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    Rolls-Royce The Jet Engine 5th Edition

    Uploaded by

    caros daniel ardon

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 290
    a Rolls-Royce Jet. Engine Rolls-Royce had been making piston engines for 40 years before its fist jet engine, the Welland, powered Britain's frst jet aircraft, the Gloster Meteor, in 1944. In the post-war world, the jet engine was soon embraced as the key to the future for both civil and military aircraft. Meeting the demand for steadily larger and more sophisticated jet engines quickly transformed the business of Rolls-Royce, And half a century later, of course, we can look back on a thousand ways in which jet-engine technology has transformed the world at large. The evolution of today's hugely powerful engines has been an extraordinary story of continuous incremental improvements, with the occasional leap forward to bigger and better things. So, too, with this book.It frst appeared in 1955, and has since then been carefully updated and revised though a further four editions, the last in 1996, This latest edition, though, marks a considerable advance. The layout has been extensively re-designed and the text comprehensively rewritten, to take full account of the enormous progress made on jet engines over the past 20 years. The result builds on all the strengths that have made The Jet Engine a classic of its kind, Remarkable drawings illustrate the complexity of the jet engine in ways that will still appeal to the lay reader. The explanations of the underlying technology have meanwhile lost none of the rigour to be expected from what has been a recommended university text for a whole generation of engineering students. For both audiences, this book remains an inspiring introduction to a challenging subject. It also takes account of critical trends in engine design over recent years, none more important than those aimed at reducing noise levels and carbon dioxide emissions. Both issues pose problems that will go on demanding innovative engineering solutions for the foreseeable future, This new edition of The Jet Engine is a timely reminder of the astonishing skill with which these and so many other problems have already been addressed in the past. Sir John Rose Chief Executive, Rolls-Royce ple contents section one d | THIS SECTION ON ENGINE DESIGN LOOKS AT HOW THE JET ENGINE CAME TO BE WHAT IT ISTODAY, AND WHY ~ AND WHAT ENGINEERS NEED TO CONSIDER WHEN TRANSLATING ‘AN IDEA INTO A PROVEN, WORKING ENGINE 6 1.1 theory and basic mechanics principles 10, gas turbines 10, aero engines 14, turbojet 15, turbofan 16, turboshafts and turboprops 16, mechanical arrangements 18 22 1.2 experience the early days 26, civil and military 28, silicon and titanium 30, land and sea 32,impact 33, development 33 36 1.3 design and development Design 40 » requirements 40, customers 40, process 41 from design to development 41 Development 42 » experimental process 42, certification 43 > civil 43 » military 47 > energy 50 > marine 51 54 1.4 environmental impact Noise 58 » control 58, sources 59, testing 64, research 65 Emissions 66 » life-cycle 66, species 67, and LTO cycle 69, trends 69 721.5 performance design point performance 76, off-design 77, ratings 79, transient 79, starting 81, testing 82, civil 84, military 84, industrial 85, marine 86 alr 92 12 130 148 164 190 section two define THIS SECTION, COMPONENT DEFINITION, STARTS AT THE FRONT OF THE ENGINE AND FOLLOWS THE AIRFLOW THROUGH TO THE REAR. IT THEN LOOKS. AT THE OTHER COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS THAT NEED TO BE INTEGRATED WITH THE ENGIN 2.1 fans and compressors urations 95, aerodynamics 96, subsystems 101 industrial and marine 108, rigs 109, future 109 2.2 combustors stion 116, architecture 117, fuel injectors 120, cooling 122, modelling 124, testing 124, integrity challenges 12 2.3 turbines principles 134, energy transfer 1 34,design meth cling 138, corr 2.4 transmissions rotor support structures 152, gearboxes 154, shafts 158, bearings 159 2.5 fluid systems Air systems 168 » bleed 170, elements 17 operating envelope 173, design challenge 173, integrity 173, monitoring 174 Fuel systems 174 » operation 174 description 175, aircraft interaction 175, FADEC 176, heat management 178, fuels 179 Oil system 180 » description 180, compo! design challenge 186, integrity 1 monitoring 187, ils 18 2.6 control systems principles 198, control laws 194, components 195, civil 18 helicopter 202, marin military ergy 203 section three deliver THERE ARE GOOD REASONS WHY THE JE DELIVERS IN SERVICE: THE NATURE OF THE JET E| DESCRIBED IN SECTION ONE; THE ENGINEERING EXCELLENCE OF SECTION TWO; AND THE ABILITIES TO MANUFACTURE, MAINTAIN, AND A 3.1 manufacture and assembly Manufacture 212 » materials 212, castn. machining 213, drilling inspection 208 composites Assembly 221 » module assembly 221,engine build 223 26 3.2 installations ‘externas 230, civil 231, military 236, stealth test b 38, energy and marine 238, fire 240, ice reheat 243,V/STOL ai 3.3 maintenance On-wing maintenance 252 » scheduled unscheduled 252, monitoring 252, ETOPS 2! Off-wing overhaul 255 » cleaning 256, inspection ating 244 248 epair 257, balancing 259, testing 2 engine management 261, industrial 262, marine 262 26s 3.4 the future today 270, tomorrow 271, technologies 275, m: 5, compression 275, combustion 276, turbines 276 more electric 277 280 glossary and conversion factors 282 the index 288 bibliography, credits, and thanks " = N section one - design r requirements develop, Engine desiaay equires , and innovation EVERY OBJECT PERSISTS IN ITS STATE OF REST OR UNIFORM MOTION = IN A STRAIGHT LINE UNLESS IT IS COMPELLED TO CHANGE THAT STATE BY FORCES IMPRESSED ON IT. FORCE IS EQUAL TO THE CHANGE IN MOMENTUM PER CHANGE IN TIME. (FOR A CONSTANT MASS, FORCE EQUALS MASS TIMES ACCELERATION.) FOR EVERY FORCE ACTING ON A BODY, THERE IS AN EQUAL AND OPPOSITE REACTION. Ea mar UCL eu) CLC Se Se ee ee ) How does a jet engine produce useful work, where does the energy come from to do it, and what is that work used for? ) How do the internals of a jet engine produce work? How does air move through the engine, and what happens to it as it does? > Why do all large aircraft use jet engines instead of piston engines? > What are the different types of jet engine, and what are their mechanical arrangements? This chapter provides ans s to these initial questions — and, in doing so, inevitably raises more. For example, is it possible to achieve high thrust and high efficiency and a small, light engine, all at the same time? One of the prerequisite skills of the engineer is to understand the fundamental and contradictory constraints of a jet engine and balance them appropriately for a given design specification. The ideas of balance and constraint are themes that will reappear frequently in t = following chapters. The theory of jet propulsion The gas turbine Simple jet engines theory and basic mechanics Working cycle The relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature 12 Producing useful work The advantages of a gas turbine The gas turbine as an aero engine Foran aero engine, the tus transmitted to the aframe canbe given by the mass flow gine multiplied of air passing through the by the increase in speed ofthat ai Air approaches the engine at the fight speed Vas ane is ejected faster from the rear nazz at a speed of Yu the mass flow is W, rust Fis given