ure 4.16 Fabric of undisturbed Mexico City clay. ing or diffusion leading to a tendency for particle disper- sion, the clays acquired the characteristics to lose most of thei strength and to liquefy when subjected to remold- ing at constant water content (Bjerrum 1954). Not al soft-clay deposits have a mineralogical compo- sition similar to those in Table 4.2. Mexico City clay is 4 dramatic example of soft clay derived from volcanic ‘material. It consists of about 5 to 10% sand-sized concre- tionary particles composed of calcium carbonate; 55 to 65% silt-sized siliceous diatoms; 20 to 30% clay-sized particles (10% interlayered montmorillonite, with exchangeable cations that are mostly sodium, and the remainder biogenic or volcanogenic silica); and 5 to 10% ‘organic material. Thus, Mexico City clay is largely com- posed of microfossils that mainly are siliceous skeletons and skeletal fragments of diatoms. Apparently the large quantities of silica released by the volcanic ash as it underwent weathering initiated a great bloom of diatoms in the Pleistocene lake waters of the valley of Mexico. ‘The undisturbed fabric of Mexico City clay is shown in Fig. 4.16, and photomicrographs ofthe silt-sized fraction are shown in Figs. 4.17 and 4.18, Figure 4.16 shows that Mexico City clay has an open flocculated-random fabric. The highly poriferous skeletal fragments are mainly responsible for such unusual properties as very high plas- tic and liquid limits, a very high friction angle, and great Joss of strength upon manipulation. Similar high values of plastic limit and friction angle are displayed by volca- nic ash residual soils of Japan, which contain allophane and halloysite. ARTICLE 4 PROPERTIES OF VERY FINE SOIL FRACTIONS 15, Figure 4.17 Silt size fraction of Mexico City clay showing poriferous whole geometric forms and fragments of diatoms. In contrast to the random fabric or structure of most natural clays, clays that have been sheared by tectonic activity, by sliding, or even by manipulation in the labora- tory or by construction activities, are likely to lose their ‘locculated, random structure. They are then said to have a dispersed, highly oriented fabric. In this state they are likely to have properties quite different from those of clays with a flocculated or aggregated random fabric. 4.6 Organic Soils Organic substances in soil range from macroscopic incompletely decomposed plant and animal residues to microscopic dark-colored humus. Humus includes prod- ucts of advanced decomposition of organic residues, prod- ucts of microbial resynthesis, precipitates of dissolved ‘organic compounds, and organic molecules in solution (Gieseking 197Sa). Organic substances are composed mainly of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. However, dif- ferent organic parent materials, various aerobic and anaet- ‘bic conditions of degradation, and different degrees of hhumification produce organic substances with a wide range of molecular structure and particle morphology. A. highly poriferous and flexible cellular structure is the ‘most important characteristic of organic coarse particles, which are either fibrous or granular, Organic fine sub- stances, usually smaller than 100 jum, consist of irregu- larly shaped organic skeletons such as cell fragments and, tissue parts, as well as of globular organic precipitates smaller than 1 jum, and of 3- to 9.nm organic polymolec- ules. Organic fine substances are negatively charged and16 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS Figure 4.18 Silt-size fraction of Mexico City elay showing poriferous whole geometric forms and fragments of diatoms. Figure 4.19 Photomicrograph of fibrous Middleton peat. display a substantial cation exchange capacity which increases with degree of humification and is strongly influenced by the hydrogen ion concentration in the pore ‘water. Cations such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and also iron and aluminum, replace hydrogen atthe exchange sites of organic polymolecules. The cation Figure 4.20, Photomicrograph of poriferous cellular peat particle, exchange capacity of very fine humic substances may be as high as 15 to 5.0 meq/g Soil fabrics characterized by organic coarse particles, as in fibrous peat, hold a considerable amount of water because they are generally very loose, and also because ‘organic particles are hollow and largely full of water. ‘This is illustrated in Figs. 4.19 and 4.20 by SEM photomi- MEUHANIUAL ANALYSID UF SOILS 5.1 Methods of Mechanical Analysis ‘The purpose of mechanical analysis is w determine the size of the grains that constitute a soil and the percentage of the total weight represented by the grains in various size ranges, The most direct method for separating a soil into grain-size fractions 1s the use of sieves. However, since the openings of the finest mesh readily available have a width of U.0/ mm, te use of sieves is restricted to analysis of clean sands. Ifa soil contains grains smaller than 0.07 mm, it may be separated into two parts by washing with water. As the water becomes turbid, itis ‘drawn oft. Ihe coarser portion of the soi! remains the container and can be subjected to a sieve analysis. The Soil particles in the turbid liquid, which are too fine to be collected on sieves, can be subjected to wet mechani- cal analysis, ‘The methods for performing