University of Kasdi Merbah Ouargla

Faculty of New Information and Communication Technologies

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications

Module: Electronics Functions
Level: L3 Electronics

Chapiter I: Analog Filters

I.1. Definitions

I.1.1. Transfer function

A transfer function T (ω) is a mathematical model, defined as the ratio of the input voltage UI
and the output voltage UO of a linear system.

UI UO
System

Figure I.1. Linear system.

T (ω)=Us/Ue where: T (ω) is a complex number.

ω=2f (rad/s), f  [0, [ is the frequency (Hz)

I.1.2. Filtering

Filtering is a form of signal processing, obtained by sending the signal through a set of
electronic circuits, which serves to eliminate a frequency or a frequency band, or vice versa,
to favor a frequency or a frequency band. In other words, it is the action of modifying the
spectral components of an electrical signal. There is no electronic system that does not use, at
least, one filter. Most have a lot of from it.
The filter is an electronic circuit (Quadri pole: figure.I.2) which processes the signal. In other
words, it isolates certain components of the signal and allows others to pass. The behavior of
the filter depends on the frequency.

Figure I.2. Representation of an electronic linear filter.

 Chapiter I: Analog filters

I.1.2. 1. Filtering role:

We use the filter for:
- Eliminate or weaken unwanted parasitic frequencies.
- To isolate the useful frequency band in a complex signal.

I.1.2. 2.Applications:
- Telecommunications systems (Telephone, Television, Radio, Transmission of
data…)
- Acquisition and processing systems for physical signals (Monitoring
medical, Measurement set, Radars, etc.)
- Power supply….
- Image processing.

I.1.3. Passive and Active filter

I.1.3. 1.Passive filters:
Passive filters which mainly use high quality inductors and capacitors. Until the 1970s, these
were the only filters designed. They are currently used for high frequencies. (Use of quartz)

VI VO

Figure I.3. Example of a passive filter.

I.1.3.2. Active filters

Active filters consist of capacitors, resistors and active elements which are essentially
Operational Amplifiers OP. They are less bulky, easy to design and less expensive than
passive filters but remain limited in frequency (<1MHz due to OP). They consume more and
require a power source.

VI VO

Figure I.4. Example of an active filter.

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Power supply

Passive UO Active
UI UI UO
filter filter

(a) (b)
Figure I.5 Passive filter and Active filter.

I.2. The main types of filters (ideal)

An ideal filter would transmit all useful components without attenuation or phase shift.
Otherwise, the ideal filter completely eliminating all unwanted signals.
The following figure shows the different types of ideal filters:

(a) Low pass GdB (b) High pass filter

GdB filter

fc f fc f

(c) Band pass filter (d) Band-stop filter

GdB GdB

fc1 fc2 f fc1 fc2 f

Figure I.6. The main types of filters (ideal).

Where: G(dB) is the gain provided by the filter on a component of frequency f.

I.2.1. Low-pass filter (LPF):

Low-pass filters that transmit signals with a frequency lower than a certain frequency, called
the cutoff frequency fc Figure I.6.(a).

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

I.2.2. High Pass Filter (HPF):

High pass filters which transmit signals with a frequency higher than the cutoff frequency fc
Figure I.6.(b).

I.2.3.Bandpass filter (BPF):

Bandpass filters that transmit frequency signals between two frequencies limit fc1 and fc2,
Figure I.6.(c).

I.2.4 Band-stop filter (BSF):

This filter does not pass a cut band of frequencies, Figure I.6.(d).

I.3. Filter Specification

I.3.1. Reminder of the main templates:
It is practically impossible to realize such ideal filters. The specifications for a real filter are
given in the frequency domain using a template (Figure I.7). So we just approach this ideal
answer by:
- Keeping attenuation A lower than Amax in the bandwidth.
- Keeping attenuation A greater than Amin in the attenuated band.

Figure.I.7. Templates of a real filter. (a) Gain template, (b) Attenuation template.
•"wp: cutoff frequency"
•"wa: boundary frequency"
Note: Attenuation A(dB) = -Gain (dB).

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

As a result, a template defining forbidden regions and places where the graphs indicating
frequency filter attenuation must be positioned and defined. Four filter families are created
based on the sort of response desired (Figure I.8):"

Amplitude specifications of a Amplitude specifications of a

low pass filter high-pass filter.

