Strength of Materials

STRENGTH
MODULE 02
 Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Structural Engineering

Lecture 03

Torsion

Introduction This lecture is an in-depth discussion of the principles

concerning torsion.

This lecture focuses on

Content  Torsion

Objectives After this lecture, the student should be able to

 Discuss Torsion of Circular shafts, torsion of thin-
walled tubes and rectangular bar
 Solve torsion problems

These are supplemental content necessary for this route

Related  The Efficient Engineer. (2020, March 3).
Understanding Torsion. YouTube.

Readings
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YTKedLQOa0

References Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria &
Sons

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 Lecture 3 – Torsion

Chapter I: Torsion

In many engineering applications, members are required to carry torsional loads. In this chapter, we
consider the torsion of circular shafts. Because a circular cross section is an efficient shape for resisting
torsional loads, circular shafts are commonly used to transmit power in rotating machinery. We also
discuss another important application—torsion of thin-walled tubes and rectangular bars.

Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. Its effect is of primary
concern in the design of axles or drive shafts used in vehicles and machinery. The effect of torsion is
clearly seen in the circular rod shown below.

Torsion of Circular Shafts

The figure (b) shows the deformation of a circular shaft that is subjected to a
twisting couple (torque) T.

To visualize the deformation, we scribe the straight line AB on the surface of the
shaft before the torque is applied. After loading, this line deforms into helix AB’
as the free end of the shaft rotates through angle θ. During the deformation, the
cross-sections are not distorted in any manner—they remain plane, and the
radius does not change. The length L of the shaft remains constant.

Based on these observations, we make the following assumptions:

1. Circular cross-sections remain plane (do not warp) and perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
2. Cross sections do not deform. (There is no strain in the plane of the cross section)

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 Lecture 3 – Torsion
3. The distances between cross-sections do not change (the axial normal strain is zero)
We can illustrate physically what happens when a torque is applied to a circular shaft by considering
the shaft to be made of a highly deformable material such as rubber, as seen below. When the torque
is applied, the circles and longitudinal grid lines originally marked on the shaft tend to distort into the
pattern shown below. Note that twisting causes the circles to remain circles, and each longitudinal grid
line deforms into a helix that intersects the circles at equal angles. The effects of torsion on a single
element on a circular shaft can also be clearly illustrated in the figure on the right, where the white
square pasted on the shaft also twists upon being subjected to torque.

To analyze the deformation in the interior of the shaft, we consider the portion of the shaft in the figure
below. We first isolate a segment of the shaft of infinitesimal length dx and then peel off its outer layer,
leaving us with the cylindrical core of radius ρ. Because the cross-sections are separated by an
infinitesimal distance, the difference in their rotations, denoted by the angle dθ, is also infinitesimal.
We now imagine that the straight line CD has been drawn on the cylindrical surface. As the cross-
sections undergo the relative rotation dθ, CD deforms into the helix CD’. By observing the distortion,
we recognize that the helix angle γ is the shear strain of the element.

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 Lecture 3 – Torsion

From the geometry of the infinitesimal element, γ=(dϴ/dx)(ρ)

The Torsion Formula

The shear stress varies linearly with the radial distance ρ from the axis of
the shaft.

From Hooke’s law:

𝑑𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 = 𝐺 𝜌
𝑑𝑥

Therefore, the maximum shear stress occurs at the surface of the shaft.

And θ is expressed in radians, and dϴ/dx angle of twist per unit length.

Since 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝜙 are the same for all elements located at points on the cross section at 𝑥, then
is constant over the cross section, and states that the magnitude of the shear strain for any of
these elements varies only with its radial distance 𝜌, from the axis of the shaft. In other words,
the shear strain within the shaft varies linearly along any radial line, from zero at the axis of the
shaft to a maximum at its outer boundary. Since 𝑑𝜙/𝑑𝑥 = 𝛾/𝜌 = 𝛾max /𝑐; γ = (ρ/c)(γmax).

This variation is shown on the front faces of a selected number of elements, located at an
intermediate radial position 𝜌 and at the outer radius 𝑐. Using Hooke’s law, we can write

This equation expresses the shear-stress distribution over the cross section in terms of the radial
position of the element. Using it, we can now apply the condition that requires the torque
produced by the stress distribution over the entire cross section to be equivalent to the resultant
internal torque 𝑇 at the section, which holds the shaft in equilibrium.

