σv = γ z σh σh

σv
47

Summary - 2

• The natural static level of water in the

ground is called the water table or the
phreatic surface (or sometimes the
groundwater level).
• The hydrostatic pressure depends on the
depth below the water table. free water
surface

water table
hw
u = γ w hw hw

u u
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 Summary - 3

• Effective stress principle:

σ’ = σ – u
• It is the effective stress that
controls the shear strength and
deformation of the soil.
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2.5 Example problems

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Problem 1. Total and effective stress
calculation

h1= 2 m
γd = 16 kN/m3
The figure shows soil layers on dry sand WT
a site.

h2= 3 m
γs = 20 kN/m3
Unit weights are:
saturated sand
dry sand: γd = 16 kN/m³
saturated sand: γs = 20 kN/m³
Clay
1)Find the total vertical stress, pore pressure and
effective vertical stress at the top of saturated sand
and the top of clay.
2)Plot the variation of the total vertical stress, pore
pressure and effective vertical stress with depth.

51

At the top of saturated sand (z = 2.0 m)

1) Total stress:
σv = γdh1 = 16 x 2
h1= 2 m

γd = 16 kN/m3
= 32 kPa
WT

2) Pore water pressure:

h2= 3 m

γs = 20 kN/m3
u=0

Clay 3) Effective stress:

σv’ = σv – u = 32 kPa

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 At the top of clay (z = 5.0 m)

1) Total stress:
σv = γdh1 + γsh2
h1= 2 m

γd = 16 kN/m3
= 32 + 20 x 3
WT
= 92 kPa
2) Pore water pressure:
h2= 3 m

γs = 20 kN/m3 u = γwh2 = 10 x 3
= 30 kPa
Clay
3) Effective stress:
NOTE. The unit weight of water
is taken as γw = 10 kN/m3. σv’ = 92 – 30 = 62 kPa

53

Change of σv, u, and σv’ with depth

h1= 2 m

γd = 16 kN/m3
WT
32 32
h2= 3 m

γs = 20 kN/m3

92 30 62
Clay
σv = u + σ v’

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 Problem 2. Changes in water table

WT
silty sand
silty sand
silty sand
clay clay

The figure shows soil layers on a site. The unit weight

of the silty sand is 19.0 kN/m³, both above and below
the water table. The water level is presently at the
surface of the silty sand.
Find the effective stress at the top of clay when the
water table:
(a) is at the ground level, (a) rises 2 m, (b) drops 1 m.

55

WT
silty sand
silty sand
silty sand
clay clay

σv = 19 x 3 σv = 19 x 3 σv = 19 x 1
= 57 kPa + 10 x 2 + 19 x 2
= 77 kPa = 57 kPa

σv’ = 57 – 30 σv’ = 77 – 50 σv’ = 57 – 20

= 27 kPa = 27 kPa = 37 kPa

Note that free water (i.e. water outside the

soil) applies a total stress to a soil surface
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 Problem 3. Stresses under foundations
q = 200 kPa

2m
The figure shows the elevation of a
foundation to be constructed in a
sand WT 2m homogeneous soil.
From an initial state, the stresses under
z=8m 3m a foundation are first changed by
excavation, i.e. vertical stresses are
2m reduced. After construction, the
clay
foundation loading increases stresses.

Find initial stresses and final stresses at the mid depth of clay.

Unit weights: sand above WT = 16 kN/m³

sand below WT = 20 kN/m³
clay = 18 kN/m³.

57

q = 200 kPa
Initial stresses
2m
σv = 16 x 4 + 20 x 3 + 18 x 1
= 142 kPa sand WT 2m

u = 10 x (3+1) = 40 kPa
z=8m 3m
σv’ = 142 - 40 = 102 kPa

2m
clay
Final stresses
σv = 200 + 16 x 2 + 20 x 3 + 18 x 1 = 310 kPa
(There are more precise methods to calculate the stress
distribution below foundation)
u = 40 kPa
(With constructing the foundation, pwp will increase in the
clay excessively but will decrease with drainage time. Only
after adequate drainage time, the pwp will be equal to the
initial pwp (unless the water table level changed)
σv’ = 310 - 40 = 270 kPa
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Problem 4. Total and effective Mohr
circles
A normally consolidated clay was consolidated under
a stress of 150 kPa, then sheared undrained in axial
compression. The principal stress difference at failure
was 100 kPa, and the induced pore pressure at
failure was 88 kPa.

Plot the total and effective Mohr circles and failure

envelopes. Determine the Mohr-Coulomb strength
parameters in terms of both total and effective
stresses.

59

σ1 Given:

σ3 = const (σ1 – σ3)f = 100 kPa

clay
σ3 = 150 kPa
uf = 88 kPa
Solution:
(σ1 – σ3)f = σ1f – σ3f = 100 kPa ⇒
σ1f = (σ1 - σ3)f + σ3f = 100 + 150 = 250 kPa
σ1f’ = σ1f - uf = 250 - 88 = 162 kPa
σ3f’ = σ3f - uf = 150 - 88 = 62 kPa

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 τ
100 φ’ = 27°

φT = 15°
50

uf = 88 kPa

0 50 100 150 200 250 σ, σ’

σ1f = 250 kPa σ1f’ = 162 kPa

σ3f = 150 kPa σ3f’ = 62 kPa

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