Amplitude specifications of a Amplitude specifications of a

G(dB) band-pass filter Stop band filter.
G(dB)

-Amax
-Amax -Amin

-Amin

fp- fa- f0 fa+ fp+ f

fa - fp - f0 fp+ fa+ f

Figure I.8. Main templates.

I.3.2. Canonic forms

Filters are generally represented by transfer functions T (jω) whose numerators and
denominators are polynomials at jω. These polynomials are ordered in an increasing way
(form of Bode) or in a decreasing way (form of Laplace). The canonical writing of these
polynomials wants the first coefficient to be equal to one.

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Type Canonic form

st
1 order Low pass 𝐴
𝜔
1+𝑗𝜔
𝑐
Low pass on 2nd order 𝐴
m: damping coefficient 𝜔 𝜔 2
1 + 2𝑚𝑗 𝜔 + (𝑗 𝜔 )
𝑐 𝑐
1st order High pass 𝜔
𝐴. 𝑗 𝜔
𝑐
𝜔
1+𝑗𝜔
𝑐
2nd order High pass 𝜔 2
𝐴. (𝑗 )
𝜔𝑐
𝜔 𝜔 2
1 + 2𝑚𝑗 𝜔 + (𝑗 𝜔 )
𝑐 𝑐
Band pass 𝜔
𝜔𝑐
𝑗𝜔
Quality factor 𝑄 = 𝜔 𝑐
𝐴
𝑐1 −𝜔𝑐2 𝜔 𝜔 2
1 + 2𝑚𝑗 𝜔 + (𝑗 𝜔 )
𝑐 𝑐
Stop Band 𝜔 2
1 + (𝑗 𝜔 )
𝑐
𝐴
𝜔 𝜔 2
1 + 2𝑚𝑗 𝜔 + (𝑗 𝜔 )
𝑐 𝑐
All Pass 𝜔
1−𝑗𝜔
𝑐
𝐴 𝜔
1+𝑗𝜔
𝑐

Table I.1: Canonic form of filters.

I.3.3. Notion of Selectivity and Relative Bandwidth

Instead of conserving the boundary frequencies directly as calculation parameters, it is easier and
more understandable to replace them with the equivalent (dimensionless) parameters, selectivity
k and relative bandwidth B.

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Type of filter Selectivity k Bandwidth B Reference frequency

Low pass 𝑓𝑝 fp
𝑓𝑎
High pass 𝑓𝑎 fa
𝑓𝑝
+ − + −
Band pass 𝑓𝑝 − 𝑓𝑝 𝑓𝑝 − 𝑓𝑝 f0
+ − 𝑓0
𝑓𝑎 − 𝑓𝑎
+ − + −
Stop Band 𝑓𝑎 − 𝑓𝑎 𝑓𝑎 − 𝑓𝑎 fo
+ − 𝑓0
𝑓𝑝 − 𝑓𝑝

Table I.2: The Concept of Selectivity.

k < 1: in the case of a Real filter, k = 1: in the case of an Ideal filter.

k: provides an indication of the transition band's width. The larger k is, the more selective the
filter.

I.4. Low-pass filters

I.4.1. First Order Low Pass Filters

Passive filters owe their name to the fact that they only use passive components like
resistors, capacitors. It is an "RC" filter.
Constitution:

Figure I.9: Passive low-pass filter.

Let's apply the voltage divider formula:

1
Zc jCω 1
Vs = Ve = Ve = (I . 1)
ZR +Zc 1 1+jRCω
R+
jCω

We deduce the voltage amplification

Cutoff frequency :
1 1
ωc = ,f c = (I . 2)
RC 2πRC

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Transfer function:
Vs 1
T(ω)= = (I .3)
Ve 1+jRCω
Transfer function module (Gain):
1 1 1
T(ω)= = = (I . 4)
1+jRCω 1+jRCω 1+(RCω) 2
Bode diagram of the gain:
G(ω)=20logT(ω)=-20log ( 1+(RCω)2 ) (I . 5)

Filtre: R = 10 kΩ, C = 10 nf , = 10 000 rad/s ; fC = 1,6 khz

Figure I.10: Response curve G (dB) of a first order low pass filter.

fc Cutoff frequency at –3 dB.

I.4.2 Second order low pass filter RLC

Constitution

Figure I.11: Second -order Low pass filter.