by the equation F=WO—Vasd This is known as momentum thrust: this equation applies when the naz therefor, is less than choked,and ‘Mach one ~ the speed of sound, of an unchoked nozzle there are two toincrease thrust at given fight speed and attude Te mass flow W passing through to provide propulsion adtion of uel v7 the engine can become larger 0 Yje can be increased. To increase the mass flow, the engine must havea larger frontal area it will be bigger heavier,and produce more drag. On the other hand, higher Ve makes increases the fuel consumption needed to obiain a given thrust The task ofthe aero engine designer isto obtain a compcomise between these engine noisier a \When the nozzle becomes choked M.'s fixed at Mach one. and,in order to calculate F 4 new term, pressure thrusts added to the equation F=WOer-Vaghd + Ment Pret) where Ais the jet exit aea ofthe exhaust naz Ps eitand pine the static With Ve fxed at Mach one, the new 's the static pressure at term for pressure thrust allows thrust to Increased by rasing Pex Thisis achieved through a higher total pressure inthe jet pipe. though Vi xed atthe speed Of sound by running the engine hotter, speed of sound can be increased, Yer 9085 Up and momentum thrust increases The fst rask of the aera engi isto acceler ftcdown the runway {big engine like the Trent 500 swallows and ejects 1,000kg oF one tonne of ar ‘every second during take-off At se ke bic metre of ar has mass of about ‘one kilogram so the engine is ingesting about 1,000 cubie metres of air every second If this volume of ar were a cylinder the diameter ofthe intake, stetching ou in front ofthe engine it would extend fox 200 metres ~ and would be consume by the engi in one second ‘The next task forthe engin ito make the aircraft off For example. an Abus 8340-600 acaft weighs 368 tonnes: ‘each ofits four Trent 500 engines produces about wentyfive tonnes of thrust at take-off gving a total output of 100 tonnes of thnast Vertical take-of therfore isnot a option but because the acats going forwards ai passes over the wings and can be tured downwards to create lift. Ar take oft wing gives more than one tonne of if pet square mete ~ the A340 has 437 square metes of wing soit can get aibomne and o 2 = é 26 Pressure, temperature, and efficiency ‘experience lunter and Canberra, engine, andthe frst to use titanium blades Designing for civil sicraft including and military aircraft Notably it power The fst applications forthe jt engine w shining, Britain's Fst supersonic fighter Victor bom 1 Engish Elect e Conway both the Handley Pag military aircraft, and the fist requirement was aircraft like the speed. However the post-war years soon saw The Avan was the frst engine in the world to for passenger arcraf, especially feature cooled high-pressure turbine blades, It was not until the late 1950s that Rolls-Royce North America where companies lke it was also the fist Rolls-Royce engine with _ designed an engine spectically for chil neal El 4 Pratt & Whitney came to an axial comp tio he Spey. Even here a rilitary version was jominate the jt engine market. Initially, there difficult it was to design and manufacture a 5163 - but this dio as considerable ovetlan between civiland engine based on Grifth’s ideas n ence in requirem military requirements and the same engl 3 centrifugal compressor used by White, red p 1 effort of developing the aval engine could be used in very different apoliatior The ol-Reyce Dart, an eatly.simple, and very originally designed fe for a given engine diameter. high and low altitudes ay that pass ‘among other aircraft, the Vickers Vi world’ fist production je-powered ail paved the way forthe Ralls Royce Conway. want speed. The popularity of Rol fon bacame the benchmark With almost twice the thrust and pressut proved that. The Olympus engine weighs engine in the 1950s for both civil aicraft such ratio oF the Avon.it ble Sf times as much a engine asthe Comet and Caravelle and many military double fst:tw pa ‘out achieved 25 times the thst atthe. = experience Civil and military aero engines The increase in turbine entry temperature | Industrial and marine engines Top ket ther ol 7 09h ou penis h : cal bens . val ded desig Agents for change: ny possible beca rm silicon and titanium mputational ‘oh esis high temperatu f pao 4 als have had asim e21 id record 30 ‘The Jet Engine - experience The global impact of the jet engine we 1210 braved soe ype Marine Proteus Sh Oympas tara Energy ewes sa Ti aa a ee ea 1940 “1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 = = be 1960707 = sree civil me Ste nay 20 ¢00 fat oats 11945 Meteor +1951 Canberra 11960 Lightning Py terrier Defence Mtn 170s ono 00 Renatrates Pogue 215008 On land and sea In 1953,the fist Rolls Royce gas turbines for macine propulsion went to sea, and over the net 12 years Rolls-Royce pioneered the industal use of aero-dervatives. Hevea jet engine, normally Burning natural gas anc feeding free power turbine drives an electrical generator @ compressor for gas pipetnes ora pump for ol extraction. Marine and industrial applications obviously have some very ferent requirements from an acraf However the small size, lightness, and yc capability ofthe aeroderivative trboshaft~all characteristics ofthe aero jetengine —have been fundamental to itssuccess For warships the aer-dervative turboshat is now the engine of choice, as space and weight are ata premium. This aso tue on offshore platforms and in remote locations where ease of transportation is also a benefit For electrical power generation is fast star-up time and cyclic capably alow use fr backup or peakina. Industrial and marine engines operate in harsh, often cortosive environments, and for pumping especially, may have to un continuously for daysata time The fist industrial appication of aRols Royce aero engine was to provide backup electrical power. This was the Proteus in 1959 at Princetown Devon The Olympus followed three years late. 1962In 1964,the Avon *urbojet was adapted for both compressing gas and generating electricity in 197, the industrial Avon seta record of 44562 hou's on gas purmping duty before overhaulin 2004, the Avon fleet passed 55 milion hours Power generation and gas compression remain ‘common industrial applications today notably in North Amerca where Rols-Royce engines power several major ol and cas pipelines, I 1968, Proteus engines were adapted for use ‘on hovercraft notably the SANA which Fried cars and passengers across the English channel _at speeds up to 65 knats. More conventional, the same yeat the Olympus was adapted for ‘maine use. Over the next decade it was installed Con warships such as HM Exmouth the frst ixge toes type 23 Spey 135M ms 1974 Gat compression i¥-22 20MW 1985 ‘worship to be powered entirely by aero-cerived ‘ turbines the Oympus now powers most major Royal Navy warships including the ‘three alcraft carrer: IMS vince, Ark Foy and lustrous ‘The lacatlon of many power generation engines often near to centres of habitation, requires ura low emissions of nitrogen oxides and carson monoxide. Modern industrial engines such asthe Industral Tent and RE211 ae thecefore very clean engines with combustion features not found on todays aero engines They can use multiple combustor zones or wate injection to ensure optimum control of flame temperatures 1990 Global impact The et engine has changed the way wars ae fought the wey power is generated and with cheap and widely avalable ae travel thas