wet mechanical analysis are based on Stokes's law, which determines the velocity at which a spherical particle of given diameter settles in 4 quiet liquid. In the method commonly used for engi- neering purposes, 20 to 40 g of clay soil or 50 to 100 g of sandy soil are mixed with one liter of water, agitated, and poured into a container. The density of the suspension is measured at various times by means of a hydrometer of special design, At any given time, the size of the largest particles remaining in suspension at the level of the hydrometer can be computed by means of Stokes’s law, whereas the weight of the particles finer than that size can be computed from the density of the suspension18 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS at the same level. The performance of a test requires several days. By means of wet mechanical analysis, soil fractions can be separated down to a size of about 0.5y. Still finer fractions can be obtained by means of a centrifuge, but the results of such refined methods are of interest only in connection with scientific research. Agitation in water transforms many clays into suspen- sions, not of individual particles, but of flocs. To break up the flocs into individual grains, or to disperse the sol, 1 deflocculating agent must be added to the water. The ‘most common errors in the results of wet mechanical analysis are caused by inadequate dispersion. The results of wet mechanical analysis are not strictly comparable to those of sieve analysis, because soil grains are never exactly spherical, and the smallest ones are commonly of a flaky shape, In a sieve analysis the width ‘of the flake is measured, whereas the dimension deter- ‘mined by means of wet mechanical analysis isthe diame- ter of a sphere that sinks at the same rate as the flake. This diameter may be much smaller than the width of the actual flake ‘The most convenient representation of the results of a analycie ic the comilagarithmic grain-size curve shown in Fig. 5.1. The abscissas of this curve represent the logarithm of the grain size. The ordinates represent the percentage P, by weight, of grains smaller than the size denoted by the abscissa. The more uniform the grain size, the steeper is the slope of the curve: a vertical line represents a perfectly uniform powder. The most important advantage of a semilogarithmic plot is thatthe grain-size curves of soils having equal uniformity are identical in shape, regardless ofthe average gran curves of the same shape is equal tothe logarithm of the ratio of the average grain sizes of the corresponding soils Figure 5.2 shows several typical grain-size curves Curve a isacommon type. I closely resembles the normal frequency curve that represents one of the fundamental laws of statistics. Since grain size isa statistical phenome- ron, attempts have been made to use the terms and con- Values of (%) o0or aor a 10 10 Values of D (mm) Figure 5.1 Semilogarithmie plot of results of mechanical analysis Volues of F aS 8 3 g 00% fe) I tts ee Reece a00r Gor or 70 70 Values of D (mm) Figure &2. Typical grain-cine cues (a) Normal frequency curve. (b and ¢) Curves for soils having coarser and finer fractions of different uniformity. (d and e) Composite curves. cepts of statistics to describe the results of mechanical analyses, Such refinements, however, are usually not war ranted in connection with soil mechanics for engi- neering purposes. 1F-a sample has the grain-size distibution shown in Tig. $25, the unife larger than Day (corresponding to P = 50%) is approxi- ‘mately equal to that of the fraction having grains smaller than Dao, If the distribution resembles that shown in b, the coarser half of the sample is relatively uniform, ‘whereas the size of the grains in the finer half varies over a wide range. Conversely, the distribution represented in corresponds to a sample in which the coarser grains are of widely different sizes and the finer ones are more uniform, The curves represented in d and ¢ are said to be composite. The grain-size curves of immature residual soils are usually similar to that shown in Fig. 5.26, With increasing age of the soil, the average grain size decreases because of weathering, and the curves become more neatly staight Fig. 5.2a). The grain-size curves of mature soils resemble that shown in Fig. 5.2c. Distributions represented by and are also common among soils of glacial or flavioglacial onigin. Absence of a medium grain size in a sedimentary soil, as exemplified by the curve in Fig. 5.2d, is common among sand-gravel_muxtures that were deposited by swiftly flowing rivers carrying a large load of sediment.Gravels of this type are said to be poorly, or gap, graded. ‘A curve such as that in Fig. 5.2d may also be obtained if the materials from two different layers are mixed before the mechanical analysis is performed. ‘A conspicuous break in the continuity of the grain-size curve may also indicate the simultaneous deposition of the soil by two different agents. For instance, one fraction right he washed into a glacial Inke hy a river and another fraction dropped from melting ice floats, Thus, a know!