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
Specifically, each element of area 𝑑𝐴, located at 𝜌 is subjected to a force, due to shear stress, of
𝑑𝐹= 𝜏𝑑𝐴. From mechanics, the torque produced by this force is

The integral depends only on the geometry of the shaft. It represents the polar moment of
inertia of the shaft’s cross-sectional area about the shaft’s longitudinal axis. We will symbolize its
value as 𝐽, and therefore the above equation can be rearranged and written in a more compact
form to determine the maximum shear stress from a torsional loading, namely,

𝑇𝑐
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽

Where 𝜏max the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer surface
𝑇 the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section
𝑐 the maximum radial distance from the center, outer radius of the shaft
𝐽 the polar moment of inertia of the cross section

The shear stress at the intermediate radial distance 𝜌 can be determined from combining

𝜌 𝑇𝜌
𝜏 = ( ) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝜏 =
𝑐 𝐽

Either of the above two equations are often referred to as the torsion formula. Recall that it is
used only if the shaft is circular and the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear elastic
manner, since the derivation is based on Hooke’s law.

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
Polar Moment of Inertia. In Engineering Mechanics – Statics of Rigid Bodies, the polar moment
of inertia is the moment of inertia acting at its pole, z-axis, and it is defined as the sum of the
centroidal moment of inertia of the two axes, x and y.

Power Transmission

Shafts and tubes having circular cross sections are often used to transmit power developed by a
machine. When used for this purpose, they are subjected to a torque that depends on the
power generated by the machine and the angular speed of the shaft. Power is defined as the
work performed per unit of time. Also, the work transmitted by a rotating shaft equals the
torque applied times the angle of rotation. Therefore, if during an instant of time 𝑑𝑡 an applied
torque 𝑇 causes the shaft to rotate 𝑑𝜃, then the instantaneous power is 𝑃=𝑇𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡. Since the
angular velocity is 𝜔=𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡, we can express power as

𝑃=𝑇𝜔

In the SI system, power is expressed in watts when torque is measured in newton-meters and
angular velocity is in radians per second. In the FPS system, the basic units of power are foot-
pounds per second: however, horsepower (hp) is often used in engineering practice is 1 hp =
550 ft∙lb/s.

For machinery, the frequency of a shaft’s rotation, 𝑓, is often reported. This is a measure of the
number of revolutions or cycles the shaft makes per second and is expressed in hertz, 1 Hz = 1
cycle/s. Since 1 cycle =2π rad, then 𝜔=2𝜋𝑓 and so the above equation for power becomes

𝑃=2𝜋𝑓𝑇

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
The Angle of Twist

Design of a shaft depends on the amount of rotation or twist that may occur when the shaft is
subjected to a torque. Furthermore, being able to compute the angle of twist for a shaft is
important when analyzing the reactions on statically indeterminate shafts.

We will develop a formula for determining the angle of twist (ϕ) of one end of a shaft with
respect to its other end. The shaft is assumed to have a circular cross section that can gradually
vary along its length. Also, the material is assumed to be homogeneous and to behave in a
linear-elastic manner when the torque is applied. Like the case of an axially loaded bar, we will
neglect the localized deformations that occur at points of application of the torques and where
the cross-section changes abruptly. By Saint-Venant’s principle, these effects occur within small
regions of the shaft’s length and generally they will have only a slight effect on the result.

Using the method of sections, a differential disk of thickness 𝑑𝑥, located at position 𝑥, is isolated
from the shaft. The internal resultant torque is 𝑇(𝑥), since the external loading may cause it to
vary along the axis of the shaft. Due to 𝑇(𝑥), the disk will twist, such that the relative rotation of
one of its faces with respect to the other face is 𝑑𝜙. As a result an element of material located at
an arbitrary radius 𝜌 within the disk will undergo a shear strain 𝛾.

Where 𝜙 angle of twist; measured in radians

𝑇(𝑥) Internal torque at arbitrary distance 𝑥; measured in Newton-millimeters
𝐽(𝑥) Shaft’s polar moment of inertia expressed as a function of 𝑥; measured in mm4
𝐺 Shear modulus of elasticity of a material; measured in megapascals
𝐿 Length of the shaft; measured in millimeters

Constant Torque and Constant Area. Usually in engineering practice the material is
homogeneous so that 𝐺 is constant. Also, the shaft’s cross-sectional area and the external
torque are constant along the length of the shaft. If this is the case, the internal torque the polar
moment of inertia and can be integrated, which gives

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Lecture 3 – Torsion

The similarities between the above two equations and those for an axially loaded bar 𝛿=
∫𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥/𝐴(𝑥)𝐸 and 𝛿= 𝑃𝐿/𝐴𝐸 should be noted.