changed the ives of millions in 1945,2 one-way fight across the Alantic took fourteen hous. In 1952the cheapest return fight fiom Londen ta New Yorkcast more than thee months average eatrings In 2003, cost only four days average eaings and each fight took only eight hours tis not surpsng.therefore.that sound two bilion air tckets are sod every year The jet engine has changed the way people revel and think about travel arquabyt has ered everyone’ perception ofthe word 1999 Power generation wig alae fa wisest og 1988 757-200 = 1995 0330 % 2007 Typ wre 25M ini 2005 2010 — 12002 Typhoon £Etaa0 ododbs ‘Arguably again there is a sk that the jet engine might change the word ise ‘These environmental concems ate major Influences on current engine design -and wil continue to be for the foreseeable future A continuum of development The history ofthe et engino an increta «ne continualy developing ideas and technologies building on whats posible at ary moment to cena colectve body of ening and understanding wich wilbe contnwaly Gran fom and added to This willbe a tue tomorow ast as yesterday ands todsy 33 4 Past performance dictates future development. design and development 35 Lp) S}[e] ES fe) tae) AND IMPRECISE; TI A COMPROMISE DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE, II and development Fry ee Design: converting requirements into products All products are a response to a need; they perform a function and have a customer. The design process satisfies some basic human needs by providing artefacts to sustain life; it extends the boundaries of human knowledge, gives pleasure - and provides a great sense of satisfaction to the practitioners. For most products, the input to the design process is a customer need; the output is a definition of an optimum component, system, or process. The design process consists of two major elements: requirement definition and design definition. These two elements interact with each other; more often than not, both the definitions are iterative processes. Design definition process Sune Dee : + atuate 4 7 Goreme |__| Development: proving a product meets its requirements The overall aim of the gas turbine product development process, also known as the validation or experimental process, is to achieve certification of the product in line with the regulatory conditions for safe in-service operation and to introduce changes to address ) safety > efficiency ) performance > reliability ) operational concerns. 39 The Jet En Design Requirements definition Requirements definition sal about under- standing customer needs and vanslting them into a coherent set of requirements as an input tothe design definition process. Requirements should be fly dened before starting the design and they should not dlictate what the solution should be Who are our customers? Customers come in various guises and i's important ta know them and their needs. The customer may well express naeds in a form that requires interpretation for that information tobe useablein te design process for example. passengers want a quiet aircraft interior this requires a definition of quiet,a sound leve! in a unit of noise measurement. The certifying authorities aso define requirements that the engines have to meet, before and in addition to the customers'requirements, Often the engine manufacturers demonstrate by test or analysis that these requirements are met. Every product has a function ~ something it must do The function of gas turbine is to provide thrust or shaft power to drive a load; the components within the engine may have other functions to heat, to manipulate, 10.cool,or move, to give just afew examples. Similarlyevery product has characteristics, Or attibutes'such as weight size, unit cost, ‘operating cost life aesthetic appeal. and environmental impact - design and development requirements nave ro bemetinthe des process Some attributes are directly related to a product’ functions. For example, a turbofan engine has thrust,everse thrust, and electrical power as function related attributes Other attributes ae associated with the products interfaces or are created as a by-product of the prime function, For instance, the noise genevated by aturbatan is @ by-product of the operation Desited or acceptable limits for attributes ae often specified inthe customers‘requirerents. The typical specification for turbofan engine includes safety thrust ata number of fight condltions fuel consumerion reliability and avaliabilty instalation compatiblity structural integrity > > > > > > > unit cost ) operating cost > weight > sz > tsk > timescale > noise > emissions. Itis important to know how the custome: ranks and priotises the requirements, Concorde for example, placed a higher value ‘on speed than on noise or fuel consumption, Requirements are often written as target values while constraints are defined by a inot-to-exceed value. Attributes, therefore cary also have a target value and a not-torexceed value Altcaft range depends on weight and fuel consumption so these ae target values for the designers and the development team to meetia pylon has a not-to-exceed value, 2 structural limit controlling the maximum ‘weight of the engine: the fuel tanks have 2 finite size that provides a nat-to-exceed figure for fuel consumption in order to meat the target range. Requirements ade Requrements trode of weight snd fel consumption Design definition process Three activites form the basis ofthe design defnton process generating ideas ana solutions evaluating those ideas and deciding upon the optimum solution ‘Capabilty'supports the whole design process and can be defined as all that is necessary toachieve the desired results the peaple, the technology the resources the information, the processes, the faites Often, many of these capabilties do not exist when stating ‘out on a design. he things that do not exist ‘obviously add risk to the design and these risks need careful consideration an mitigation as the design develops. ‘The design process is highly iterative —as ideas are evaluated and improved upon, the design Space tightens and the process becomes more lke a spiral aimed atthe target attributes, Often concepts willbe developed to map ‘ur the design space and show the strength ofthe gearing between diferent attributes. For example, achieving a required thrust can be met witha large range of gas turbine styles:some wil be heavier some, more fuel efficient others quieter The process becomes ‘one of selecting the optimum solution once the primary function target has been met. Generating ideas and creating concepts requires a minture of time information, imagination knoviledge, and experience Many techniques are avaliable o assist with Idea generation and problem solving: normally people in groups achieve more than individuals in folation ~ the interactions ‘and suggestions lead to debate and spark ‘other ideas Evaluation isthe process of determining how the pxoduct will perform when measured agains. al of te relevant attributes The simplest form of evaluation s purely comparative: each attribute is scored based on judgement or experience, Ealy in the design process, ‘where many concepts exist the evaluation ‘needs to be quick to begin the journey along the design spiral Sometimes, where risk exists or the concept is novel, the only way to evaluate an idea is tomanufacture prototypes and test them. Clearly this is expensive and time- ‘consuming, and so great efforts spent on