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Oleh
Ali Kuswoyo 238102001
Muhammad Haris Hajriyanto 238102015
Siti Meyla Khoerunnisa 238102018
must show that AC meets 𝑙 on the C side of AB. To do this, construct CD perpendicular to AB
as shown. Next locate E on 𝑙 so that the following proportion is valid: AD:DC = AB:BE.
Construct line AE. What we now have is the SAS similarity condition (essentially Postulate
IV), so that trian¬ gles ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 and ∆𝐴𝐵𝐸 are similar. Consequently, 𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐸 = 𝑚∠𝐷𝐴𝐶. The
protractor postulate assures us that there is only one ray on the C side of BA that will do this.
Consequently, AC must coincide with AE, hence inter¬ sect line / at point E also. This shows
that the postulate concerning triangle similarity can be used to establish Euclid’s parallel
postulate, so that any geometry that postulates similarity will be Euclidean in nature.
We see then that although Birkhoff opted for a significantly different set of postulates than
Euclid or Hilbert did, the results are the same. While Hilbert was truer to the style of Euclid,
the streamlined nature of Birkhoff’s postulate set made it very attractive to many
mathematicians. The ease with which one can address the issues of betweenness, congruence,
and similarity (among other topics) made this approach pedagogically preferable to Hilbert’s
in many ways. In fact, the ruler and protractor postulates are standard in many current
secondary school textbooks, since they allow for a rigorous, but not cumbersome, discussion
of the related topics. In the fol¬ lowing section we will study an axiom set offered by the School
Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) in which the ruler and protractor postulates are as¬ sumed.
The resulting axiom set is not independent, but the pedagogical advantages, it is felt, are worth
the small mathematical sacrifice.
EXERCISE SET 2.5
1. Give a valid definition for the term “ray” that is consistent with Birkhoffs postulate set.
2. Birkhoff stated his protractor postulate in terms of radian measure. Restate it using degree
measure.
3. Suppose that we define similarity of line segments in the following way: Two line segments
AB and CD are similar providing there exists a constant k such that d(A,B) = kd(C,D). Are
all line segments similar? Explain. Under what condi¬ tions will a pair of line segments be
congruent? What restrictions, if any, should be placed on the legal values of k in this
definition?
4. Define similarity for triangles. Define similarity for polygons in general.
5. Use your definition for similarity in Problem 4 to define congruence of triangles and
polygons in general.
6. Prove, using Birkhoffs axioms, that
a. All right angles are equal in measure.
b. Similarity for triangles is a transitive relation.
c. Similarity for triangles is an equivalence relation.
7. Do you think that Birkhoffs axiom set is independent? Explain why or why not.
8. Do you think Birkhoffs geometry is isomorphic to Hilbert’s? to Euclid’s? Ex¬ plain. 9. In
Birkhoffs proof of Euclid’s fifth postulate
a. What axiom assures us that a point E exists so that AD.DC = AB.BE1
b. Which axiom allows us to deduce that AADC and AABE are similar?
2.6 THE SMSG POSTULATES FOR EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
In the previous two sections we encountered two very different approaches to Euclidean
geometry. Hilbert’s axioms form the basis of what can be called a synthetic approach to
geometry, since they provide the qualitative characteristics concerning points, lines, and planes
needed to deduce all propositions from Euclid’s Elements synthetically (i.e., constructively).
In contrast, Birkhoff’s axiom set is more analytical in nature, since the postu¬ lates given
therein allow us to relate the terms “point,” “line,” and “angle” to numerical quantities by virtue
of the one-to-one correspondences posited between them and the real numbers (see Postulates
I and III). Remarkably, the two sets of axioms result in the same body of theorems, namely,
those that constitute Euclid’s geometry.
In the early 1960s, another set of axioms for Euclidean geometry was composed by a
group of mathematicians and mathematics educators work¬ ing as a component of a larger
organization known as the School Mathemat¬ ics Study Group (SMSG). This group was, in
part, established to address the perceived failure of the United States to compete worldwide in
the areas of science and mathematics.