- edge of the shape of grain-size curves may assist in determining the geological origin of a soil and thereby reduce the risk of error in the interpretation of the data obtained from test borings 5.2 Abbreviated Representation of Grain-Size Characteristics In order to represent the essential results of the mechanical analysis of a great number of soils, it may be convenient to express the grain-size characteristics ofeach soil either by numerical values indicative of some characteristic rain size and of the degree of uniformity or else by ‘names or symbols that indicate the dominant soil fraction. ‘The most common procedure based on numerical values is known as Allen Hazen’s method. On the basis of a great number of tests with filter sands, Hazen (1892) found that the permeability of these sands ina loose state depends on two quantities that he called the effective size and the uniformity coefficient. The effective size is the diameter Dyg that corresponds to P = 10% on the graine size diagram. In other words, 10% of the particles are finer and 90% coarser than the effective size. The uniformity coefficient Cy is equal to Dyo/Dyo, wherein Dy isthe grain the grain-size distribution, useful in the classification of soils (Amicle 8.3), is the coefficient of curvature Co, defined as Dia/Dyo Dep Hazen’s findings led other investigators to the more or less arbitrary assumption that the quantities Dio and Cy are also suitable for expressing the grain-size characters- tics of mixed-grained natural soils. With increasing knowledge conceming fine-grained soils, it has become evident that the character of such soils depends chiefly ight be preferable to select Day and Dry as the significant quantities. However, the advantage is not sufficiently important to justify a depar- ture from well-established procedure. The use of symbols to indicate the grain-size characteristics of « sil is described in Article 8.3. Selected Reading Classification tests are described in Section 4 of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards. ARTICLE 6 SOIL AGGREGATE 19 ARTICLE 6 SOIL AGGREGATE 6.1 Introduction ‘The term agereeate refers to the soil itself, in contrast to its constituent parts. Qualitatively, soil aggregates may differ in texture and consistency. Quantitaively, they may ie j t 8 Clay (Venezvela)- a | 30| “ Glacial Clays 20|-— (Boston, Detroit, Chicago, and Canada] — 10 A ried ? I ‘Micaceous Sandy Silt (Cartersville, Ga.) ‘Kaolin (Mica, Wash) | PO ao GO mao mao GOT mn agmnmegu mag a1/0! Liquid Limit Figure 7.3. Relation between liquid limit and plasticity index for typical soils (after Casa- grande 19324), ity index J, and the abscissas the corresponding liquid limit w The chart is divided into six regions, three above line ‘A and tree below. The group W which a given soil belongs is determined by the name of the region that owiaits tie point vepreseniing Gre values uF fp aud w: for the soil. All points representing inorganic clays Tie ubove line A, and all points for inorganic silts ie below it, Therefore, if a soil is known to be inorganic, its group affiliation can be ascertained on the basis of the values of J, and w alone, However, points representing organic clays are usually located within the same region as those representing inorganic silts of high compressibility, and points representing organic silts in the region assigned to inorganic silts of medium compressibility. Usually, the orgamic souls can be distinguished trom the inorganic by their characteristic odor and their dark-gray or black color. In doubtful cases the liquid limit should be determined for an oven-dry specimen as well as afresh one, If drying decreases the value of the liquid limit by 30% or more, the suil may usually be classified as organic, although in some instances other constituents, such as the clay mineral inaiysive, sinuianiy tower ve tiquid fmt. Finaiy, if an inorganic and an organic soil are represented in Fig. 7.2 by approximately the same point, the dry strength of the organic soil is considerably greater than that of the inorganic soil. Experience has shown that the points which represent different samples from the same soil stratum define a straight line that is roughly parallel to line 4. As the liquid limit of soils represented by such a line mereases, the plasticity and the compressibility ot the soils also increase. The dry strength of inorganic soils represented by points on lunes located above A increases, from medium for samples with a liquid limit below 3026 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS to very high for samples with a liquid limit of 100. On the other hand, if the line representative of inorganic samples from a given stratum is located at a considerable distance below A, the dry strength of samples with a liquid limit less than 50 is very low, and that of samples ‘with a liquid limit close to 100 is only medium. In accor- dance with these relationships, the dry strength of inor- ganic soils from different localities but with equal liguid limits increases in a general way with increasing plasticity index. Figure 7.3 shows the plasticity characteristics of several well-defined types of clay. ‘The samples required for Atterberg-limit tests need not bbe undisturbed, and the technique of making the tests is simple. A great amount of useful information can be derived from the test results. Therefore, the investigation 100; 50} Plasticity Index (%) 50 700 Liquid Limit (%) Figure 7.4 Latosols and Andosols from Java, Indonesia (after Wesley 1973), 100 of statistical relations between the Atterberg limits and