developing analytical computer processes as {an alternative way of evaluating the behaviour of diferent concepts The final stage inthe process isthe decision, This requites bath knowledge ofthe customer and experience of product and process usualy the more important attibutes will need Bee = Bee tere 2 weighting applied. but tis often impossible to determine a clear winner from an evavation. ‘The engineer then has to apply judgement ‘and experience to select the right cancept. From design to development ‘When designing a jet engine, the judgement and experience used by the engineering ‘teams is channelled and guided by a formal review process that covers not only the ‘design and development functions but also the entire life-cycle of the engine ~ ands applied to the complete product subsystems, and individual components. This review process can be broken into seven stages: innovation and opportunity selection, preliminary concept design full concept {design product realisation [or development), ‘production, continuing service support. and isposa. Naturally many tasks in the design and development phases overlap; however, formal gates ensure that progression ‘between key paints in the process anly occur ater peer analysis and review. Design is necessarily concerned with form, ‘material and function; alongside these,rmany cther factors that have an impact on the final design ae also considered: technology requirements, manufacturing capability, supply chain capability, and cost to name cnlya few. n the preliminary phase, assumptions about these can be made, which have to be defined in the full concent design. ‘After many iterations, the design is established It now has to be validated, rant feet ‘The design and development phates and ther potion in the product Me very thatthe new product is compliant ‘with alli requirements standardise modifications to previously certified products proving both compliance with certification equirernents and that design changes actually address the problem, Uslisation of core technology across various business sectors allows the gas turbine ‘manufacturer to apply common product devel ‘opment. Differences occur in the certification process as the product requirements differ depending on the application. The experimental process Intheor product development ecins after the preliminary and fullcanceptdefiton Inredity the business pressures to design, develop ad intoduce new products and medications o matketin eve quicker timescales mean that certain ative within the experimental process aso known 2s validation unin paral tthe design proces for example, entiation clearance Stetegesore planing ofthe engineig development programme, and participating imsubsyter ik eduction Product development then continues fr the hole ife-cycle ofthe engine,and so the experimental process i also applied during and after the production phase after engine type certification During the product’ in- service operation unforeseen technica problems may arse; the regulations may >be amended. or customers requirements may change:modifications tothe certified product may be required to accommodate ‘these occurrences. ‘The experimental process stars with one of the following: > anew or derivative engine requirement from an integrated system supplier (anatframe or platform manufacturer) an internally perceived engine requirement or modification > achange 10 certiied engine standard >) asignificant service problemon an ‘existing engine type > achange tothe regulations (noise or emissions, for exarnple) Ieis then complete when there ae fully verted and validated: > data engine components, subsystems, and accessories > methods of manufacture,engine assembly, test.and stip whole enginas > design changes documentation. Full gas turbine certification and In-service modification programmes Where the requirements ftom an integrated system supplier for@ new o: derivative engine, full ertifcation programme is usually requited. The ful suite of experimental ‘activities must be completed to ensure full product development and certification. Its thls process with its emphasis on ensuring validation and certfication that lias atthe heart cof product development ~ not any individual testowever spectacular or cramatic “The development process i structured in five phases the planning phase n which the strategy and certification process is planned and agreed with the certiying authority: the programme implementation phase ‘when the experiments are designed and the instrumentation specified; manufacture and assembly ofthe development engine: performing the required tests ard, finally, analysis ofthe test data Risk reduction ‘The reduction of risk must be considered from the onset of the product design. This includes the risks associated vith the experimental process as applied t0 all elements of the product definition: > product physical and functional design > assembly methods > usage instructions. ‘The development engineer iaises with design, manufacturing, and assembly departments and uses whole engine build, test,and fight experience of simlar designs ‘to appreciate — ealy in the programme ~ the risk areas within the definition and construct the test programmes accordinaly. Compliance strategies For an identified major change,a compliance strategy must be produced to identify which tasks (and any interdependancies between them) need to show compiance with the intemal requirements and those of the airworthiness authority The identified tasks will come from a combination of the airworthiness authorities prescribed certification tests strategy reports and the identified risks for the element of the product under consideration. Execution and reporting of the experiments “The identification of the risk and associated ‘mitigation action combined with the camp- ance strategy will define the experiments) requirements. Experiments compiled 10 satisfy the procuct development validation requirements are performed on experimental test vehicles (engines)-Each test vehicle may _adoress more than one experiment through bench or fight manoeuvres up to and including limitations and safety requirements “The testing wil include experiments to Lnderstand and fix problems and to check project and airframe or platform requirements such as performance and noise Thete is also a requirement to report on the ‘outcome ofa vehicle testinal cases and to report an its component strip cancion ‘when that data is requited for the whole engine and not ust an individual experiment Verification of the production assembly, strip and test methods During the experimental process the production assembly, strip and test methods will have been verfied.To ensure that the new production bulld and test factory correctly implement the engineering instructions technical sk assessment process is employed identifying the hazard areas and ensuring they are addressed. The engine development plan Development ultimately ends up with a imme definition known a the elopmer an (EDP) that has taken into considera > and extemal custorne validation requiterment > airworthiness authority or classification ety requireré > build and test facity capacity and capabity > build test, and strip lead tin > > 70001 ef nacucmsnm ; — _ Operability Bird strike erases ; eee Liana Fleet leader IMI at on - 70007 Fanblnce of teste _— —_— stor tying est bed The certification and standardisation process Civil aviation requirements The civil