During the late 1950s, when the Soviet Union began to show signs of technological
superiority in comparison to the United States, Congress es¬ tablished the National Science
Foundation through which it dedicated sub¬ stantial funding to the goal of improving
mathematics and science education in the United States. One facet of the overall program was
curricular reform in school mathematics. SMSG was charged with the task of defining a “new
math” for the nation’s primary and secondary schools. While much of the new math was never
successfully implemented, the axiom set for Euclidean geometry has survived, largely intact,
to the present and will for the remain¬ der of the text serve as a basis for the Euclidean and
non-Euclidean geome¬ tries that follow. In this section we will discuss the relationships
between the SMSG axioms and the axioms of Hilbert and Birkhoff.
The SMSG axioms (see Appendix D) can be separated into the follow¬ ing eight groups:
I. Axiom of incidence—Postulate 1.
II. Axioms concerning distance—Postulates 2 through 4.
III. Axioms concerning space relationships—Postulates 5 through 8.
IV. Axioms concerning separation—Postulates 9 and 10.
V. Axioms of angular measure—Postulates 11 through 14.
VI. Axiom of congruence—Postulate 15.
VII. Axiom of parallelism-—Postulate 16.
VIII. Axioms concerning area and volume—Postulates 17 through 22.
The intent of the SMSG authors was to provide an axiom set that was (to the extent
possible) complete and pedagogically sound, and, in addition, one that was accessible to
students beginning their study of formal geome¬ try. In order to fulfill the second of these
objectives, the SMSG authors decided to sacrifice independence. The rationale behind this
decision was that independent axiom sets require the proof of a large number of prelimi¬ nary
(and obviously true) theorems before the proofs of the major results.16 The time and effort
needed to get started in Hilbert’s model, while a good exercise in the application of formal
logic, does not give the student any new insight into geometry. Consequently, some of the
axioms included in the SMSG set are redundant, since they can be proved using the others.
This is a minor drawback and is counterbalanced by the comparative ease with which we will
be able to move on to significant results using the SMSG set.
Of the axioms described above, group III and part of group VIII will be of little concern
to us since they describe relationships in three-dimensional geometry which is not considered
here. The remaining axioms can be re¬ lated to axioms stated by Hilbert and/or Birkhoff.
The axiom of incidence, for example, is stated in much the same way by both Hilbert
(among his axioms of connection) and Birkhoff (as Postulate II). The SMSG counterpart is as
follows:
Postulate 1. Given any two different points, there is exactly one line that contains them
both.
!6 Recall the proof concerning betweenness given during the discussion of Hilbert’s
axioms. There are many other betweenness proofs of that type that must be proved in Hilbert’s
model before any substantial results can be established.
Compare this postulate to those given in the previous two sections. Although no explicit
mention is made concerning the existence of points, the SMSG set ensures the existence of
points and lines in much the same way that Birkhoffs axioms set does (see Exercise Set 2.6,
Problem 1). Because of this, Hilbert’s four axioms of connection are incorporated into the
geome¬ try although the SMSG set contains only one axiom of incidence.
The SMSG axioms concerning distance are based on Birkhoff’s postu¬ late of linear
measure. The three postulates that comprise this group are listed and discussed here.
Postulate 2. The Distance Postulate: To every pair of different points there corresponds
a unique positive number.17
The unique positive number stipulated by Postulate 2 is, quite clearly, the distance
between the points. This relationship is made more explicit in Postulate 3.
Postulate 3. The Ruler Postulate: The points of a line can be put into one-to-one
correspondence with the real numbers in such a way that (i) to every point there corresponds
exactly one real number, (ii) to every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the
line, and (iii) the distance between two points is the absolute value of the difference of the
corresponding numbers.
This postulate is in fact a restatement of Birkhoff’s postulate of linear measure. Items
(i) and (ii) establish the one-to-one correspondence, and (iii) provides a means of assigning
distance consistent with the intent of Birkhoff. By applying the field properties that apply to
the coordinates of any points, A and B, we can show that d(A,B) is in fact unique, so that SMSG
Postulate 2 could be proved using Postulate 3. However, the proof would not be geometric in
nature, which is why Postulate 2 is included in the SMSG set. In like fashion, Postulate 4 is not
independent of the other ax¬ ioms.
