Language

in Context
Presented by: Group 8
Introduction
Introduction to the Relationship Between Language and Thought
Language is a powerful tool that influences the way we think.
This influence is seen in the importance of political correctness in communication.
Labels like "freedom fighters" and "terrorists" illustrate how language shapes perception
(Stapel & Semin, 2007).
Key Questions About Language and Thought
How do different languages and dialects affect human cognition?
What linguistic differences exist among languages and how do they impact thought?
Can the structure of a language influence or constrain the way its speakers think?
Lexical Differences Among Languages
Different languages have unique lexicons reflecting their cultural and environmental contexts.
Examples: Garo's multiple words for rice, nomadic Arabs' rich camel vocabulary.
Do these linguistic differences lead to distinct cognitive perspectives?
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Does Language Shape
Our Thoughts?
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis explores the idea of linguistic relativity, which suggests that speakers
of different languages have distinct cognitive systems that influence their thought processes.

Labels Affect Perception: When objects are labeled differently, our

perception changes. For instance, a "beaded necklace" may be
perceived differently if labeled as a "beaded curtain." This
phenomenon is known as label-induced perception bias.

Label-induced perception bias also extends to ambiguous

figures; people tend to draw figures differently based on
the label given to them. For instance, a figure of two
circles connected by a line will be drawn differently if
labeled "eyeglasses" or "dumbbells."
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Does Language Shape
Our Thoughts?

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has real-life implications. Language constraints can lead to
misunderstandings, especially in cross-cultural communication. For example, the lack of
distinction between "l" and "r" sounds in Japanese led to a misunderstanding where an author was
referred to as an "Aryan" instead of an "Alien."

In a multicultural conference, a Tagalog-speaking participant from the Philippines greets their

Indonesian counterpart by saying, "Salamat Pagi!" The Tagalog phrase "Salamat Pagi" means
"Thank you, morning!" and is used as a friendly greeting in the morning. However, in Indonesian,
the phrase "selamat pagi" is used as a standard way to say "Good morning." So, the Indonesian
participant might interpret the Tagalog greeting as if the Tagalog speaker is thanking them for the
morning rather than just saying "Good morning."
Linguistic Relativity vs. Linguistic Universals: The
Influence of Language on Thought
Linguistic Universals: These are characteristic patterns found across all languages and cultures.
They encompass areas such as phonology (phonemes), morphology (morphemes), semantics, and
syntax.

Color Names and Universals: Color names provide a convenient way to study universals. Different
languages may name colors differently, but they follow systematic patterns. Research shows that
all languages surveyed draw basic color terms from a set of 11 colors, with variations in which
colors are included

Verbs and Grammatical Gender: Differences in verb usage and grammatical gender across
languages can influence thought. For example, Spanish has two forms of "to be" (ser and estar)
used in different contexts, affecting how identity, attributes, and locations are described.
Bilingualism: How Does Speaking Two Languages
Affect Thought?
Bilinguals speak and think in two languages, while multilinguals speak at least two or more
languages.

Positive Effects of Bilingualism: Balanced bilinguals, who are equally fluent in both languages and
come from middle-class backgrounds, tend to show positive effects. Bilingualism enhances
executive functions, such as task switching and ignoring distractions. It may even delay the onset
of dementia by up to four years.

Negative Effects of Bilingualism: Bilingual speakers may have smaller vocabularies and slower
access to lexical items in memory.

Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism: Bilingualism can be categorized as additive (learning a

second language in addition to a well-developed first language) or subtractive (where elements of
a second language replace elements of the first).
Bilingualism: How Does Speaking Two Languages
Affect Thought?
Socioeconomic Status (SES) Impact: Children from lower SES backgrounds may be more likely to
experience subtractive bilingualism and might not benefit from bilingualism as much as those
from middle SES backgrounds.

Simultaneous vs. Sequential Bilingualism: Bilingualism can occur simultaneously (learning two
languages from birth) or sequentially (learning one language first and then another). The impact
on fluency depends on the circumstances of language learning.

Cultural Perspective: Bilingualism is viewed differently in various cultures. In some cultures,

learning multiple languages is the norm, while in others, it is less common.
Factors That Influence Second Language Acquisition
Age as a Significant Factor: Age is considered a critical factor in second language acquisition.
Some researchers argue that achieving native-like mastery in aspects of a second language is rare
after adolescence. However, conflicting research suggests that aspects like vocabulary
comprehension and fluency can be acquired effectively after adolescence, challenging the notion
of a critical period.

