Unit-1 - Data Communications

Data Communictions and Networking
Introduction
Dr. Pradeep K V
Assistant Professor
VIT-Chennai
Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 1/ 55

Contents
Data Communications
Components
Data Representation and its Flow
Networks
Network Criteria
Physical Structures
Network Types
Protocol Layering
Scenarios
Principles of Protocol Layering
Logical Connections and Addressing
Reference Models
TCP/IP Protocol
OSI Reference Model

Introduction to Data Communications
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices

via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must

be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on :
Delivery
Accuracy
Timeliness
Jitter

Components in Data Communication
A data communications system has five components
Sender : is the device that sends the data message.

Receiver : is the device that receives the message.
Devices : Computer/Workstation, Telephone/Video/Camera and so on.
Transimission Media : is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. (Guided/Un-Guided)
Message : is the information (data) to be communicated.
(Text, Numbers, Pictures, Audio, and Video)
Protocol : is a set of rules that govern data communications.
(Rules/Syntax/Semantics/Aggrement)

Data Representation in Data Communication
Information today comes in different forms, such as :

Numbers : represented by bit patterns. ASCII is not used to represent
numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations
Text : is a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called
a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding
Pictures : are bit patterns. It is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture
elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends
on the resolution.
Audio : refers to the recording/broadcasting of sound/music. It is by
nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not
discrete.
Video : refers to the recording/broadcasting of a picture/movie. It can
either be produced as a continuous entity (TV camera), or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea
of motion

Data flow Data Communication

Networks
A Network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of

communication.
A device can be a host (or an end system) such as a large computer,

desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
A device can also be a connecting device such as a

A Router, which connects the network to other networks,
A Switch, which connects devices together,
A Modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of
data.
These devices in a network are connected using wired or wireless
transmission media such as cable or air.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most

important of these are :
Performance : can be measured in many ways, including transit time

and response time.
It is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay.
Reliability : In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is

measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe.
Security : include protecting data from unauthorized access, or from

damage, and implementing policies & procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses

Physical Structures
Type of Connection :
A network is two or more devices connected through links.
A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one

device to another.
For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line

drawn between two points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in

some way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and

multipoint.

Types of Connection
Point-to-Point : provides a dedicated link between two devices. The

entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
MultiPoint : is one in which more than two specific devices share a

single link. The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally.
Spatially shared : Several devices uses the link
simultaneously.
Timeshared : Users must take turns.

Types of Connection...!
Figure: Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

Network Topology
The term Physical/Network Topology refers to the way in which a

network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a

topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes)
to one another.
There are five basic topologies possible: Bus, Ring, Tree, Star and
Mesh.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology : is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link

all the devices in a network.
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures
the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed
into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther
and farther.

Bus Topology
Advantages :
Ease of Installation.
Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected
to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less
cabling.
Dis-Advantages :
Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
It is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can
therefore be difficult to add new devices.
A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects
signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions
Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early
local- area networks. Traditional Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology

Ring Topology
Ring Topology :
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along

Ring Topology
Advantages :
It is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or
logically). So, to add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring
length and number of devices).
In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally, in a ring a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does
not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The
alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
Dis-Advantage :
Unidirectional traffic.
A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network (Solution : Dual Ring)

Star Topology
Star Topology :
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
The devices are not directly linked to one another. So, It does not
allow direct traffic between devices.
The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data
to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the
data to the other connected device

Star Topology
Advantages :
It is less expensive
Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure
Addition and Deletion of a Node involve only one connection: between
that device and the hub.
If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active.
Easy fault identification and fault isolation.
Dis-Advantages :
The whole topology depends on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.

Tree Topology
Tree Topology :
It integrates the characteristics of Star & Bus Topology.
In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks is connected using
Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other
star networks as the branches.
It is also called Expanded Star Topology.

Tree Topology
Advantages :
Failure of one node never affects the rest of the network.
Node expansion is fast and easy.
Detection of error is an easy process
It is easy to manage and maintain
Dis-Advantages :
It is heavily cabled topology
If more nodes are added, then its maintenance is difficult
If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also disabled.

Mesh Topology
Mesh Topology :
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between
the two devices it connects.
The number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with
’n’ nodes is n(n−1)
2 .

Mesh Topology
Advantages :
The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must
be shared by multiple devices
Robust in Nature (If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system)
Secure (When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it.)
point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy
DisAdvantages :
Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be
prohibitively expensive

Protocol Layered Architecture
Dr. Pradeep K V
Assistant Professor
VIT-Chennai

Protocol Layering
In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules

that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need
to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
For Simple communication, need only one simple protocol;
For Complex Communication, we need to divide the task between

different layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or
protocol layering.