Another consequence of the ruler postulate is the Archimedian princi¬ ple (see Hilbert’s
Axiom V-l). Since this property (or an equivalent one) must be postulated for real numbers, it
comes ‘Tree” with the ruler postu¬ late. n'
Postulate 4. The Ruler Placement Postulate: Given two points P and Q of a line, the
coordinate system (i.e., the one-to-one correspondence between the points of the line and the
real numbers) can be chosen in such a way that the coordinate of P is zero and the coordinate
of Q is positive.
17 Some versions of the SMSG postulate set state Postulate 2 as follows: “To every
pair of different points there corresponds a unique positive number called the distance."
Postulate 4 means that any line can be made into a number line with zero placed at any
arbitrarily chosen point and with the positive and negative numbers placed according to choice.
This is often convenient when coordinatizing a plane in analytic proofs such as those discussed
in Chapter 5.
SMSG Postulates 5 through 8, the axioms concerning space relation¬ ships (which are
listed in Appendix D), deal with the geometry of three dimensions which, while important, is
not of central concern to us here. We therefore continue with a discussion of the axioms
concerning separation.
Postulate 9. The Plane Separation Postulate: Given a line / and a plane containing it,
the points of the plane that do not lie on the line form two sets such that (i) each of the sets is
convex,18 and (ii) if point P is in one set and point Q is in the other, then segment PQ fl / ^ .
Postulate 10. The Space Separation Postulate: The points in space that do not lie in a
given plane a form two sets such that (i) each of the sets is convex, and (ii) if point P is in one
set and point Q is in the other, then PQ H a =h .
While Postulate 10 applies to three-dimensional geometry and there¬ fore will not
apply to the discussions that follow, Postulate 9 is essential to several results that will be
derived in Chapter 3. The plane separation postu¬ late plays the same role in the SMSG set
that Pasch’s axiom (Axiom II-4) plays in Hilbert’s model. Assuming Postulate 9 will allow us,
in Chapter 3, to prove Pasch’s axiom as a theorem, which in turn will give rise to several other
important theorems including the well-known crossbar theorem.
The next group of postulates deals with the measurement of angles.
Postulate 11. The Angle Measurement Postulate: To every angle AABC there
corresponds a unique real number between 0 and 180.
Postulate 12. The Angle Construction Postulate: Let AB be a ray on the edge of half-
plane H. For every number r between 0 and 180 there is exactly one ray AP, with P in H such
that mLPAB = r.
Postulate 13. The Angle Addition Postulate: If D is a point in the interior of AABC,
then mLABD + mADBC = m/LABC.
Postulate 14. The Supplement Postulate: If two angles form a lin¬ ear pair, then they
are supplementary.
Postulates 11 and 12 together constitute the counterpart of Birkhoff’s postulate of angle
measure. A difference in the two approaches is evident.
18 See Exercise Set 2.6, Problem 4, for a definition of the term “convex set.”
since Birkhoff allows angle measures in the range 0 2tt (0° *+ 360°) while the SMSG
presentation restricts angle measures to between 0° and 180°. The SMSG approach has become
more standard in recent years, since with this restriction the interior of every angle is a convex
set of points (see Exercise Set 2.6, Problem 4).
Postulate 13 can be proved using the others, but since the statement is intuitively
obvious and the proof is not, it has been postulated for conve¬ nience. Similarly, Postulate 14,
which is almost a definition, has also been included in order to eliminate the need for a tedious
proof of an obvious result.
The axiom of congruence (Axiom 15) is the standard SAS congruence condition.
Postulate 15. The SAS Postulate: Given a correspondence be¬ tween two triangles (or
between a triangle and itself). If two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then the correspondence is a
congruence.
You may recall from the discussion of Hilbert’s comparable Postulate III-5 that this
statement provides more than is absolutely needed (see Exer¬ cise Set 2.4, Problem 16), but
once again the SMSG authors chose conve¬ nience over independence.
The 15 postulates listed thus far form the basis of what is known as neutral geometry.