Individual Differences: Pronunciation mastery often depends on early acquisition, but individual
differences are substantial, and some learners achieve native-like language abilities even in
adulthood.

No Critical Period: Contrary to the idea of critical periods, there is no definitive evidence to
suggest that adults cannot learn a second language. The perception of adults having a harder time
may be related to the retention of their dominant native language.
Factors That Influence Second Language Acquisition
Age and Proficiency: Age and proficiency in a language are negatively correlated, meaning that
earlier language acquisition is associated with higher proficiency. However, it is possible to learn a
new language later in life, but early learning increases the likelihood of achieving high proficiency.

Facilitating Second Language Acquisition: The learning experiences that promote second language
acquisition vary among individuals and should align with the context and uses of the second
language once acquired.

Contextual Examples: Different individuals may require varying levels of language proficiency
based on their specific needs and contexts. For instance, a young child like Caitlin may focus on
phonology and basic vocabulary, while a technical expert like Kim Yee needs specialized
vocabulary and rudiments of syntax.
Bilingualism: Single System or Dual System?
The single-system hypothesis suggests that both languages are represented in a single system or
brain region, while the dual-system hypothesis suggests that they are represented in separate
systems.

Dual-System Hypothesis: According to this hypothesis,

brain damage should lead to different degrees of
impairment in each language.

Single-System Hypothesis: In contrast, the single-

system view suggests roughly equal impairment in both
languages.
Neuroscience Insights: Bilingualism and Brain
Structure
Learning a second language has a positive impact on brain structure, particularly in the left inferior parietal cortex.
Gray matter density increases with second language proficiency.
An inverse correlation exists between age of acquisition and brain density, with earlier learning associated with
higher density.

Distribution of Languages in the Brain

Studies with aphasic patients suggest that first and second languages may be processed in different brain
regions.
Some research indicates overlapping brain regions for both languages.
Factors like the age of acquisition may influence brain activation patterns.

Activation Patterns in Bilinguals

Bilingual individuals completed a sentence-generation task.
Early bilinguals showed overlapping centers of activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus.
Late bilinguals exhibited separate centers of activation.
Slips of the Tongue: Insights into Language Processing

Slips of the tongue are inadvertent linguistic errors that occur in speech, reflecting a lack of
correspondence between thoughts and spoken words.
Freudian psychoanalysts suggest that such slips can reveal unconscious processes and repressed
emotions.
Cognitive psychologists study slips of the tongue to better understand normal language processing
and production.
These errors may occur at various levels of linguistic analysis: phonemes, morphemes, or larger
language units.
Speech errors can result from disruptions in the mental plan for speech production, caused by
intrusions from other thoughts or environmental stimuli.
They indicate a difference between the language of thought and the language used for expression.
Common types of slips include anticipation, perseveration, substitution, reversal, and
spoonerisms.
Slips of the Tongue: Types and Hierarchical Levels
Slips of the tongue encompass various types, including malapropisms, insertions, deletions, and other linguistic
elements.
Malapropisms involve replacing one word with another that sounds similar but has a different meaning (e.g., "naughty
pine" for "knotty pine").
Insertions may include adding extra sounds (e.g., "mischievious" instead of "mischievous").
Deletions involve omitting sounds or elements (e.g., "prossing" for "processing").
Errors can occur at different hierarchical levels of linguistic processing, such as phonemes, morphemes, or higher levels.
Patterns of errors tend to be parallel at each hierarchical level.
For example, phonemic errors involve interactions between initial consonants and final consonants (e.g., "tasting wime"
for "wasting time").
Stressed words influence other words more than unstressed ones, preserving speech rhythm and tone.
Errors also tend to involve the same parts of speech (e.g., nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs).
Syntactic categories and semantic categories may be preserved even in errors (e.g., changing articles or substituting
members of a category).
Sign language users who mouth words while signing can experience slips of the tongue (or hand) independently,
suggesting separate storage for oral and sign language.
Metaphorical Language
Metaphorical language involves non-literal, figurative uses of language.
Metaphors juxtapose two nouns to assert their similarities while acknowledging their dissimilarities (e.g.,
"The house was a pigsty").
Similes use "like" or "as" to compare items (e.g., "The child was as quiet as a mouse").
Metaphors consist of four key elements: tenor (topic), vehicle (description), ground (similarities), and
tension (dissimilarities).
Various theories explain how metaphors work, emphasizing comparison, anomaly, domain interaction, or
category membership.
Metaphors enrich language by changing our perception of domains and educating us in unexpected ways.
The metaphor of humans as information processors is common in cognitive psychology, guiding research
on information processing.
Metaphors also play a role in social contexts, allowing us to convey characteristics or negotiate social
situations.
Language in a Social Context
Language is used differently in various social contexts, and individuals often adapt their language patterns
to fit different situations.
Pragmatics is the study of how people use language in context and includes sociolinguistics and the social
aspects of language.
Establishing common ground is essential for effective communication, and it becomes more challenging
when little is shared.
Nonverbal communication, such as gestures, vocal inflections, and personal space, plays a crucial role in
establishing common ground.
Proxemics, the study of interpersonal distance, varies across cultures and affects communication
dynamics.
Within a culture, personal space expectations can differ based on factors like relationship type and gender.
Personal space violations, even in virtual environments, can lead to discomfort and affect interactions.
Computational models are being developed to simulate cultural differences in virtual interactions.
Speech Acts
Speech acts are actions performed through speech, and they can be categorized into direct and indirect
speech acts.
Direct speech acts accomplish their goals straightforwardly, while indirect speech acts achieve goals in an
oblique manner.
There are five basic categories of direct speech acts based on their purpose: assertives, directives,
commissives, expressives, and declarations.
Indirect speech acts often involve indirect requests, which are made without directly stating the request.
Types of Indirect Speech Acts There are four basic ways of making indirect requests:
asking or making statements about abilities;
stating a desire;
stating a future action; and
citing reasons
Four common ways of making indirect requests include asking or making statements about abilities,
stating desires, mentioning future actions, and citing reasons.
Interpretation of indirect speech acts can vary based on context, and they may initially be understood
literally before the indirect meaning becomes clear.
 Speech Act Description Example