Protocol Layering - Scenario-1
Figure: Single Layered Protocol
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in

only one layer.
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer,
face to face, in the same language

Protocol Layering - Rules for Scenario-1
Rules to be followed :
First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when
they meet.
Second, they know that they should confine their vocabulary to the
level of their friendship.
Third, each party knows that she should refrain from speaking when
the other party is speaking.
Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog,

not a monolog: both should have the opportunity to talk about the
issue.
Fifth, they should exchange some nice words when they leave.

In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level

position in her company, but needs to move to another branch
located in a city very far from Maria.
The two friends still want to continue their communication and
exchange ideas because they have come up with an innovative
project to start a new business when they both retire.
They decide to continue their conversation using regular mail
through the post office. However, they do not want their ideas to be
revealed by other people if the letters are intercepted.
They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
Now we can say that the communication between Maria and Ann
takes place in three layers.
We assume that Ann and Maria each have three machines that can
perform the task at each layer.

Figure: Three Layered Protocol

Protocol Layering - Rules for Scenario-2
Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several

smaller and simpler tasks.
For example, They could have used only one machine to do the job
of all three machines.
However, if Maria and Ann decide that the encryption/decryption
done by the machine is not enough to protect their secrecy, they
would have to change the whole machine.
In the present situation, they need to change only the second layer
machine; the other two can remain the same. This is referred to as
Modularity.
A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and
outputs, without concern about how inputs are changed to outputs.
If two machines provide the same outputs when given the same
inputs, they can replace each other.

Protocol Layering - Merits and DeMerits
Advantages :
It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
Communication does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers.
Dis-Advantages :
One can argue that having a single layer makes the job easier. There
is no need for each layer to provide a service to the upper layer and
give service to the lower layer.

Logical Connection b/w the Layers
Figure: Logical connection between peer layers
The concept of logical connection will help us better understand the task of
layering we encounter in data communication and networking.

Reference Models
Dr. Pradeep K V
Assistant Professor
VIT-Chennai

TCP/IP Protocol Suite
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different
layers) used in the Internet today.
It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of
which provides a specific functionality.
The term hier archical means that each upper level protocol is
supported by the services provided by one or more lower level
protocols.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought
of as a five-layer model.

TCP/IP - Layered Architecture
TCP/IP protocol suite involved in communication between two hosts and

also the suite is used in a small internet made up of three LANs (links),
each with a link-layer switch, and the links are connected by one router.

TCP/IP - Layered Architecture
Figure: Communication through an internet

TCP/IP Layers
The functions and duties of layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Figure: Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• End-to-End : Application, Transport and Network Layers

• Hop-to-Hop : Data Link and Physical Layers

TCP/IP Layers
The functions and duties of layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Figure: Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Layer
Physical Layer (PL)

It is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.
Although it is the lowest level in the TCP/IP, the communication b/w two
devices at the physical layer is still a logical communication because there
is another, hidden layer, the transmission media, under the physical layer.
Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable/air).
The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical/optical

signals.
So the bits received in a frame from the DLL are transformed and sent
through the transmission media, but we can think that the logical unit
between two physical layers in two devices is a bit.
There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal (Discuss

Later..!).

TCP/IP Layer
Data Link Layer(DLL)
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the DLL. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it through the
link suffices for the network layer.
It takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.
It provides a service like complete Error Detection and Correction
b/w Hop-by-Hop only.

TCP/IP Layer
Network Layer (NL)

It establishes a connection between the source & destination computer.
The communication is host-to-host.
However, since there can be several routers from the source to
destination, the routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best
route for each packet.
Why not Network Layer functionalites are added to Transport Layer.
Reasons :
The separation of different tasks between different layers
The routers do not need the application and transport layers
The network layer in the Internet includes Internet Protocol(IP), that
defines the format of the packet (Datagram).
IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination

TCP/IP Layer
Network Layer (NL)

IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to destination.
IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error
control, and no congestion control services.
Network Layer includes both Unicast/Multicast Routing Protocols.
The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols that help IP in its
delivery and routing tasks :
ICMP : helps IP to report some problems when routing a packet
IGMP : helps IP in multitasking
DHCP : helps IP to get the network-layer address for a host.
ARP : helps IP to find the link-layer address of a host/router.