the other physical properties of cohesive soils is a promis- ing field for research, Every well-established statistical relation of this type broadens the scope of conclusions that can be drawn from the results of limit tests. Two useful relations of this kind are shown in Figs. 19.7 and 20.20 However, empirical relations between the physical properties of soils and their Atterberg limits, based on data from sedimentary deposits consisting of clay minerals ‘commonly found in temperate climates, are not likely t0 apply to certain residual soils formed under humid tropi- cal conditions, particularly from volcanic materials, These soils are likely to display a characteristic yellow. red. or ‘brown color. In some (latosols), the predominant clay 0828. SSN 150 200 250 ed oF 5 & Notural~ TOF yg 184% SOL Wp196% 8 & sor s e 4 Non-Plastic 2 1 001 07 ar 7 Particle Size (mm) Figure 7.5. Particle size distribution and Aerberg limits for sample of residual soil from Indonesia (data from Wesley 1973),mineral is halloysite; the water is held in the pores of clusters or aggregates that are cemented together. There- fore, at the same water content or liquid limit the soils have lower compressibility and significantly higher shear strength than soils consisting of the clay minerals more commonly found in temperate climates. In others (ando- sols), the predominant clay mineral is allophane; a major part of the pore water is trapped within the soil particles and, consequently, the plastic limit is unusually high and the plasticity index correspondingly low (Fig. 7.4). When dried, removal of the water causes the porous clusters to shrink irreversibly to form hard grains. The resulting effects on the Atterberg limits and grain-size distribution for ane sch material are shown in Fig 7.5 Selected Reading The classic study of the Awerberg limits and their uses for engineering purposes is Casagrande, A. (19322) ‘Research on the Aterberg limits of soils,” Public Roads, 13, pp. 121-136. ‘Auterberg, A. (1911). “On the investigation of the physical properties of soils and the plasticity af elnys.” Int Mit Bodenkunde (German), 1, p. 10 ARTICLE 8 SOIL CLASSIFICATION 8.1 Practical Significance of Soil Classification Ever since the physical properties of soils became a matter of interest, frequent attempts have been made to correlate the results of simple classification tests with the soil parameters needed for solving practical problems. Most of the early correlations were related 0 the grain-size characteristics. The results of the endeavors to base sys- tems of classification exclusively on grain size, however, were consistently disappointing. Attempts to compute the coefficient of permeability of soils on the basis of the results of mechanical analysis failed because the perme- ability depends toa large extent on the shape of the grit which can be very different for soils with identical grai size characteristics. Attempts to correlate the grain-size characteristics of fine-grained soils such as silt ot clay with the angle of intemal friction have been even less sucessful, The reason is illustrated by Fig. 8.1 In Fig. 8.1 the heavy uppermost curve is the grain- size frequency curve for a glacial clay from southeastern Canada. On the horizontal axis are plotted the logarithms of the grain size. The area of the strip located above an arbitrary grain-size range, for instance 2 to 1 y., repre- sents the quantity of soil particles within this range. in percent of the total weight of the dried clay. According to the diagram the macroscopic fraction (>0.06 mm) like that of most other clays, consists chiefly of quartz, ‘The microscopic fraction (0.06 to 0.002 mm) consists ARTICLE § SOIL CLASSIFICATION 27 Grain Size Frequency Curve Total Area 700% Mica yr A corte Montperitonite 01 02 20 Grain Size in Microns (10g scale) Figure 81 Grain size and mineralogical composition of @ slacial marine clay (courtesy R. E, Grim). partly of quartz and calcite and partly of mica flakes. The ‘mica content of this fraction is very different for different clays, and it has a decisive influence on the compressibil- ity and other properties of the clay. The colloidal fraction (<0,002 mm) consists almost exclusively of montmoril- Tonite, whereas that of other clays may consist chiefly of clay minerals of the kaolin or illite groups. The physical properties of the clay depend to a large extent on the type of clay mineral that dominates the colloidal fraction. They present in the adsorbed layers (Article 4). Hence, two lays with identical grain-size curves can be extremely different in every other respect. Because of these conditions, well-defined statistical relations between grain-size characteristics and signifi- cant soil properties such as the angle of internal friction have been encountered only within relatively small regions wire all the soils of the sane category, such as all the clays or all the sands, have a similar geological origin. in such regions the grain-size characteristics can be used as a basis for judging the significant properties of the solls. This 1s commonly and successfully done. However, none of the procedures that grow out of experi- ence in such regions can safely be used outside the bound aries of the region where they originated. ‘Since the properties of fine-grained soils can be corre- lated in a general way with the plasticity of the materials, Classitication systems tor such souls are preferably based ‘on the Atterberg limits rather than on grain size. Classifi- cation of mixed-grained souls containing both coarse and fine fractions should be based not only on the grain-size characteristics of the coarse fractions but also on the plasticity of the fine and very fine fractions. 