A speech act by which a person conveys a belief that a given proposition
is true. The speaker can use various sources of information to support the
Representative
given belief. Qualifiers can be added to show the speaker’s degree of
certainty.
Mr. Smith believes inteaching responsibility. "It’s
important for Jack to learn responsibility. Asking him to
help shovel the driveway is one way he can learn about
responsibility."

An attempt by a speaker to get a listener to do something, such as

Mr. Smith wants Jack's help. "Would you help me shovel
Directive supplying the answer to a question. Sometimes a directive is quite
the snow?"
indirect.

A commitment by the speaker to engage in some future course of action.

Jack and Jill make commitments. "I'll help you shovel
Commissive Promises, pledges, contracts, guarantees, assurances, and the like all
the snow later."
constitute commissives.

Mr. Smith expresses his emotions. "I'm really upset that

Expressive A statement regarding the speaker’s psychological state.
you didn't come through in helping me shovel the snow.

A speech act by which the very act of making a statement brings about an The boss takes action."You're fired," leading to the
Declaration
intended new state of affairs. Declarations also are termed performatives. employee's response, "I resign."
 Type of
Indirect Example of an Indirect Request For Information
Speech Act

If you say, "Can you tell me where the restroom is?" to a waitress at a restaurant, and she
says, "Yes, of course I can," the chances are she missed the point. The question about her
Abilities
ability to tell you the location of the restroom was an indirect request for her to tell you
exactly where it is.

"I would be grateful if you told me where the restroom is." Your statements of thanks in
Desire
advance are really ways of getting someone to do what you want.

"Would you tell me where the restroom is?" Your inquiry into another person’s future
Future action
actions is another way to state an indirect request.

You need not spell out the reasons to imply that there are good reasons to comply with the
Reasons request. For example, you might imply that you have such reasons for the waitress to tell
you where the restroom is by saying, "I need to know where the restroom is."
Pinker’s Theory of Indirect Speech

Steven Pinker's theory of indirect speech provides insight into why people use indirect language in
communication. This theory suggests that communication involves a balance between cooperation
and conflict, and indirect speech allows speakers to voice ambiguous requests that listeners can accept
or decline without adverse reactions.