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Transfer function
1
Vs jC  1
T ( ) = = = (I . 6)
V e R + jL  + 1 1 + jRC  - LC  2
jC 

General form
A
T(ω)= 2
(I . 6)
   
1+2mj + j 
 p   p 

By identification we get:

A =1
1
p = (I . 7)
L .C
R C
m= .
2 L

m: Damping coefficient and ωp is the cutoff pulsation.

m stands for the damping coefficient, and ωp represents the cutoff frequency. It is observed that
the values of L and C determine ωp, and if R varies from 0 to infinity, ω0 and m are practically
independent.

I.5. Study of 'Butterworth' and 'Chebyshev' Filters.

I.5.1. Butterworth Low-Pass Filter

The Butterworth filter of order n is defined by the squared magnitude of its transfer function as
follows:
2
Vs 1 1
= T ( j ) = =
2

Ve  
2n
1 + 2n
1+  
 p (I . 8)
 
 f
= =
p f p
The modulus of T is given by:

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

1
T = (I . 9)
1 + 2n
Literary expression of the filter order 'n'

We utilize the values Amax and Amin at the frequencies fp and fa of the low-pass filter template.

At the passband frequency ω=ωp, f=fp, regardless of the filter order 'n' we have:
1 1
T = = = −3db (I . 10)
1 + (1) 2 n 2

 f
- At the attenuation frequency:  =  p , f = f p , on a :  = =
p f p
1
T ( j a ) = 20 log  −A min (I . 11)
1 + a 2 n

A min
−A min  −10 log(1 + a 2 n )   log(1 + a 2 n )
10

A min A min
10 10
 (1 + a )  10
2n 10
− 1  a 2 n
A min A min
log(10 10
− 1)  log(a ) 2n
 log(10 10
− 1)  2n .log a
A min
log(10 − 1)10
n (I . 12)
2 log(a )

Calculation of the order of a Butterworth low-pass filter from its template

Using the formula calculated based on the characteristics extracted from its
template: n (Amax, Amin, fp, passband B, …..)

-Determine the order 'n' of these filters:

Reminder:
A min
1 log(10 − 1) f 10
T ( j ) = 20 log , A max = 3dB , n 
, a = a
1+  2n 2 log(a ) fp
Example 1 : We give fa = 30KHz Amax = 3 dB, Amin = 20 dB
20
30 log(10 − 1) 10
a = = 1.5 , n = 5.666  n = 6
20 2log(1.5)

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Example 2 : We give fp= 10KHz, fa= 25KHz, Amax=3dB, Amin=20dB

20
25 log(10 10 − 1)
a = = 2.5 , n = 2.5  n = 3
10 2 log(2.5)

Example 3 : We give fp= 2 KHz, fa= 20KHz , Amax=3dB , Amin=30dB

30
20 log(10 − 1)10
a = = 10 , n = 1.4999  n = 2
2 2 log(10)
I.5.2. Chebyshev Low-Pass Filter
Expression of the squared modulus:
2
Vs 1 
= T () =
2
,
Ve 1 +  C n2 ()
2
p
(I . 13)
1
T ()
1 +  2C n2 ()
In the expression (I.15), C n () is a polynomial in  n defined by the given Taylor expansions for
𝛺 ≤ 1 (𝐼. 14) , and 𝛺 > 1 (𝐼. 15)
Whatever the order n of filter (n>1), the polynomial C n () takes the value C n (1) = 1  = 1 .
cos ( n cos −1 () ) Pour   1(I . 14)

C n ( ) = 
ch ( n ch () )
−1
Pour   1 (I. 15)
ch : Hyperbolic cosine
The difficulty of working with both expressions has led to an expression of C n ()
in the form of a recurrence polynomial (I.16) valid for any :  :
For any  : C n +1 () = 2C n () − C n −1 () C1 (1) = 1 (I.16)

N C n ()
0 1
1 Ω
2 2 Ω2-1
3 4 Ω3-3 Ω
4 8 Ω4-8 Ω2+1
5 16 Ω4-20 Ω3+5 Ω

Analytical expression for the filter order 'n':

We utilize the values Amax and Amin at the frequencies fp and fa of the low-pass filter template.