Sign Convention. To apply the equation, we must develop a sign convention for both the
internal torque and the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to the other end. To
do this, we will use the right-hand rule, whereby both the torque and angle will be positive,
provided the thumb is directed outward from the shaft when the fingers curl to give the
tendency for rotation. This means, using method of sections, if your right thumb is directed
outward from the cross-sectional area, this is a positive internal torque and angle of twist.

Sample Problems on Torsion Formula, Power Transmission, and Angle of Twist

PROBLEM #1: The figure shows a 2-in-diameter solid steel

cylinder that is built into the support at C and subjected to
the torques TA and TB
1.) Determine the maximum shear stresses in segments AB
and BC of the cylinder
2.) Compute the angle of rotation of end A relative to
point C. Use G = 12,000,000 psi for steel.

SOLUTION: First, we have to divide the bar into sections and get the internal torsional forces.
The internal forces are solved as if we performed summation of forces along the x-axis.

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Lecture 3 – Torsion

Let us get the formula for the moment of inertia of the cylinder.

𝜋𝑑 4 (𝜋)(2 𝑖𝑛)4
𝐽= = = 1.5708 𝑖𝑛4
32 32

1.) Let us now use the formula for shear stress.

𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑐 (900 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑓𝑡) (12 𝑓𝑡) (1 𝑖𝑛. )
𝜏max(𝐴𝐵) = = = 𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟓. 𝟒𝟖 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝐽 1.5708 𝑖𝑛4
𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑐 (500 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑓𝑡) (12 𝑓𝑡) (1 𝑖𝑛. )
𝜏max(𝐵𝐶) = = = 𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟗. 𝟕𝟏 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝐽 1.5708 𝑖𝑛4

2.) Let us now use the formula for the angle of twist. The total angle of twist of the cylinder is
equal to the algebraic sum of the angle of twists of the two segments.

𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜙𝐴 = 𝜙𝐴/𝐵 + 𝜙𝐵/𝐶 = ( ) +( )
𝐽𝐺 𝐴/𝐵 𝐽𝐺 𝐵/𝐶

(900 ∙ 12 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛)(5 ∙ 12 𝑖𝑛) (500 ∙ 12 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛)(3 ∙ 12 𝑖𝑛)

𝜙𝐴 = +
(1.5708 𝑖𝑛4 )(12,000,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ) (1.5708 𝑖𝑛4 )(12,000,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 )

180°
𝜙𝐴 = 0.0458 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∙ = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
The positive result indicates that the rotation vector of A is in the positive x-direction; that is, ϕA
is directed counterclockwise when viewed from A toward C.

PROBLEM #2: A solid steel shaft in a rolling mill transmits 20 kW of power at 2 Hz. Determine
the smallest safe diameter (in mm) of the shaft if the shear stress is not to exceed 40 MPa and
the angle of twist is limited to 6 degrees in a length of 3 meters. Use G = 83 GPa.

SOLUTION: The aim of this problem is to familiarize ourselves with the units for power. 1 kW = 1
kN-m/s = 1000 kW; 1 Hz = 1/s. From the formula for power transmission, we can get the torque.

𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑓T

𝑁−𝑚 2
20000 = (2𝜋) ( ) (𝑇)
𝑠 𝑠

𝑇 = 1591.5494 𝑁 − 𝑚

Then, we are going to use the formulas for angle of twist and maximum shear stress in order to
get the smallest safe diameter possible. We are getting here two values for the diameter.

IF ANGLE OF TWIST GOVERNS: IF SHEAR STRESS GOVERNS:

𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝑐
𝜙 = 𝐽𝐺 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐽

𝑑
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (1591.5494 𝑁−𝑚)(3 𝑚) 𝑁 (1591.5494 𝑁−𝑚)( )
6° ∙ = 𝜋 𝑁 40 ∙ 106 𝑚2 = 𝜋
2
180° ( )(𝑑4 )(83∙109 ) ( )(𝑑4 )
32 𝑚2 32

𝑑 = 0.04864 𝑚 = 48.64 𝑚𝑚  𝑑 = 0.05877 𝑚 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝒎 

The answer that we should choose is 58.77 mm because if we choose 48.64 mm, the shaft will
fail in shear stress.
Statically Indeterminate Problem (with Sample Problem)

The procedure for solving statically indeterminate torsion problems is similar to the steps for
axially loaded bars:
1. Draw the required FBD. Cut the whole figure into sections if necessary.
2. Write the equations of equilibrium.
3. Derive the compatibility equations from the restrictions imposed on the angles of twist.
4. Use Torque-Twist Relationships to express the angles of twist in the compatibility equations
in terms of torques.
5. Solve the equations of equilibrium and compatibility for the torques.
6. Solve for the other required values if there are any.