Pinker's theory identifies three main purposes of indirect speech:

Plausible Deniability: In some situations, people use indirect language to ensure plausible
deniability. For example, if someone suggests, "Maybe the best thing is to take care of this right
here" when dealing with a traffic ticket, they imply a willingness to pay a bribe without making an
explicit offer. If the other party accepts, they can proceed, but if not, there is no clear evidence of
an attempted bribe. Plausible deniability is often used in situations where the speaker wants to
avoid potential negative consequences.
Pinker’s Theory of Indirect Speech
Relationship Negotiation: Indirect language can also serve as a way to negotiate the nature of a
relationship. For instance, indirect sexual overtures may be used to avoid offending the targeted
individual if they are not interested in a sexual relationship. In such cases, indirectness helps both
parties mutually resolve the ambiguity surrounding their relationship.

Language as a Digital Medium: Language not only serves as a means of direct communication but
can also convey additional information indirectly. For example, when a boy shouts, "The emperor
has no clothes," he is not revealing new information about the emperor's attire, as everyone can
see that. Instead, he is communicating digitally, making it clear that everyone shares the same
perception, which was previously ambiguous.

Successful conversations involve both direct and indirect communication, depending on the context
and the desired outcome. Effective communication is also influenced by various factors, including
mutual understanding, active listening, and appropriate use of language in different social contexts.
Characteristics of Successful Conversations
The Cooperative Principle
Explanation of the cooperative principle in conversations.
The goal of making communication clear and effective.

Grice's Four Maxims

Overview of Grice's four conversational maxims.
Maxim of Quantity, Maxim of Quality, Maxim of Relation, Maxim of Manner.
Examples of each maxim in practice.

Additional Maxim: One Person Speaks at a Time

Introduction to the additional maxim of turn-taking.
The impact of situational context and social positions on turn-taking.
Characteristics of Successful Conversations
Flaunting the Maxims
Explanation of how people intentionally break conversational maxims.
Examples of flaunting the maxims to make specific points.

Significance of Flaunting
Emphasizing the importance of maxims by their absence.
The role of flaunting in conveying explicit messages.

Language Impairments in Autism

Mention of language and emotion difficulties in individuals with autism.
Connection between autism and difficulty in detecting violations of conversational maxims.
Postulate/Maxim Description Example

If someone asks you the temperature outside and you reply, "It’s
Maxim of Make your contribution to a conversation as informative as required but no 31.297868086298 degrees out there," you are violating the maxim of
Quantity more informative than is appropriate. quantity because you are giving more information than was probably
wanted.

Irony, sarcasm, and jokes might seem to be exceptions to the maxim of

Your contribution to a conversation should be truthful; you are expected to quality, but they are not. The listener is expected to recognize the
Maxim of Quality
say what you believe to be the case. irony or sarcasm and to infer the speaker’s true state of mind from
what is said.

Almost any large meeting we attend seems to have someone who

violates this maxim. This someone inevitably goes into long
Maxim of You should make your contributions to a conversation relevant to the aims of
digressions that have nothing to do with the purpose of the meeting
Relation the conversation.
and that hold up the meeting.

Nobel Prize–winning physicist Richard Feynman (1997) described how

he once read a paper by a well-known scholar and found that he could
not make heads or tails of it. One sentence went something like this:
Maxim of You should try to avoid obscure expressions, vague utterances, and
“The individual member of the social community often receives
Manner purposeful obfuscation of your point.
information via visual, symbolic channels.” Feynman concluded that
the scholar was violating the maxim of manner when he realized that
the sentence meant, “People read.”
Do Animals Have Language?
Studying Simpler Cognitive Systems
Nonhuman animals have relatively simpler cognitive systems.
Easier to model behavior for understanding human cognition.
Example: Models of conditioning in white rats applied to human learning.

Access to Procedures Unavailable for Humans

Nonhuman animals can be subjected to procedures not possible for humans.
Examples: Brain changes post-learning, drug effects on functioning.
Ethical considerations and institutional approval are essential.

Regular Availability of Subjects

Nonhuman animals are available as full-time or regularly accessible subjects.
Humans have diverse obligations and may not always be available for research.
Do Animals Have Language?
Comparative, Evolutionary, and Developmental Perspectives
Understanding the origins of human cognition requires studying different animals.
Examination of the comparative and evolutionary basis of human behavior.
Developmental insights from studying nonhuman animals.

Ethical Considerations
Ethical guidelines and institutional approval are crucial in animal research.
Ensuring the humane treatment and welfare of research subjects.

Deduction
Studying nonhuman animals provides valuable insights into cognition and behavior.
Enhances our understanding of human cognition from various perspectives.
Do Animals Have Language?
Comparative, Evolutionary, and Developmental Perspectives
Understanding the origins of human cognition requires studying different animals.
Examination of the comparative and evolutionary basis of human behavior.
Developmental insights from studying nonhuman animals.