At the passband frequency ω = ωp, f = fp, Ω = 1, regardless of the filter order 'n' we have:

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

 1 
T ( = 1) dB = 20 log   = − A max
 1+  
2

A max A max
10 10
= (1 +  2 ) → (10 10
− 1) =  2 →
A max
log  2 = log(10 10 − 1) (I.17)
- At the attenuating frequency f=fa ou Ωa =/a such that Ω >1:
 1 
T (a ) = 20 log   = −A min
 1 +  2C 2 ( ) 
 n a 

−A min
= − log 1 +  2C n2 (a )
20
A min A min
10 10
= 1 +  C (a ) → 10
2 2
n
10
− 1 =  2C n2 (a )
A min
log(10 10
− 1) = log  2 + log C n2 (a )
A min
log C n2 (a ) = log(10 10
− 1) − log  2

From the equation: (I.17)

A min
A min A max
(10 10
− 1)
log C n2 (a ) = log(10 10
− 1) − log(10 10
− 1) = log A max
(10 10
− 1)
A min
(10 10
− 1)
C n2 (a ) = A max
(10 10
− 1)
On the other hand to Ω >1 : C n (a ) = ch ( n ch −1 () )
A min
− 1)
( )
10
(10
C n (a ) = ch n ch −1 (a ) = A max
(10 10
− 1)
A min
(10 10
− 1)
ch −1 C n (a )  = n ch −1 (a ) = ch −1 A max
(10 10
− 1)
A min
(10 10
− 1)
ch −1 A max
(10 − 1)
10
(I.18)
n= −1
ch (a )

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Calculation of the order of a Chebyshev low-pass filter from its template:

Using the formula calculated based on the characteristics extracted from its template: n (Amax,
Amin, fp, passband B, …..)
Determine the order 'n' of these filters:

Reminder:
A min
(10 10
− 1)
ch −1 A max

1 (10 − 1)
10  1 
T ( ) ,n = −1
, A max = 20 log  
1 +  2C n2 () ch (a )  1+  
2

Example 4 : We give fp= 2 Khz fa= 20 Khz Amax=1dB  =0.5

20
A min = 30dB , a = = 10
2
30
(10 − 1)
10
C n2 (10) = 1
= 3872.093 → C n (10) = 62.22
(10 − 1)
10

ch −1 (62.22) 4.22
n= = = 1.6 → n = 2,
ch −1 (10) 2.99
Example 5: we give fp= 20KHz fa= 30KHz  = 0.5 →Amax=1dB Amin=20dB.
30
a = = 1.5
20
20
(10 10 − 1)
C n2 (10) = 1
= 382.34 → C n (1.5) = 19.55
(10 − 1)
10

−1
ch (19.55) 4.22
n= = = 3.808 → n = 4,
ch −1 (1.5) 2.99
Example 6: we give fp= 20KHz fa= 30KHz  = 0.35 → Amax=0.5dB

30
A min = 30dB , a = = 1.5
20
20
(10 − 1)
10
C n2 (1.5) = 1
= 811.35 → C n (1.5) = 28.48
(10 − 1)
10

ch −1 (28.48) 4.042
n= = = 4.02 → n = 5 ou n = 4,
ch −1 (1.5) 0.96

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

I.6. Implementation of Active Filters

There are numerous low-pass filter structures (very well-known), and we will present only the
most commonly used ones. These are the "Sallen-Key" structure and the "Rouch structure".

I.6.1. Second-order Sallen-Key Structure:

Figure I.12: Sallen-Key Structure Implementing a Second-Order Low-Pass Filter

Equations of the Sallen-Key Structure

The circuit equation for Figure I.12 is given by:
V 1
T ( jw ) = s = (I.18)
V e 1 + 2R 0C 2 jw + R 02C 1C 2 j 2w 2
The canonical form of a second-order low-pass filter transfer function is:
1 1 (I.19)
T ( jw ) = =
 jw   jw  1 + 2m ( p n ) + ( p n )
2 2

1 + 2m  + 
 wp   wp 

w
pn = j ,w p : la pulsation (I.20)
wp
Identification with the canonical expression of the second degree gives:
R 02C 1C 2 − 1/ w p2 → w p = 1/ R 0 C 1C 2
2m = 2R 0C 2w p → m = R 0C 2w p (I.21)
w 0 = w p = 1/ R 0C 0 → C 0 = 1/ R 0w 0
with C0 a reference value (effective capacity) such that:

C 02 = C 1C 2 → m = R 0C 2w p = C 2 / C 0 et 1/ m = C 1 / C 0 (I.22)

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

I.6.2. Second-Order Rouch Structure:

Figure I.13: Rouch Structure Implementing a Second-Order Low-Pass Filter.