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
PROBLEM #3: The shaft in the figure consists of a 3-in-diameter aluminum segment that is
rigidly joined to a 2-in-diameter steel segment. The ends of the shaft are attached to rigid
supports. Calculate the maximum shear stress developed in each segment when the torque T =
10 kip-in is applied. Use G = 4,000,000 psi for aluminum and G = 12,000,000 psi for steel.

SOLUTION: First, we have to draw the FBD of the figure and formulate the statics equation for it.
Note that we have only assumed the reactions Tal and Tst for this problem, so any negative
result would indicate an incorrect assumption. Also note that unlike the previous examples, we
did not have to section because sectioning will also produce the same results.

∑Mx = 0 (ccw+)
-Tst + (10 k-in)(1000 lb/k) – Tal = 0
Tst + Tal = 10000  eqn. 1

Next, we formulate the compatibility equation. As we can see in the original figure, the rod is
installed between two fixed supports. If this is the case, then the rod should experience a zero
angle of twist under the said torque. This means that the angle of twist in the aluminum
segment should be equal to that of the steel segment.

𝜙𝑠𝑡 = 𝜙𝑎𝑙

𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐽𝐺 𝑠𝑡 𝐽𝐺 𝑎𝑙

(𝑇𝑠𝑡 )(3 𝑓𝑡)(12 𝑖𝑛/𝑓𝑡) (𝑇𝑎𝑙 )(6 𝑓𝑡)(12 𝑖𝑛/𝑓𝑡)

𝜋 = 𝜋
(32) (2 𝑖𝑛)4 (12,000,000 lb/𝑖𝑛2 ) (32) (3 𝑖𝑛)4 (4,000,000 lb/𝑖𝑛2 )

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 Lecture 3 – Torsion
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 1.1852𝑇𝑎𝑙  eqn. 2

We can now substitute equation 2 into equation 1.

Tst + Tal = 10000

1.1852Tat + Tal = 10000
Tal = 4576.24 lb-in; Tst = 1.1852Tal = 5423.76 lb-in

The positive signs mean that our assumptions are correct. We can now calculate the shear stress
in each segment.

𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐
𝜏max(𝑠𝑡) = 𝜏max(𝑎𝑙) =
𝐽 𝐽

2 3
(5423.76 𝑙𝑏−𝑖𝑛)( 𝑖𝑛) (4576.24 𝑙𝑏−𝑖𝑛)( 𝑖𝑛)
2 2
𝜏max(𝑠𝑡) = 𝜋 𝜏max(𝑎𝑙) = 𝜋
( )(2 𝑖𝑛)4 ( )(3 𝑖𝑛)4
32 32

𝜏max(𝑠𝑡) = 𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟐. 𝟖𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝜏max(𝑎𝑙) = 𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝒔𝒊

Torsion of Other Shapes

In this next part of the route, we are specifically going to explore torsion of closed thin-walled tubes
and of rectangular bars.

Torsion of Closed Thin-Walled Tubes

Thin-walled tubes of noncircular cross section are often used to construct light-weight
frameworks such as those used in aircraft. In some applications, they may be subjected to a
torsional loading. Assumption of the effects of applying a torque to a thin-walled tube having a
closed cross section, that is, a tube that does not have any breaks or slits along its length. Such
a tube, having a constant yet arbitrary cross-sectional shape, and variable thickness 𝑡. Since the
walls are thin, we will obtain the average shear stress by assuming that this stress is uniformly
distributed across the thickness of the tube at any given point.

The product of the average shear stress times the thickness of the tube is the same at each
point on the tube’s cross-sectional area, this product is called shear flow, 𝑞, and in general
terms we can express it as

q = τavgt

Since 𝑞 is constant over the cross section, the largest average shear stress must occur where the
tube’s thickness is the smallest. The shear flow measures the force per unit length along the

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
tube’s cross-sectional area. The shear flow and the average stress to always be directed tangent
to the wall of the tube, such that it contributes to the resultant internal torque.

Average Shear Stress. The average shear stress can be related to the torque 𝑇 by considering
the torque produced by this shear stress about a selected point 𝑂 within the tube’s boundary.
As shown, the shear stress develops a force on an element of the tube.

𝑇 = ∮ ℎ𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡 ∮ ℎ 𝑑𝑠

Here the “line integral” indicates that integration must be performed around the entire
boundary of the area. A graphical simplification can be made for evaluating the integral by
noting that the mean area.