certification proc > New engine type or exten aa existing engin ment ag} > The Chief Engin station with irworthiness department, defines the ion strategy and ident etification authori Approval of modifications to civil engine type design lichange Engine marufecturee 43 establish verification needs, The subsequent Ccertication or standardisation paperwoik is ‘completed inorder to allow release ofthat ‘modification for production and in-service ‘engines by the Chief Engineer and aviation authorty signing the modfication bulletin Civil aviation certification testing ‘The 15-hour endurance test ‘The aviation authority requires thatthe integrity ofthe engine be demonstrated by the completion ofthe 150-hour endurance test.This test may be used for a number of purposes including the demonstration of the integrity of a new engine or component dasign,or new operating limits. The endurance test sa relatively short duration test of 150 hours in forward thrust ‘but operating at conditions wel beyond ‘what wl be encountered in service to give Confidence to the aviation authorities that ~anengine of the design tested meets a certain mechanical standard;has satisfactory handling functioning, and minimum performance;and isfitto enter service The 150-hour endurance tests desirable prior toffight trials and consists ofa series of equal cycles containing running at maximum take-off and maximum continuous ratings incremental’ dectemental running, nd handtina/tunning with and without offtake of bleed ai (On completion of the test the engine is stripped and the aviation authority is usually invited to view the hardware Wherever ppossble.2 formal layout with inspection etalls and data (for example disc growths) Is be provided The endurance test establishes, ‘maximum yalues of paremeters such as shaft speeds and temperatures for that particular ‘ould standard of engine; these must not be exceeded in service The test does not purport 10 be a replica ofthe treatment the engine wll get in service. Fan-blade-off test ‘The aviation autroriy equites that the engine ‘easings must be capable of containing the release ofa single compressor or turbine blade, or any tkely combinations of blades “The fan-blade-off test demonstrates ‘mechanical integrity ofall systems following the oss of a fan blade. [cis a singleshot rest design and development comprising the explosive release of fan blade where containment must be successful with minimal uid system leakage. Certification may be confirmed with an engine res.arig test, or analysisThe normal means of compliance forte fan bade iso demonstrate the containment ofa fan blade by deliberately releasing the portion ofthe blade outboard cf the retention feature atthe maximum LP shaft speed ether on afl engine. or a farblade-of rg The effect ofthe impact and subsequent run down on the gearbox and external urits must be substantiated using the esuits ofthe test.The loads imparted to engine stuctut are anaysed and reported: Loads imparted to the airframe due to the event anc the subsequent windmiling oF ‘the unbalanced fan must be agreed with the airframer asa specication issue-The release cf core compressor and turbine blades is assessed by analysis of the potential redial release paths of each blade and the containment capability of the casings in the release path, Bird strike (foreign object) test Theres a series of tests to demonstrate the ‘mechanical integrity ofthe engine following a bird strike event Birds (dead, unfrozen, and of vatious weights) are fred at arunring engine that must demonstrate acceprable operation following the strike despite the resultant damage tothe fan and core The engine must not catch fire, burst release dangerous fiagments,or generate loads beyond the engine mount capabilities. The engine cannot lose the capablity oflbeing shut down, or create conditions hazardous to the arcrat. The numbers, weight and sizeof the birds ae ‘dependent on intake diameter. The fan “Typical eyes for completion of system is designed to cope with impact fram ‘a range of bird sizes at various postions on the fan face:the lager the diameter ofthe fan intake, the larger the weight of bird that must bbe accepted, “The following are typical cetication tests Large flocking bid ingestion ~ 2 2kg (St) bird fired at a prescribed velocity wren the engine is running at MTO (maximum take-off) thrust and aimed at the most critical location on the engine face The engine must maintain $0 percent ‘of MTO thrust and have the capability toccontinue at this thrust for 20 minutes after the bird damage ) Large bird ingestion an 36kg (8) bird is fired at a prescribed velocity at MTO thrust, aimed atthe most citical location on the engine face without power lever movement for 15 seconds after the event The engine must be capable of shutting down safely and remain intact. Medium bid ingestion - fou birds of | 1kg Qt) weight fred simultaneously at accttical velocity at the most critical strike radi The event is followed by @run-on Period of approximately 20 minutes, The engine must not create hazardous aircraft conditions and stil be able 10 produce 75 per cent of MTO thrust. full engine test is required wth resuits extrapolated to worst day conditions. > Smal bid ingestion - one 0.25kg (ib) bird isfired atthe engine. Although this bed size arguably causes less mechanical damage than medium-sized birds the debris could lodge undetected upstream ofthe fan, creating flow disturbance. {80-hour endurance est 25 of these hour stages) ers lines oe Icing test ing demons Rain and hail ingestion test For all of the and hall ingestion t nulate gine mu Altitude testing inclement weathe Altitude testing 45 design and development Cyclic test standard e Flight test on new aircraft ved far and engine combination isl panding.e ro formance Sr tied fan Rater ave > Fling for engine ceri ones with the elminati ds, ier obtain vf Bc xo Fr brew Modeling and analysis Defence aerospace military qualification a z 47 design and development 2 > > Quali tary a dE > Miltary fight testing 49 ne designs maintain ’a high level of component commonality ie The data generated the aerospace experimental programme is th the aero therefore applied to the industrial product to reduce the cost and 1 development. The industrial developmen over from the aerospace development and at new validation is requ Typical industrial specific testing includes > endurance > DLE combust > DE but higher hot end temperatures dui d by creep oxidation and sulphi perat ontibutes to this - gas compres perate predominately at high power generation particulary peak lopping yelic endura For these reas tests ate not typically carried out athough for ct there is usually some form of endurance test run against a typical custorne operating prol he princinles and processes ofan industial as turbine experimental programme do not afer significantly from aerospa does take account oF desc ‘Marine and naval qualification of marine gas turbine qualification the must meet the folowing and the EDP is constructed to meet bot smpary design and validations standards ~ this process is very similar o the aero ‘ate replaced by shack requirem lons the customer for ex Marine classification society oyds Register, based in the UK Det Norske Veritas Marine validation strategy from existing aera and indust affecting secondary air system, whole e dynamics and anges associated with the de shaft and subsequent beating load and the marine operating regime Typicel