SMSG Postulates 1 through 15 can be used in the devel¬ opment of both Euclidean and non-
Euclidean geometry. Chapter 3 will in¬ vestigate the implications of these postulates in detail.
The SMSG parallel postulate is a form of Playfair’s postulate.
Postulate 16. The Parallel Postulate: Through a given external point there is at most one
line parallel to a given line.
This is, as mentioned earlier, the postulate that characterizes Euclid¬ ean geometry. In
Chapter 4 we will investigate many geometric statements that are true only if this statement (or
one equivalent to it) is assumed.
None of the postulates concerning area and volume (Postulates 17 through 22) are
absolutely necessary for the development of Euclidean or non-Euclidean geometry. Results
concerning these quantities are addressed by both Euclid and Hilbert nonnumerically. Since,
however, they can expe¬ dite the discussion of area and volume measurements, we will assume
them in Chapter 4.
Postulate 17. To every polygonal region there corresponds a unique positive number
(called the area of the polygonal region).
Postulate 18. If two triangles are congruent, then the triangular regions have the same
area.
Postulate 19. Suppose the region R is the union of two regions R\ and R2. Suppose also
that R\ and R2 intersect at most in a finite number of segments and points. Then the area ofR
is the sum of the areas ofR\ and R2.
Postulate 20. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of the length of its base and
the length of its altitude.
Postulate 21. The volume of a rectangular parallelpiped is equal to the product of the
length of its altitude and the area of its base.
Postulate 22. Cavalien s Principle: Given two solids and a plane. If for every plane that
intersects the solids and is parallel to the given plane the two intersections determine regions
that have the same area, then the two solids have the same volume.
This completes the list of SMSG postulates. We have now seen four postulate sets
intended to determine the same set of theorems: the theorems of Euclid, that is, Euclidean
geometry.
1. Euclid’s Elements. The early, but flawed, exposition that defined the discipline known as
geometry for more than 2000 years.
2. Hilbert’s Grundlagen der Geometrie. A modern (1899) treatment of Euclidean
geometry that is true to the spirit of Euclid’s work and uses a set of axioms that is
acceptable under current standards.
3. Birkhoff’s A Set ofPostulatesfor Plane Geometry (Based on Scale and Protractor). A
second modern attempt to place Euclidean geometry on a firm foundational basis using
an essentially different approach based on measurement.
4. School Mathematics Study Group’s Geometry. A pedagogically ori¬ ented postulate
set that combines (at the expense of independence) features from Hilbert and Birkhoff
in a way that allows for an efficient development of Euclidean geometry.
Other axiom sets for Euclidean geometry have been offered over the years, but the ones
listed above are perhaps the most historically signifi¬ cant. Other, inherently different, axiom
sets for geometry are also possi¬ ble. Some of these define non-Euclidean geometries. Two of
these will be discussed briefly in the next section and then again in more depth in Chapter 6.
EXERCISE SET 2.6
1. Hilbert’s axiom set for Euclidean geometry includes an axiom (Axiom 1-3) that ensures the
existence of at least three noncollinear points. The SMSG axioms contain no such axiom, at
least not directly. Explain which of the SMSG axioms guarantee that the geometry is not
vacuous.
2. Explain how SMSG Postulate 2 can be derived from Postulate 3.
3. Outline a proof describing how SMSG Postulate 4 can be deduced from the other SMSG
postulates.
4. A set of points, S, is said to be convex if it is always true that AES and B E S imply that AB
is contained inAS. If angle measures are restricted to values between 0° and 180°, is the
interior of every angle a convex set? Explain. If, as Birkhoff did, we allow angle measures
to have values between 0° and 360°, is the interior of every angle a convex set? Explain why
or why not.
5. Which of Birkhoff’s axioms implies SMSG Postulate 15?
6. What is meant by the term “adjacent angles”? Complete the following state¬
7. Reread ment: Two SMSG angles Postulate are adjacent 14. What if and do only you if think
-- is meant by the term “linear pair”? How would you define the term “supplementary” with
respect to angles? If a pair of adjacent angles form a linear pair, is their union an angle?
Explain why or why not.