8.2 Classification Based on Grain Size In spite of their shortcomings, soil classifications based oon grain-size characteristics. such as the one shown in Table 8.1, are widely used, especially for preliminary or ‘general descriptions. It is customary. in connection with such classifications, to assign the names of soils, such as, “silt” oF “clay,” to different grain-size fractions. However.28 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS Table 8.1 Soil Classification Based on Grain Size Soil Diameter (mm) Sieve Size* Boulders Over 300 12 in, Cobbies (rounded) 300-75 12 in-3 in, Gravel 34.76 3 in.-No. 4 Course 75-19 3 in.-3/4 in, Fine 19-476 3/4 in-No. 4 Sand 4.76-0.074 No. 4-No. 200 Coarse 4.76-2.0 No. 4-No. 10 Medium, 20-042 No. 10-No. 40 Fine 0.42-0.074 No. 40-No. 200 ines Less than 0/4 No. 200 (Silt size) 0.074-0.002 (Clay size) Less than 0.002 * ASTM D422. (After USBR 1974), any system of classification based on grain size alone is likely to be misleading, because the physical properties than grain size (see Article 4). For example, according to any one of the commonly used classifications, a soil consisting of quartz grains of colloidal size should be walled 4 clay, whereas in reality it Joes not possess even a remote resemblance to clay. Hence, if the words “silt” ‘or “clay” are used (0 express grain size, they should be combined with the word “size,” asin the expression “clay- size panicie.” The term fine is often used to describe tre fraction of a soil that passes the No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm), ang the term ciay-size fraction (CF) the fraction with sizes smaller than 0,002" mm. 8.3 Unified Soil Classification System ‘The unsatisfactory nature of systems of soil classification based on grain size alone led to a critical review of the problem (Casagrande 1948) and the proposal of the Unified Soil Classification System, adopted in 1952 by the US. Corps of Engineers and Bureau ot Keclamation, and subsequently by many other organizations (USBR 1963). According to this system, all soils are divided into three ‘major groups: coarse-grained, fine-grained, and highly organic (peaty). The peaty soils are readily identified by the characteristics listed in Article 2. The boundary between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils is taken to be the 200-mesh sieve (0.074 mm). In the field the distinction is based on whether the individual particles can be seen with the unaided eye. If more than 50% of the soil by weight is judged to consist of grains that can be distinguished separately, the soil is considered to be coarse-grained. ‘The coarse-grained soils are divided into gravelly (G) or sandy (S) soils in accordance with whether more or less than 50% of the visible grains are larger than the No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm,). They are cach divided further into four groups: W. clean (less than 5% finer than 0.074 mm); well graded (uniformity coefficient Cy greater than $ for gravels or 6 for sands, aid coefficient of curvature Ce between 1 and 3). clean (less tan 5% finer than 0.074 sn), poorly graded (Cy less than 4 for gravels or 6 for sands, fr gap-graded because Cc not between 1 and 3). Ce dirty (more than 12% finer than 0.074 mm); plas- ttc clayey fines Up greater than 7%, also piots above A-line in plasticity chart. ‘M: dirty (more than 12% finer than 0.074 mm); non- plastic silty fines (Ip less than 4%, or plots below A-line in plasticity chart). ‘The soils are represented by symbols such as GW or SP. Borderline materials are represented by a double sym- bol, as GW.GP The fine-grained soils are divided into three groups: and clays (0). The soils are further divided into those having liquid limits lower than $0% (L), or higher (H). ‘The distinction between the inorganic clays C and the inorganic silts M and organic soils O is made on the basis of a modified plasticity chart (Fig. 8.2). Soils CH and CL are represented by points above the A-line, whereas soils OH, OL, and MH correspond to positions below. Soils ML, except for a few clayey Tine sails, ate also represented by points below the A-line. The organic soils, G ae distinguisied from vite inorganic suily bf and C by their characteristic odor and dark color of, in doubtful instances, by the influence of oven-drying on the liquid limit (Article 7). In the field, the fine-grained soils can eh | it | oye Boop i 3 20) a 0 or OW SL oe SI Me or 00 203040806070 80 86700 Liquia Limit Figure 82 Modified Plasticity Chart for use with Unified Soil Classification System. Soils represented by points within shaded area are considered borderline and are given dual sym- bols (after USBR 1974),ARTICLE 9. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ADEQUATE SOIL DESCRIPTION 29 be differentiated by their dry strength, their reaction to the shaking test, or their toughness near the plastic limit (Article 7). The pertinent characteristics are indicated in Table 8.2. Borderline materials are represented by a dou- ble symbol, as CL-ML. ‘The Unified Soil Classification System permits reliable classification on the basis of relatively few and inexpen- sive laboratory tests. With experience it also provides practicable basis for visual or field classification. Like all procedures based on grain size or the properties of remolded materials, it cannot take into consideration the characteristics of the intact materials as found in nature. Hence, it can serve only as a starting point for the descrip- tion of the engineering properties of soil masses or soil deposits Selected Reading The definitive discussion of soil classification, as well as the basis for the Unified Soil Classification System, are contained in Casagrande, A. (1948). “Classification and identification of soils,” Trans. ASCE, 113, pp. 901-992. For a more detailed discussion, see ASTM D2487. ARTICLE 9 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ADEQUATE SOIL DESCRIPTION In Attice 8 suitable procedures were described for divid- ing soils into several large groups on the basis of their grain-size characteristics and their plasticity. Ifthe group to which a given soil belongsis known, the more outstand- ing physival characteristics of the seil ate also generally known, However, each group includes soils with a great Table 82 Classification of Fine-Grained Soils Unified Soil Classification System Reaction to. Toughness Diy Shaking at Plastic Group Strength Test Limit ML None to Rapid to slow None very low cL Medium to None to very Medium high slow OL Very low to Slow Slight ‘medium MH Very low to Slow tonone Slight _to medium medium cH High to None High very high oH Medium to None to very Slight _t0 ‘medium igh slow variety of properties and, furthermore, every soil can occur in the field in very different states. In order to distinguish among the individual members of each group and the different states of each member, two different procedures can be used. Either the principal groups can be subdivided further, or else the group name can be supplemented by numerical values representing the perti- nent index properties. The first of these two procedures is suitable for classify- ing the soils within geographically limited districts, because within such districts the number of different types and states of soil is likely to be fairly limited, Conse- quently, the method is used extensively and to advantage departments. However, attempts to use a similar proce- dure for establishing a universal system of soil classifica tion have litle prospects for success, because the required tctutinology would inevitably be se complex that it would lead to ultimate confusion, ‘The second procedure, on the other hand, can be used profitably under any circumstances, provided those index Properties that are indicative of the essential physical characteristics of the soil are chosen. The properties required for adequate descnption ot the various types ot soil are summarized in Table 9.1. The soils listed in this lable have been described in Article 2, which contains all the information required for atleast a tentative classifi- cation of the soil. After the type has been recognized, the engineer tums to Table 9.1 and performs all the soil tests prescribed for this type. The test results represent the criteria for distinguishing among different soils of the same type. With the exception of till. hardpan. and peat. all the soils listed in Table 9.1 consist either exclusively of coarse rains such as sand and gravel. or exclusively of fine rains having the size of silt or clay particles. Soils that consist of a mixture of these ingredients are regarded as composite, To describe a composite soil, iti first neces- sary to determine the natural void ratio 2, the natural ‘water content v, and the grain-size distribution, The soil is then divided into wo parts, one consisting of all the grains larger than about 0.07 mm (width of the openings The coarse fraction is submitted to the classification tests prescribed for sand and gravel, and the remainder to those for silts and clays. If the soils encountered on a given job ate submitted to tests other than those listed in Table 9.1, the signifi- cant results of these tests should be included in the record. Since soil strata are seldom homogeneous, even an apparently homogeneous soil stratum cannot be considered adequately described unless the index proper- ties of several samples from the stratum have been determined, The record should also contain a brief30 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS Table 9.1 Data Required for Soil Identification Results of Classification Tests General Information: Intact Samples! Disturbed Samples ] 2/3\3|3 ‘Type wlEle) 2] i = si|e/2|3|% Seles 3 sa crates ella lsleieial? Elslz|2lzel2lFlZlelzlal4 5 > PIS |s|alals |e sl|E\é g elEVElElalale|eleizi zie lelzlalé Slelelale}e)2 alal8l(elaleizlz & Sls le&lalsja jz 5)/5|)5|4)/2/2|3]e é aparece (foe fede | a a cae eee om |] a tg Inorganic silt 39] x | - |x |x |= |x |- |x |x |x |x |x }-|- |x) x] «|x ome’ fx tx tx le loie ole lee ele doicdedidls Clay es eee eee eee ee ere eae Organic clay x px tx) = [= [x |= |x [x fx dx |x )- f- |x] «| - | « Peat Pe peli fe Efe Pe yeye ye pl] tyty cle Til ie (eel es a ae ee ett (el Tuff, fine-grained] x x]-]-]|x ]- ]- |x ]x |x -}-|xix}x]e Loess'® ace cette eRe cee eMac Oat SSM cae cae cece eM ORM MB Modited toess }x |- |x| x= ]x [x fx fx fx elo [e pe fx] a els Adobe Ser Ter mg eee cog Se a Le cS LALOR ee Marl ea ea et Wa a Mae ele eee ee eel ee Gumbo *t-tet- t-te t- [