marine tests include ting > gas turbine alternator testing — load 00 per cent stopp tor integrity (a applicable to aero-derivatves suc he MT30 overspeed and trip demonstration endurance test ~ typically 1.500 hour ‘Typical classification society naval certification programme elements > Fabrication o eth itioection merce > First Article testing > Sea wials- the the Machi 51 In the 21st century, there is one fundamental design challenge for the jet engine: how to maximise its benefit to mankind without damaging the fragile world around us. environmental impact A CENTURY AGO, MOTORISED TRANSPORT WAS PROMOTED AS BEING EMISSION-FREE — UNLIKE THE HORSE IT WAS REPLACING; IN THE 1920s, A FLEDGLING AND FRAGILE AERO INDUSTRY WAS SHIELDED FROM COMPLAINTS ABOUT NOISE. TODAY, A MORE EXPERIENCED WORLD RECOGNISES THAT REDUCING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IS ONE OF THE MAJOR ENGINEERING CHALLENGES OF THE 21st CENTURY. environmental ets ee ‘The Jet Engine - environmental impact Noise Modern aicratt are significantly quieter than eatier designs with reducing specic thrust (or ncreasing bypas atic) being an important contributory factor vis lower jet velocites. Modern atcrafteit only one per cent ofthe sound energy emitted by aircraft designed forty years ago However continued envonmental pressures for further reductions make noise contol one ofthe most important fet of aero engine esearch Noise control Alrctat are regulated using standards set by ‘the Intemational Chil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). There are three reference locations a which the noise limits are specified: ‘two for take-off (tera and flyover) and one for landing (approach) In each case, the noise is measured during take-off ot landing and is expressed in terms of the Effective Perceived Noise Level EPNL), ‘a decibel unit that takes into account the frequency content, and duration ofthe event. The cutrent statutory nose certification requirements were agreed in 1977 and are know as ICAO Annex 16 Chapter 3 or simply “Chapter 3-The member states of ICAO have ‘adopted this in their individual national legislation, the most commonly known ‘example being the US Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 36 Sage 3, which is virtually identical to Chapter 3.The maximum permitted noise is dependent upon the design weight ofthe aircraft. As a general rue, the noise limit increases a aircraft weight Jncreases but there is a plateau at ow and igh aircraft weights. Effective fram 1 January 2006,Chaprer 4° sets more stringent requirements for the certfication of new aircraft types.Ths requires 2 ncise level cumulatively 10EPNAB (effective ‘cumulative Chapter 3limi.in addition 10 ‘meeting other conditions. i pecevednovelndecbet)belowthe | ‘cumulative margin of 10EPNeB means that the sum ofthe lateral hover and approach rose lvls mustbe atleast IEPNGB below the sured Chapter 3 nose limit at those thee cndtions in adtion the Chapter 3 limit cnt be exceeded at ary condition ‘oeaton 2.000m from teshhols "Nose centfeation reference locations as specified by ICAO and there must be & cumulative margin of at least 2EPNo8 against Chapter 3 for any ‘wo conditions. Inadltion tothe Intemational requirements, some airports have even more stringent restrictions on noise levels. The number of airports that have their own individual noise requirements has rapidly expanded in recent ‘years. In some cases, there are various Operational restrictions on aircraft that exceed the aifport-prescribed noise levesrn other cases there are noise related landing fees or ‘even fines ifthe measured noise level is too high. One of the best known examples of a local airport rule is that at the London Airports Heathrow, Gatwick, and Stanstead, where the combination of high air traffic volumes and high population density have led to limits on departure anc landing noise “The Quota Count systern was introduced to.contiol night-time noise and, uniike the ICAD limits, does not give any alleviation for aircraft size. This has meant that the ‘Quota Count requirements are much more demanding than the ICAO limits for large alcrat types and so have driven recent noise technology requirements Progress in noe seduction aver the ast S0 years "res we te ‘Maximum permited and achieved noise levels ‘Approach Stautory nose ints and some exarnpes ofthe achieved noire performance fora range of iret ‘pes Theresa wide range of achieved noise levels ‘caused by the many diferent weights and engine ‘hast ating or some sirraf types, ‘The main contrbuting noite source for take-off na far compressor combustor turbine jt and airframe “Typical departure noise disibuion approsch “Typical ava nose dstibution Sources of aircraft noise The sound heard from an aircraft isi fact, the result of many individual and quite separate noise sources added together. Thisis not a staightforward addition - for example, two sources with a noise level (oF 1008 each val add to an overall noise level of 10308, because the ear perceives noise asa logarithmic function of power, Both engine design and ai tame characteristics greatly affect the operational noise levels of aircraft. For example, improved airframe aetodynamic performance can reduce the maximum thrust required and also allow the aircraft o climb away rapidly from the population (sound pressure decreases with distance from the source).For this and other reasons, arcraft noise contro sa highly integrated activity between the aircraft and engine manufacturer ‘The relative values of the main constituent noise sources can vary significant fram case to case,but some general observations can bbe made about how the relative importance of the noise sources varies between the three certification conditions For example, jet noise isthe most important source at the lateral Condition where fullengine thrusts required, ‘but is well below the fan and atfame noise levels at the approach condition, because the engine is throttled back during the descent ‘Asa result. the contribution from the aerodynamic disturbances created by the aircraft undercariage and ifting and contro! surfaces such as flaps and slats, becomes very Important during approach. At the fover concition,a reduced take-off thrust i selected ata fe aitude to abate nolse, resulting in fan and jet noise sources both being Importantin setting the received nose on the ‘ground. Other noise sources such asthe low pressure (LP) turbine, combustor and compressor can also add to the total signature. 59 The Jet Engine Noite of typical 19605 engine Compressor ‘utbine and combustor ‘Though the noise contributions are now ‘much more evenly matched fan noise has emerged as a very important source. Further progress in reducing the aircraft noise level is only possible fal ofthe important constituent sources are reduced ~ this is because, as stated, withthe decibel scale reflecting the response ofthe human ey, the constituent sources ads logarithmically, not algebraically ‘Te decibel units used because sound consists ‘of pressure fluctuations and the human ear ‘an detect a very wide renge of amplitudes. “he human ear can usually dstinavish between signals 348 apart, but cannot rliably notice smaller changes. It is interesting to note that engine noise prediction and ‘measurement techniques fequife accuracies significantly better than 348, environmental impact Compressor The problem is complex because there's Usually nota single source of noise that can be fixed’instead several sources often with ‘very alifferent control measures, must Be tackled in order to make significant progress in reducing the noise signal around airports, Fan noise “The fan system produces a noise field that is perhaps the most complicated in the engine. Noise comes from the fan blade ‘aerodynamics and the outlet guide vanes, as well as aerodynamic interaction between the blades and vanes. The numbers of fan blades and outlet quide vanes and the gap between blades and vanes affect how much lke is created. The noise produced by the fan system passes up the intake duct and then radiates out ofthe intake into the atmosphere. t aso passes down the length fof the bypass duct and radiates out of comparison ofcar wth fan bade ‘The smarty between broadband noise from ajetengine’s fan and that ‘ofa ear on the motorway co Noise of atypice! 