TCP/IP Layer
Transport Layer (TL)

The logical connection at the Transport layer is also end-to-end and
independent of Application Layer.
At source host, it gets the message from the application layer,
encapsulates it in a transport- layer packet (called a segment/ a user
datagram) and sends it, through the logical (imaginary) connection, to
the transport layer at the destination host.
Main Protocols in Transport Layer are :
TCP : Connection Oriented, Flow/Error/Congestion Control.
UDP : Connection Less, No Flow/Error/Congestion Control.
SCTP : is designed to respond to new applications that are emerging
in the multimedia.

TCP/IP Layer
Application Layer (AL)

It is is end-to-end
The two application layers exchange messages between each other as
though there were a bridge between the two layers.
Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined protocols:
HTTP : is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW)
SMTP : is used in electronic mail (e-mail) service
FTP : is used for transferring files from one host to another.
TELNET/SSH : are used for accessing a site remotely.
SNMP : is used by an administrator to manage the Internet at global
and local levels.
DNS : is used by other protocols to find the network-layer address of
a computer
IGMP : is used to collect membership in a group

Encapsulation & Decapsulation in TCP/IP
The important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is
encapsulation & decapsulation.
Figure: Encapsulation/Decapsulation
No encapsulation/decapsulation occurs in Link Layer Switches

Encapsulation at the Source Host

At the AL, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message and it
doesn’t contain any header/trailer and it is passed to the TL.
The TL takes the message as payload, and adds the TL-Header, which
contains the identifiers of source and destination application programs,
flow/error/congestion control. The result is the TL packet, which is called
the segment (in TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP). The TL then
passes the packet to the NL.
The NL receives payload and adds its own header, which contains the
addresses of the source/destination hosts and additional information used
for error checking of the header, fragmentation, and so on. The result is
the NL packet, called a datagram. The NL then passes the packet to the
DLL.
The DLL takes the NL packet as data and adds its own header, which
contains the DLL addresses of the host or the next hop (the router). The
result is the DLL packet, is called a frame and is passed to the PL for
transmission.

Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router

After the set of bits are delivered to the DLL, it decapsulates the
datagram from the frame and passes it to the NL.
The NL only inspects the source/destination addresses in the datagram
header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the
datagram is to be delivered. The datagram is then passed to the DLL of
the next link.
The DLLof the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and passes
it to the PL for transmission.
Decapsulation at the Destination Host
At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received,
removes the header, and delivers the payload to the next-higher layer
protocol until the message reaches the AL. It is necessary to say that
decapsulation in the host involves error checking.

Addressing in TCP/IP
Addressing is the another concept related to protocol layering in the

Internet.
Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses:
source address & destination address.

OSI Layer Model
As w.k.t, TCP/IP protocol suite(1947) is well known for Internet.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a
multinational body and its standard covers all aspects of network
communications and is called as the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model (1970).
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
OSI shows how to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying
hardware and software.
It is not a protocol, but a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
It was intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols in
the OSI stack.

OSI Model- Layered Structure

Figure: Interaction b/w Layers in OSI Model

Figure: Encapsulation/Decapsulation in OSI Model

Figure: Each Layer Protocols

Figure: Each Layer Protocols

Comparision of OSI and TCP/IP
Figure: Comparision of TCP/IP and OSI
List of the differences b/w TCP/IP and OSI Model.

Thanks

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Data Communictions and Networking

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 1/ 55

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 2/ 55

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices

For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 3/ 55

A data communications system has five components

Sender : is the device that sends the data message.

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 4/ 55

Information today comes in different forms, such as :

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 5/ 55

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 6/ 55

A Network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of

A device can be a host (or an end system) such as a large computer,

A device can also be a connecting device such as a

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 7/ 55

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most

Performance : can be measured in many ways, including transit time

Reliability : In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is

Security : include protecting data from unauthorized access, or from

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 8/ 55

A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one

For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line

For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 9/ 55

Point-to-Point : provides a dedicated link between two devices. The

MultiPoint : is one in which more than two specific devices share a

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 10/ 55

Figure: Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 11/ 55

The term Physical/Network Topology refers to the way in which a

Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a

The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 12/ 55

Bus Topology : is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link

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In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules

For Simple communication, need only one simple protocol;

For Complex Communication, we need to divide the task between

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 24/ 55

Figure: Single Layered Protocol

In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 25/ 55

Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog,

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 26/ 55

In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level

Dr. Pradeep K V Data Communictions and Networking 27/ 55

Figure: Three Layered Protocol

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Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several

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