)ARTICLE 9 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ADEQUATE SOIL DESCRIPTION 31 Calcium carbonate content can be detected by moistening the dry material with HCL, Describe result of test (strong, weak, oF 1 effervescence) "5 Add to data on texture a description of general appearance, structure, and degree of cohesiveness of chunks in fresh state and after soaking in water. "© Add to data on texture a description of the macroscopic features ofthe loess, such as diameter and spacing of root holes. statement of whatever can be learned about the geologi- ea history of the statum, Most large engineering construction organizations, such as the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army, the United States Bureau of Reclamation, and many state highway departments, maintain soil laboratories in which classification tests are made routinely. However, the results of these tests are of such practical importance that they should also be made by every engineer who deals with soils. The performance ofthe tests increases familiar- ity with the various properties of the soils and the test results greatly increase the value of the engineer's field records. After personally testing several dozen samples of soil fiom one locality, the engineer can estimate the index properties of most of the soils from that locality without any esis und can discrimina among different states of the same soil which previously seemed identical Every engineer should develop the habit of expressing the plasticity and grain-size characteristics of soils by numerical values rather than by adjectives. The grading of a sand should be expressed by the estimated value of the uniformity coefficient, Cy = Da/Dio (Article 5) and not by the words “weil graded” or poorly graded.” Tne degree of plasticity should be indicated by the estimated value of the plasticity index /, (Article 7) and not by the words “trace of plasticity” or “highly plastic.” This habit 1s so important that it should be encouraged trom the beginning by the instructor in the classroom. The use of the numerical system prevents misunderstandings and is, an incentive to check from time to time the degree of accuracy of the estimates. Without occasional check tests the progressive deterioration of the ability to estimate may pass unnoticed.Soil Exploration ARTICLE 10 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF SOIL EXPLORATION 10.1 Definition of Soil Exploration ‘The design of a foundation, an earth dam, or a retaining wall cannot be made intelligently unless the designer has at least a reasonably accurate conception of the physical properties of the soils involved. ‘The tield and laboratory investigations required to obtain this essential information constitute the soil exploration Until about the 1930s soil exploration was consistently inadequate because rational methods for sol investigation hhad not yet been developed. On the other hand, at the present time the amount of soil exploration and testing and the refinements in the techniques for performing the investigations are often quite out of proportion to the practical value of the results. To avoid either of these extremes, the exploratory program must be adapted to the soil conditions and to the size of the job. 10.2 Influence of Soil Conditions on Exploratory Program If the foundation of an important structure is to be estab- lished above a fairly homogeneous layer of clay, a consid- erable amount of soil testing of samples of excellent quality may be justified because the test results permit a relatively accurate forecast of both the amount and the rate of settlement. On the basis of such a forecast, it may ‘be possible to eliminate the danger of harmful differential settlement at reasonable expense by appropriate distribu- tion of the loads or by suitable adjustment of the depths of subbasements beneath different parts of the structure, crit may become clear that a deep foundation is necessary. (On the other hand, if a similar structure is to be located above a deposit consisting of pockets and lenses of sand, clay, and silt, the same amount of testing would add very litle to the information that could he obtained merely by determining the index properties of several dozen representative camplec avtracted fram exploratary dell holes. Additional data of far greater significance than 22 those obtainable from extensive laboratory soil tests could, be secured in a shorter time and at less expense by subsur- face soundings along closely spaced vertical tines, because such soundings would disclose whatever weak or compressible spots might be located between drill holes. The discovery of such spots is more important than fan accurate knowledge of the properties of random samples. ‘The preceding remarks demonstrate that, if the soil profile is complex, an elaborate program of soil testing is likely to be out of place. Hence. the methods of soil exploration must be chosen in accordance with the type of sail profile at the site of the constmiction operations The following paragraphs describe the significant charac- teristies of the principal types of soil profiles commonly encountered in the field. The term soil profile