8. Find, in the library, a textbook that discusses the foundations of geometry. Make a list of
the axioms that are posited.
a. Classify each axiom as being characteristic of Hilbert, Birkhoff, or neither.
b. Is the axiom set complete? Consistent? Independent?
c. Are there any axioms that are substantially different from those discussed so far in this
chapter? If so, list them and explain why.
d. Do you think you can prove (using the axioms from the book) any theorems that cannot
be proved using Hilbert’s axioms? Birkhoff’s axioms? SMSG axioms? Explain why or
why not.
9. In Chapter i we discussed what is meant by the term “incidence geometry.” Is the SMSG
model an incidence geometry? Is Hilbert’s model an incidence geom¬ etry? Do the results
proved earlier for incidence geometries apply to the SMSG model? Explain why or why not
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𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑(𝐵′, 𝐶′) = 𝑘𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶), 𝑚∠𝐶′𝐵′𝐴′ = 𝑚∠𝐶𝐵𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚∠𝐴′𝐶′𝐵′ =
𝑚∠𝐴𝐶𝐵.
Dan itu saja. Sementara Hilbert membutuhkan 16 postulat15 untuk mendapatkan hasil
dari Euclid, Birkhoff mampu mempersempit daftarnya menjadi 4. Tentu saja, di dalam 4
postulat Birkhoff terdapat banyak sifat lain yang muncul sebagai konsekuensi dari postulat
bahwa (1) setiap baris dapat ditempatkan dalam korespondensi 1 : 1 dengan bilangan real, dan
(2) sudut dapat diberi ukuran unik dalam rentang 0 hingga .27𝜋 (𝑖. 𝑒, , 0 𝑡𝑜 360°)
Misalnya, Anda akan melihat bahwa tidak disebutkan konsep keterhubungan dalam
himpunan postulat Birkhoff. Namun, semua hasil yang diperlukan mengenai keterhubungan
dapat diikuti dengan mudah, karena Birkhoff mampu mendefinisikan "antara" dengan cara
berikut.
Definisi. Jika A, B, dan C merupakan titik-titik yang berlainan, maka dikatakan B
berada di antara titik A dan𝐶 (𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐶) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑑{𝐴, 𝐵) + 𝑑(𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐶).
Dari definisi ini dan properti lapangan, semua hasil yang diperlukan mengenai
keterhubungan segera menyusul. Tentu saja, sifat-sifat medan inilah yang memberikan model
ini kekuatan yang diperlukan untuk melengkapi geometri Euclid.
Postulat I sering disebut sebagai postulat ukuran linier atau postulat penggaris, karena
memungkinkan pengukuran (atau panjang) ditetapkan pada setiap segmen. Dari dalil tersebut
muncullah gagasan-gagasan yang diperlukan dalam pembahasan kongruensi ruas garis.
Demikian pula, Postulat III kemudian dikenal sebagai postulat busur derajat, karena
memberikan cara untuk membandingkan ukuran sudut. Kedua postulat ini memungkinkan
pengembangan lengkap gagasan kongruensi secara umum. Postulat IV melakukan hal yang
sama untuk konsep keserupaan bangun-bangun geometri.
Konsekuensi yang lebih halus dari postulat ini melibatkan gagasan paralelisme yang
diterapkan pada garis. Birkhoff membuktikan postulat kelima Euclidean dengan cara berikut
(Gambar 2.5.1).
Misalkan A adalah sebuah titik yang tidak sejajar dan B adalah kaki garis tegak lurus
yang ditarik dari A ke . Sekarang misalkan C adalah sembarang titik yang membentuk sudut
lancip. Jelasnya, jumlah sudut dalam pada sisi C kurang dari dua sudut siku-siku. Untuk
membuktikan postulat kelima Euclid, kami𝑙 𝑙∠𝐵𝐴𝐶𝐴𝐵
15 Postulat Hilbert direvisi selama bertahun-tahun, dan dalam Grundlagen der
Geometrie dia memasukkan beberapa aksioma untuk geometri dalam tiga dimensi. Dengan
demikian jumlah postulat dapat bervariasi. Himpunan aksioma yang diberikan di sini berisi 16
postulat.