19903 engine Fan urbe and combustor ‘A comparison af the noize distribution of two generations of engines. The bubbes pproriotely indicate the rlative'aa of the main individual engine noise sources and the fnguar extent incscates where each s most prominent The noise contbutions rom a medain turbofan engine are greatyreticed and much ‘more every matched than from a trboie. the col jet nazze into the atmosphere. The fan system noise is made up of two, very diferent types of sound: broadband and tone Broadband noise Broadband noise sounds lke 2 hiss An example of broadband noise i the sound heard inside 2 car when traveling quickly an a motorway. Broadband noise is made up of many different Frequencies The fan system broadband noise ‘comes from the turbulent airin the boundary layer near the surface ofthe aeroils and in the wakes behind the fan biades and outlet guide vanes. The noise is generated in exactly the seme way as by the car on the motorway. “The more aetodynamically efficient the fan biades ate the less broadband noise is ‘generated similarly the more streamlined the Cat body shape, the quieter the car interior. OS nnaarenmsyseet © ling airwske} eeate a broadband natie are tat reated when the at supersonic speeds. similar to the sonic booms produ fry sight cifferences, red shapes ofthe diferent diferences in the passage shock shapes Its these shape variations that cause the buzz Lupersonic ai inthe manufac e tiseto Careful design of the fan geometry can reduce 1uze noise Also, designing the fan ta rotate more slowly at tke the shock ngth and subsequent bu: Fan noise testing engine components i possi y scale the because the scaling effects are well understood for example, tone fi m).Th instrumentation can be very from rotors imply scale with sometimes involving several hundred ‘microphones inside id around therrig to and nd how it propagates out of 62 Reducing fan noise Another important way of reducing noise levels isto absorb the sound energy after ith produced On made ined and bypass ¢ th special panels that absorb the sound produced by the fan system. Simlar panels can be found at the ie of roads that pass trough built-up areas. These acoustic panels work by resonating to the sound energy, and then disipatin the energy as heat into the On industial ne installations, the enclosures are stically treated in thi he acoustic energy Nols elected away trom ground byexterdediower tp Sold dct wal Facing sheet Exhaust jet noise The exhaust jet isthe principal ise when the e 2s operating at full power during aircraft take under t ases are expelled ih velocity the turbulent mixing of with the surrounding tude of the tu At the high thrust setting requir se conditions the exhat 0 the velocity diffe exhaust gases and surroundings This velocity diference is ity shea. The princi ammeter itherelore, the mean he jet The known as t ise ofa singlestream ofthe hth powee velocity a result predicted by 1g in the 1950s and validated by test Ze, Itisknown eens the V8 law, Potential core region Smal-scale turbulent eae Tansiton region Fully ied region Large-scale turbulent eddies High frequency nose ow fequeney nose ‘About 10 nozzle dameters shearer Jet nose is unique among engine noise sources in thatitis generated outside the engine. The mixing process and the noise ‘generation takes place over a considerable anal distance, up to ten novale diameters ‘or more downstream of the engine. Ast jet develops in the downstream direction, in the annular mixing layer increases. High the nods di s of the fluctuations;lower generated further downstream where the lengthscale ofthe tufoulent fluctuations ulimately becomes comparable withthe jet Jlameter.The general principle also applies yo-stream or coaxial ets but the because of the a ditional shear layers. Historical, jet mixing noise reduc hhave gone hanctin hand with reductions in pass ato lower mean jet velocity Fly mixedlambient shear layer required to achieve a given thrust love ofa slower-moving, secondary, jet results in two annular mixing regions with significantly lower shear than that created tone, further jet noise reductions can realised by mixing the core an rate bypes before exhausting the total flow to atmosphere. can be enhanced by using ‘lobed core miner but for appreciable nowe red be Consequ can sill ute large (around two nozze diameters ily, the drag and weight penakies plus the ed mixer,need to be considered to determine if thsi the: configuration for a particular aera application cof long cowl bypass nazal let noise reductions have been The enhanced mixing produced by the bypass lows together serrations can result ins benefits (with accept. al product applications have been identified. I but significant jet ble aerodynamic shear effect referred to ak in the context of coaxial jets abo features in the jet noise change betwen static and Aight operation ofthe engine, When the aircraft has forward speed, shear between the exhaust gases and the atmosphere is reduced, and t by.typically ive to ten decibels © understand large'Might effects experimental testing soften carried cut in purpose-designed anechoic chambers. .20-25cm aiameter model of an engine tual jet velocities and by the engine, temperatures exper an be scéled in Fequency a sity to give very close agreement with the ful engine (eight to ten times larger. Using suc facies vatious designs to be evaluat and noise reductions (determined with 63 environmental impact simulated aircraft forwa costly fll: dspee ribut Due tothe and onsidered. Fe iteractio example, oie can be refle imity ofthe fl the low scrubbi Future aircraft ons might achieve reductions if the engine and aicrft can be integrated in a way th minates these effects LP turbine noise The HP and IP tub din the core ‘ ithin the engine. The LP turbine, ever, does require noise contro} which i ‘often achieved using similar principles tothe fan system, As withthe fan tone noise can b ed wit ngine by selecting th 1umbers to achieve acoustic‘cut of is possible to exploit the fact that above about Aircraft and engine noise testing requires a carefuly controled and relative humidity 0 atmospheric attenuation of sou! sxample is that the requi ie in-Fight inlet far re) The mult-sag erforated fs and aerods optimus Apracedure has been deve as the Noise Farly Plan that al Combustor noise ertifcato \vative engines to b Dn most engine designs, the noise achieved by building upon a read-acro omibustion process bet contficator By tions, Nos called 'parent’airc ‘up, combination the noise certification of rated by instaolite aft and engine This becomes more difficy a w emission combustor designs The ul 5 process iss emission designs necessary in some ‘ground noise tests re regularly used during andt-based industrial applications require and development pragrammes additional forms control. (2 126,12 ofthe eventual Secondary systems cogressis made in red of this validation testing workinvolves primary sources of aircraft and enai joymentaf many microphones to alo such as off zakes or exhaust ps generation a effect of the acousti ant. Noise res such the modal c on.The combined Ailines airport, oar ning, ncise operating th the goal of addressing the 65 Emissions Emissions from a gas tursine ae a result cf the combustion proces and tis in ‘the combustor that major developments axe being introduced in order to counter the environmental impact of those emisions. Much works being done on cortraling the aitfue ratios and temperatures ofthe gases at cifferentpoins ofthe combustion cycle. 