indicates a vertical section through the subsoil that shows the thickness and sequence of the tively well-defined layer of soil in contact with other layers of conspicuously different character. If the bound- aries between strata are more or less parallel, the soil profile is said wo be simple or regular iT the boundaties constitute a more or less irregular pattern, the soil profile is called erratic From the ground surface to a depth of about 2 m, and. in some localities to a greater depth, the physical properties of the soil are influenced by seasonal changes, of moisture and temperature and by such biological agents, as roots, worms, and bacteria. The upper part of this region is known as the A-horizon. It is subject primarily to the mechanical effects of weathering and to the loss of some constituents due to leaching. The lower partis referred to as the B-horizon, where part of the substances; washed out of the A-horizon are precipitated and accumulate The properties of the soils in the A- and B-horizons ave chiafly the concern af agronomists and raad builders Foundation and earthwork engineers are interested pri-marly in the underlying parent material. Beneath the B- horizon the character of the sol is determined by the raw raterials from which it is derived, by the method of deposition, and by subsequent geological events. The individual ‘strata that constitute the soil profile beneath the B-horizon may be fairly homogeneous, or they may be composed of smaller elements having properties that depart more or less from the average. The shape. size. and arrangement of these smaller elements constitute the primary structure of the deposit. Because most soils have been deposited under water, the most common primary simcture is stratification. If the individual layers are not thicker than about 20 mm and are of roughly equal thick- ness. the sail is called laminated Far example. the varved clays described in Article 2 are laminated soils. The action of ice, landslides, torrential streams, and several other agents leads to the formation of deposits with an erratic structure. Such deposits have no well-defined pattern The more the structure of a mass of soil approaches the erratic type, the more difficult it is to determine the aver- age values of the soil properties and the more uncertain is the result In stiff clays and other soils w ‘ith great cohesion the structure that develops after the soil is deposited. Most important among the secondary structural characteristics are systems of hair cracks, joints, or slickensides. Hair racks and joints occur commonly in flood-plain clays consisting of layers, each of which was temporarily exposed to the atmosphere after deposition. Shrinkage caused cracks to form during the period of exposure. Slickensides are sunuvthly polished surfaces that may be the result of volume changes produced by chemical pro- cesses or of deformations produced by gravity or cwonic forces involving slippage along the walls of existing or newly formed joints. Secondary structure is ulso present in many residual soils in the form of relict joints, shears, oo otler features present in the tock before weathering reduced the material to a soi. Ifa cohesive stratum has a well-aleveloped secondary structure, the results of laboratory or field penetration tests may give an erroneous conception of its mechanical properties. Therefore, in connection with such soils, the engineer must rei on judgment oased on experience with similar materials and, in some instances, on large-scale field tests, Experience has shown that the physical properties of almost every natural soi! stratum vary to a considerable extent in the vertical direction and to a smaller degree in horizontal directions, ‘his tact is stnkingly demonstrated by the variation in natural water content of clays that appear on visual inspection to be homogeneous. The results of an investigation ofthe variation in water content within @ layer of clay in Boston are shown in Fig. 10.1 The variations within a 300-mm layer are shown in Fig ARTICLE 10 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF SOIL EXPLORATION 33, rire ca at Cegih Boalt Length of Sample nm wa Wate content by ight ee ee hie Cason Bry tpt Figure 10.1 Variation in natural water content of clay from ‘one dill hole in Boston. (a) Vasiation within vertical distance ‘of 300 mm. (6) Variation throughout entire boring (after Fadam 1948), 10.la and those within a 20-m layer in Fig. 10.16. If a ‘mass of clay appears to be stratified or lenticular, its water content is likely to vary with depth in a manner like that shown in Fig. 10, If a soil stratum is nonuniform, adequate information concerning the variations in the soil properties can be obtained only by securing continuous cores from top to bottom of the stratum and performing soil tests on every part of the core material, or else by performing suitable tests in the field. Field tests of one type. exemplified by subsurface soundings, furnish continuous records of the variations in penetration resistance of the stratum, Those very corr 7 organic MO, Berea in oa 2 Fite to coarse eee Soft dark gray i” sity clay & g6 acl li Q 8 part 3 whe | o-ciguia o T Limit x-Plastic a 2 imit 020 4b 60 80 (00 Water lontent-% Dry Weight Figure 10.2 Variation in natural water content of samples from boring in composite shore deposit