T = 2τavgtAm

Where 𝑇 Resultant internal torque of the section; in Newton-millimeters

𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 Average shear stress acting over a thickness of the tube; in Megapascals
𝑡 Thickness of the tube where 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 is to be determined; in millimeters
𝐴𝑚 Mean area enclosed within boundary of the centerline of tube’s thickness; in mm2

Angle of Twist. The angle of twist of a thin-walled tube of length 𝐿 can be determined using
energy methods, which is not covered in this lecture. If the material behaves in a linear elastic
manner and 𝐺 is the shear modulus, then this angle given in radians, can be expressed as

𝑇𝐿 𝑑𝑠
𝜙= 2 ∮
4𝐴𝑚 𝐺 𝑆 𝑡

PROBLEM #4: An aluminum tube, 1.2 m long, has the semicircular cross section shown in the
figure. If stress concentrations at the corners are neglected, determine the following: (1) the
torque that causes a maximum shear stress of 40 MPa, and (2) the corresponding angle of twist
of the tube. Use G = 28 GPa for aluminum.

SOLUTION:
(1) The maximum shear stress of this cross-section is at the
area with the smallest thickness (which is the area labelled
“1”). This particular area has a thickness of 2 mm. We
substitute everything in the formula for torque.

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Lecture 3 – Torsion

T = 2τavgtAm
T = (2)(40 N/mm2)(2 mm)(π/2)(25 mm)2
T = 157079.63 N-mm or 157.08 N-m

(2) For this part of the problem, let us solve for the line integral first.

𝑑𝑠 1 1 𝑆1 𝑆2
∮ = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = +
𝑆 𝑡 𝑡1 𝑆1 𝑡2 𝑆2 𝑡1 𝑡2

𝑑𝑠 𝜋(25) 2(25)
∮ = + = 55.9366
𝑆 𝑡 2 3

We then substitute this to the formula for the angle of twist.

(157079.63 N − mm )(1200 𝑚𝑚)

𝜙= 2 ∙ (55.9366)
𝜋 2 2
4 [( ) (25 𝑚𝑚) ] (28000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 )
2

180°
𝜙 = 0.0977 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∙ = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟎°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑

Torsion of Rectangular Bars

If the cross section of the shaft is not circular, experiments show that the cross sections distort
and do not remain plane. Therefore, the formulas for shear stress distribution and torsional
rigidity derived cannot be applied to noncircular members.

The two significant features of the deformation

are:
1. The cross sections become distorted.
2. The shear strain (and thus the shear stress)
is zero at the edges of the bar and largest
at the middle of the sides.

Here are the formulas used in the computation

for torsion of rectangular:

𝑇 𝑇𝐿
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜙=
𝐶1 𝑎𝑏2 𝐶2 𝑎𝑏3 𝐺

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
The values of a and b are illustrated on the figure at the right. The constants C1 and C2 can be
acquired from the table below.

PROBLEM #5: (a) Determine the largest torque that can be safely applied to the rectangular
steel bar if the maximum shear stress is limited to 120 MPa. (b) Compute the corresponding
angle of twist using G = 80 GPa for steel.

SOLUTION: First, we calculate the ratio a/b. In this problem, a = 20 mm and b = 6 mm. The
ratio a/b will then be equal to 20/6 or 3.3333. Notice that in the table of constants, a/b = 3.3333
is not present. Therefore, we may have to interpolate for C1 and C2.

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Lecture 3 – Torsion
FOR C1: FOR C2:

3−3.3333 0.267−𝐶1 3−3.3333 0.263−𝐶

1
= 0.267−0.282 = 0.263−0.281
3−4 3−4

C1 = 0.2720 C2 = 0.2690

We can now use these values on the formulas for τmax and ϕ.

(1) FOR τmax (get T): (2) FOR ϕ:

𝑇 𝑇𝐿
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜙=
𝐶1 𝑎𝑏2 𝐶2 𝑎𝑏3 𝐺

𝑇 (23500.80 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚)(800 𝑚𝑚)

120 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 𝜙=
(0.2720)(20 𝑚𝑚)(6 𝑚𝑚)2 (0.2690)(20 𝑚𝑚)(6 𝑚𝑚)3 (80000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 )

𝑇 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎 𝜙 = 0.2022 𝑟𝑎𝑑

or 23.50 N-m or 11.59°

Page 16 of 17
 Lecture 3 – Torsion
References: This part includes online references. This is to avoid plagiarism in the content of the
modules.
Chapter 1:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, March 3). Understanding Torsion. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YTKedLQOa0
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

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