0) 126) Industial applications hich havehad to face more stringent regulation and which donot have the weight and space constraints of ero engines ate demonstrating new approaches 10 emissions contra.) 127) Gas turbines, emissions, and the environment “There is increasing concern about the ‘accumulation of man-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leading to increased risk of climate change The predominant man-made ‘greenhouse gas s carbon dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere when foss fuels are burnt. 0 emissions from gas turbines can be reduced by using fuels with a lower carbon content, and by increasing the efficiency ofthe engine. The efficiency ofthe gas turbine compares favourably with other types of power and the gas turbine’ ability to run on natural gas Which has alow carbon content compared to.coal has made it attractive for land-based power generation. ficiency can be further Improved by sing some of the exhaust heat todrivea steam turbine in combined cycle rmode,or where there sa demand for the heat energy. combined heat and power plants. Aircraft emissions are of particular concern tothe glotel environment due to the altitude at which they are omitted Waters an inevitable combustion product. Onides of nitrogen, NO,, are generated due tothe very high temperatures and pressures in the combustos leading to dissociation and reaction ofthe nitrogen and ‘oxygen in the ai Leaner combustion processes reduce temperatures and, therefore, NO, formation; they also reduce the generation ‘of soot particles which may contribute 10 ‘contra formation. ndustial appiications lead in the implementation of such technologies ‘due to much loner emissions requirements for static plant in areas of human habitation — bbutfocusis also maintained on local ait Quality in the vietinity of aports. Specialy for aero engines, weight isa significant environmental performance issue, asreduced weight will contibuteto the ‘overall aircraft performance leading to lower thrust requirements and therefore reduced fuel butn, emissions and noise Inaddition to cimate change, marine engines have to address issues associated with the sensitive marine envieanment and air quality around ports while operating on marine diesel fuels. Increased use of gas turbines in place of traditional marine engines could help the marine industry to tackle these problems Increasingly there ae trade-offs in the design lof gas turbine engines between glabal issues such as fuel use and climate change and local Issues such as noxious emissions and noise Gas turbines are manufactured using a ange ‘of mateils some of which ae specialised are, and highly processed, Aso, the manufacture can involve processes and substances that are hazardous to humans and the environment. \While every effort is made to reduce or avoid these circumstances,an understanding of the lervironmental impact ofthe whole life-cycle of the engine can show that in many’ cases, carefully controlled use of some hazardous materials and processes can be acceptable because oftheir beneficial effect on the overall performance and impact of the engine. ‘The environmental life-cycle of agas turbine All products can be said to follow a ite-cycl! At each step, material is used that wil frm part of the product: consumables such as codlants and cleaning fuids:resources such 2a eecticty, gas. and oll And, at each step, ‘waste arses from scrapped pats packaging, ‘waste water chericaland ar emissions. Allof these, arising from the product’ ife-cycle, ‘cause enviconmental impacts. Environmental ife-cycle studies of aas turbines have shown that the biggest environmental impacts are caused by consumption of fuel and the emission of gases during the use of the turbine-The major Impacts a as fol: global warming from CO,,H,0, and contrails acid rain and health risks fram NO, CO, ‘and unburnt hydrocarbons (UHCS) > acid rain and global warming trom SO, health sks and glotal warming from particulate matter. Customers are in tum affected by these impacts with operational restrictions, direct fuel costs, and with problems obtaining planning permission for arports and power plants. Throughout the engine’ life-cycle customers {and gas turbine manufacturers also manage increasing costs of raw material, energy.and waste disposal The most effective way of ‘managing coss, sk, and environmental impact of products isto make environmental considerations a fundamental part of the decision making during the design process. Consequently, almost all new designs must reduce the environmental impact ofthe gas turbine, with particular emphasis on fuel use, bout also considering all other ife-cyce stages. Climate change Gas turbines traditionally consume fossil fuels and emit the combustion products directly othe atmosphere. This contributes to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, believed by the majority of World climate experts to be contributing to man-made climate change. (COs and other emissions from gas turbines such as water vapour, oxides of ritrogen, Lnbumt hydrocarbons, and particulate matter have varying effects depending on the location ‘ofthe emissions, At ground level, these emissions have only local er regional eects, ‘but aero engine emissions at altitude can have a significant impact on the global atmosphere, ‘making an additional contibution to climate change The scientific understanding of this phenomenon. which includes the creation of ‘zone, destruction of methane,and the Impact of contrais and cus clouds is currently po0t and is receiving much attention from the research community, Emission species Carbon dioxide (CO2) Tiss beleved ro be the main atmospheric gas contributing to dlobal warming,it is 2 product cof complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel “Therefore as tis direct elated to fuel burn rate and is an unavoidable by-product of combustionit cannot be reduced directly by Environmental product ie cycle ‘combustor design. Control of carbon dioxide ‘emissions has tobe achieved through improving ‘overall engine and airframe efficiencies. Water Vapour (H20) ‘Water vapour ke CO> is product of complete combustion and is not important in the troposphere where the aris stil humid Under these circumstances, there is imited global warring potential However water “The carbon yee Carbon sina perpetual loop, changing form and function depending on locaton inthe cycle. \vapour from supersonic aircraft isa stiong

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