Equations of the Rouch Structure:

The circuit equation for Figure I.13 is given by:
V 1 (I.23)
T ( jw ) = s =
V e 1 + 3R 0C 2 jw + R 02C 1C 2 j 2w 2

I.7. Synthesis of Active Filters

The synthesis of filters is based on three elements:

1. Knowledge of the template: This allows determining the type of filter, such as
"Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel, or Cauer," as well as the filter's order.
2. Knowledge of the filter's approximation polynomials (mathematical equations).
3. Electrical circuits used: These are commonly referred to as first and/or second-order
building block circuits arranged in cascade depending on the order of the filter being
studied.

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

I.8. Examples of Low-Pass Filter Synthesis

I.8.1. Synthesis of a Butterworth Low-Pass Filter:

GdB 20 log│T(jw)│
Study of the filter satisfying the provided template: 10 Khz 20Khz
0 f
-3 dB
• Based on the template, we have the following characteristics:

Amax = 3 dB, Amin = 12 dB, fp = 10 kHz, Ωa = fa / fp = 2 -12 dB

• The Butterworth low-pass filter
• Determination of the order:

• The approximation polynomial is provided in Appendix 1:

Numerical application (by identification):

There is no resonance.

Such as: fp = 10 Khz , We choose (arbitrary choice)

From this we deduce:

I.8.2. Synthesis of a Chebyshev Low-Pass Filter 20 log│T(jw)│

GdB
Study of the filter satisfying the provided template: 1 Mhz 1.5Mhz
0 f
Filter characteristics:
-0.5 dB
Amax = 0.5 dB → Amin = 15 dB

-15 dB
It is a Chebyshev low-pass filter.
Determination of the order:
Preliminary calculations of the values, and : R0=1KΩ

o Calculation of the order:

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

•Approximation polynomial (expression provided by the tables, appendix 1) The filter is of order
n=4. It will be carried out by 2 cascading order cells

Separate study of the two cells:

Cell 1 :

By direct identification, we find:

Cell 2 :

By term-to-term identification: C0=159 pF

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 Chapiter I: Analog filters

Result: we will use this filter

- Two operational amplifiers

- Four resistors with value R0=1KΩ
- Four capacitors of different values C0,C1 ,C2 , C1 ‘,C2’

I.9. Transition to the Low-Pass Prototype

The goal of the template transformations is to bring all the previously mentioned templates to a
low-pass prototype, independent of frequency, and defined by only 3 parameters: Amax, Amin, K.

Transposition
Low-Pass/ High-Pass Low-Pass/ Band-Pass Low-Pass/ Stop-Band
p → 1/p 1 1 𝐵
𝑃 ↔ (𝑃 + ) 𝑃↔
𝐵 𝑃 1
𝑃+𝑃
𝑯𝑯𝑷 (𝑷) = 𝑯𝑳𝑷 (𝟏/𝑷) 𝑷𝟐 + 𝟏 𝑩. 𝑷
𝑯𝑩𝑷 (𝑷) = 𝑯𝑳𝑷 ( ) 𝑯𝑺𝑩 (𝑷) = 𝑯𝑳𝑷 ( 𝟐 )
𝑩. 𝑷 𝑷 +𝟏
The order of the low-pass The order of the band-pass The order of the Stop-band
filter preserved for high-pass filter is doubled compared to filter is doubled compared to
the low-pass the low-pass
Table I.3: Transition to prototype low pass

Appendix 1: Low pass filter.

Polynomials of Butterworth approximation at 3dB Polynomials of Chebyshev approximation at 0.5dB

N Polynomial pn(s) n Polynomial pn(s)

1 S+1 1 0,349S+1
2 S2+√2S+1 2 0,659S 2+0,940S+1
3 (1+S)( S2+S+1) 3 (1+1,596S)( 0,875S 2+0,548S+1)
4 ( S2+0,765S+1) ( S 2+1,848S+1) 4 ( 2,806S 2+2,376S+1) ( 0,940S 2+0,33S+1)
5 (1+S)( S2+0,618S+1) ( S2+1,618S+1) 5 (1+2,76S)( 2,097S 2+1,23S+1) ( 0,96S 2+0,21S+1)

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