harus menunjukkan bahwa AC bertemu pada sisi C AB. Untuk melakukan ini, buatlah CD tegak
lurus AB seperti yang ditunjukkan. Selanjutnya cari E sehingga perbandingan berikut ini valid:
AD:DC = AB:BE. Buatlah garis AE. Apa yang kita miliki sekarang adalah kondisi kesamaan
SAS (pada dasarnya Postulat IV), sehingga segitiga dan sebangun. Akibatnya, . Postulat busur
derajat meyakinkan kita bahwa hanya ada satu sinar di sisi C BA yang dapat melakukan hal ini.
Konsekuensinya, AC harus berimpit dengan AE, sehingga berpotongan dengan garis / di titik E
juga. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa postulat tentang keserupaan segitiga dapat digunakan untuk
menetapkan postulat kesejajaran Euclid, sehingga geometri apa pun yang mendalilkan
keserupaan akan bersifat Euclidean.𝑙𝑙∆𝐴𝐷𝐶∆𝐴𝐵𝐸𝑚∠𝐵𝐴𝐸 = 𝑚∠𝐷𝐴𝐶
Kita kemudian melihat bahwa meskipun Birkhoff memilih serangkaian postulat yang
sangat berbeda dengan yang dilakukan Euclid atau Hilbert, hasilnya tetap sama. Meskipun
Hilbert lebih sesuai dengan gaya Euclid, sifat ramping dari himpunan postulat Birkhoff
membuatnya sangat menarik bagi banyak ahli matematika. Kemudahan dalam mengatasi
masalah keterhubungan, keselarasan, dan kesamaan (di antara topik-topik lainnya) membuat
pendekatan ini secara pedagogi lebih disukai daripada pendekatan Hilbert dalam banyak hal.
Faktanya, postulat penggaris dan busur derajat merupakan standar di banyak buku pelajaran
sekolah menengah saat ini, karena postulat tersebut memungkinkan diskusi yang ketat namun
tidak rumit mengenai topik terkait. Pada bagian berikut kita akan mempelajari himpunan
aksioma yang ditawarkan oleh Kelompok Studi Matematika Sekolah (SMSG) di mana postulat
penggaris dan busur derajat diasumsikan.
SET LATIHAN 2.5
1. Berikan definisi yang valid untuk istilah "sinar" yang konsisten dengan himpunan
postulat Birkhoff.
2. Birkhoff menyatakan postulat busur derajatnya dalam kaitannya dengan ukuran radian.
Nyatakan kembali dengan menggunakan ukuran derajat.
3. Misalkan kita mendefinisikan kemiripan ruas garis dengan cara berikut: Dua ruas garis
AB dan CD sebangun asalkan terdapat konstanta k sehingga d(A,B) = kd(C,D). Apakah
semua ruas garis serupa? Menjelaskan. Dalam kondisi apa sepasang ruas garis
kongruen? Pembatasan apa, jika ada, yang harus diterapkan pada nilai hukum k dalam
definisi ini?
4. Tentukan persamaan segitiga. Tentukan kesamaan poligon secara umum.
5. Gunakan definisi persamaan Anda pada Soal 4 untuk mendefinisikan kekongruenan
segitiga dan poligon secara umum.
6. Buktikan dengan menggunakan aksioma Birkhoff bahwa
a. Semua sudut siku-siku sama besarnya.
b. Kemiripan segitiga merupakan relasi transitif.
c. Kemiripan segitiga merupakan relasi ekuivalen.
7. Apakah menurut Anda himpunan aksioma Birkhoff bersifat independen? Jelaskan
mengapa atau mengapa tidak.
8. Apakah menurut Anda geometri Birkhoff isomorfik dengan geometri Hilbert? ke
Euclid? Jelas sekali. 9. Dalam bukti Birkhoff postulat kelima Euclid
a. Aksioma apa yang meyakinkan kita bahwa titik E ada sehingga AD.DC = AB.BE1
b. Aksioma manakah yang memungkinkan kita menyimpulkan bahwa AADC dan
AABE serupa?