Ethical Considerations
Ethical guidelines and institutional approval are crucial in animal research.
Ensuring the humane treatment and welfare of research subjects.

Deduction
Studying nonhuman animals provides valuable insights into cognition and behavior.
Enhances our understanding of human cognition from various perspectives.
Understanding Brain Mechanisms in Language
Brain Structures Involved in Language
Broca's and Wernicke's areas are crucial for language function.
Damage to Wernicke's area has more severe consequences.
Lesion studies reveal a larger network of areas involved in language.

The Brain and Word Recognition

fMRI studies show the superior temporal sulcus (STS) responds strongly to speech sounds.
Left hemisphere usually exhibits stronger response.
Processing of speech sounds, regardless of words or pseudo-words.

The Brain and Semantic Processing

Five brain regions involved in storage and retrieval of meaning.
Mostly located in the left hemisphere.
Activation of areas related to semantic processing.
Understanding Brain Mechanisms in Language
The Brain and Syntax
Event-related potentials (ERPs) used to study language processing.
N400 potential associated with semantic violations.
P600 effect related to syntactic violations.

The Brain and Language Acquisition

Differences in brain mechanisms for language learning and use.
Left hemisphere for well-practiced routines, right hemisphere for novel stimuli.
Language learners who start later in life may show more right-hemisphere involvement.

The Plasticity of the Brain

Recovery of language functioning after brain damage.
Redistribution of language functioning to other brain areas.
Previously dormant areas take over damaged functions.
Understanding Brain Mechanisms in Language

The Brain and Sex Differences in Language Processing

fMRI studies reveal sex differences in language processing.
Men show more localized phonological processing (left inferior frontal region).
Women exhibit bilateral activation in inferior frontal regions.

Implications and Future Research

Understanding brain mechanisms in language helps improve therapies for language disorders.
Ongoing research to explore brain plasticity, individual differences, and sex-related variations
in language processing.
Language Processing in Sign Language
Brain and Sign Language
Research by Kimura (1981) on sign language processing.
Lesion patterns in sign language users similar to those in speech users.
Supports the view that signing and speech share linguistic functions.

Aphasia: Impairment of Language Functioning

Overview of aphasia, language impairment due to brain damage.
Different types of aphasia (Wernicke's, Broca's, Global, Anomic).

Wernicke's Aphasia
Impaired understanding of spoken words and sentences.
Production of sentences lacking meaning.
Examples of Wernicke's aphasic speech.
Language Processing in Sign Language
Broca's Aphasia
Agrammatical speech with preserved verbal comprehension.
Example of speech produced by a patient with Broca's aphasia.
Broca's area involvement in speech production, including sign language.

Global Aphasia
Highly impaired comprehension and production of speech.
Caused by lesions to both Broca's and Wernicke's areas.

Anomic Aphasia
Difficulties in naming objects or retrieving words.
Specific categories of words may be affected (e.g., names of living things).

Implications and Treatment

Impact of aphasia on communication and daily life.
Treatment approaches often involve supporting non-language communication.
Importance of understanding aphasia for effective therapy.
Overview of Autism and Its Characteristics
Incidence and Diagnosis
Prevalence of autism, particularly in children.
Increase in diagnosed cases in recent years.
Factors contributing to the rise in diagnoses.

Early Signs of Autism

Identification of autism in children by around 14 months.
Atypical social interactions and repetitive behaviors.
Echolalia as a common speech characteristic in children with autism.

Theories of Autism
Overview of different theories explaining autism.
The "extreme male brain" theory proposed by Baron-Cohen.
Executive dysfunction theory emphasizing frontal lobe involvement.
Overview of Autism and Its Characteristics
Autism and Brain Wiring
Explanation of the "extreme male brain" theory.
Differential strengths in systematizing and empathizing.
Male brain's tendency towards systematization.

Executive Dysfunction in Autism

Description of executive functions and their role in autism.
Examples of executive dysfunction symptoms in autism.
Connection to dysfunction in the frontal lobes.

Language and Thought in Autism

Recap of the interconnectedness of language and thought.
Exploration of how language and thought relate to autism.
Upcoming focus on problem-solving and creativity in the next chapter.
Language
in Context
Presented by: Group 8
Members:
Malvas, Patricia Nicole
Mañabo, Ivan Jodi
Moseros, Nina Ingrid
Pabatao, Angelo Tristan