2023-6th Issue

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6th Issue
Contents Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
◼ Page 1289-1311
Impact Stiffness of Linear Viscoelastic Model for Seismic Pounding Simulation: An Experimental Evaluation
Yazan Jaradat, Harry Far
◼ Page 1312-1328
The Acoustic Performance of Natural Composites in Reducing Stress Levels: Textile Industry
Maria P. Widjanarti, Ari Probandari, Sumardiyono, Sunarto
◼ Page 1329-1343
Prediction of Soil-Water Characteristic Curves of Four Subgrade Materials using a Modified Perera Model
Rokhaya Gueye, Makhaly Ba, Ibrahima Mbaye, Ida Bibalo Josiane Ki
◼ Page 1344-1355
Experimental Study on Ultimate Strength of Steel Tube Column Filled with Reactive Powder Concrete
Bahaa Al-Abbas, Zainab M.R. Abdul Rasoul, Dhafer Hasan, Sajjad E. Rasheed
◼ Page 1356-1370
River Mobile Armor Layer Induced by Flood
Arlendenovega S. Negara, Cahyono Ikhsan, RR. Rintis Hadiani, Yusep M. Purwana
◼ Page 1371-1388
Optimal Bracing Type of Reinforced Concrete Buildings with Soil-Structure Interaction Taken into Consideration
Yassine Razzouk, Mohamed Ahatri, Khadija Baba, Ahlam El Majid
◼ Page 1389-1401
Behavior of Centrifuged GFRP Poles Under Lateral Deflection
Youssef A. Awad, Ahmed M. EL-Fiky, Hosam M. Elhegazy, Mahmoud G. Hasan, Ibrahim A. Yousef, Ahmed M. Ebid, Mohamed A. Khalaf
◼ Page 1402-1411
Estimation of Soil Moisture for Different Crops Using SAR Polarimetric Data
K. Kanmani, Vasanthi P., Packirisamy Pari, N. S. Shafeer Ahamed
◼ Page 1412-1426
The Effect of Recycled Material and Buton Granular Asphalt (BGA) on Asphalt Concrete Mixture Performance
Novita Pradani, Rita Irmawaty, Muhammad W. Tjaronge, Irwan R. Rahim
◼ Page 1427-1436
Production Economical Reinforced Concrete Slabs using Eco-Friendly Material
Mustafa S. Shubber, Thaer J. Mohammed, Khalid M. Breesem

6th Issue
Contents Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
◼ Page 1437-1455
Performance of Isolated Footing with Several Corrosion Levels under Axial Loading
Ahmed Youssef, Mahmoud Hegazy, Hatem Mostafa
◼ Page 1456-1470
Assessment of Fly Ash-Rice Straw Ash-Laterite Soil Based Geopolymer Mortar Durability
Parea R. Rangan, M. Tumpu, . Mansyur, D. S. Mabui
◼ Page 1471-1481
Assessment of E-Waste Management and Potential for Laptop Reuse and Recycling
Giao Thanh Nguyen, Trinh Thi Kieu Lam, Nhien Thi Hong Huynh
◼ Page 1482-1490
Evaluating the Potential of Recycled Asphalt for Sustainable Road Construction: An Environmental and Economic
Analysis
Muhamet Ahmeti, Milaim Ahmetaj, Visar Krelani
◼ Page 1491-1508
The Influence of Climatic Aging on the Performance of Wood-Based Panels
Ekaterina Pakhomova, Sergey Emelyanov, Viktor Yartsev, Vladislav Danilov, Pavel Monastyrev
◼ Page 1509-1521
Soil Reinforcement Model Test Using Timber Pile at Liquefaction Area
Suyadi, Tri Harianto, A. Bakri Muhiddin, Ardy Arsyad
◼ Page 1522-1541
Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Water using Leachate Modular Tower
Frank Aneke, Joy Adu

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Available online at www.CivileJournal.org

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Impact Stiffness of Linear Viscoelastic Model for Seismic Pounding

Simulation: An Experimental Evaluation
Yazan Jaradat 1*, Harry Far 1

1
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Australia.
Received 15 March 2023; Revised 20 May 2023; Accepted 26 May 2023; Published 01 June 2023
Abstract
Pounding between adjacent structures occurs when the separating distance within the two buildings is inadequate to contain
the movement between them during an earthquake event. Seismic pounding can lead to significant harm or even the
destruction of neighbouring structures. In creating a model for structural response, impact stiffness is considered as a
critical factor in calculating the impact force throughout the collision within adjacent structures. It is important to derive
realistic stiffness values when performing a numerical simulation of pounding forces within abutting structures to attain
valid results. The objective of this study is to ascertain the impact stiffness within the linear viscoelastic contact model,
using data obtained from shaking table experiments of pounding between neighboring five-storey and 15-storey single-
bay model of steel-frame. The steel models were subjected to scaled ground acceleration records, two far-field and two
near-field. The study’s findings indicate that there is a significant discrepancy between the theoretical impact parameters
and the measured experimental value because the assumptions made to derive the theoretical formulas do not align with
the actual impact conditions. The accuracy and precision of the experimental formula adopted in this study have been
validated in comparison with the numerical results.
Keywords: Seismic Pounding; Steel Structure; Impact Stiffness Parameter; Shake Table Test; Linear Viscoelastic Model; Impact Force;
Seismic Response; Seismic Performance.
1. Introduction
One of the significant risks for adjacent structures during earthquakes is the pounding that can occur between them.
This phenomenon is attributed to the fact that adjacent buildings or bridge elements with varying dynamic properties
tremble out of phase as a result of restricted or deficient separation distance to support the relative displacement.
Adjoining structures with insufficient spacing are conceived as loose structures without taking into account the pounding
effect during earthquake loading. Neglect can lead to the failure of structures. Seismic pounding causes soaring
magnitudes and brief interval acceleration pulses that could induce slight non-structural damage or serious structural
damage such as the partial or total collapse of buildings and bridges [1–3]. Hence, a determination of the seismic
pounding hazard is imperative in order to come up with future calibrations of the seismic designs of adjacent structures.
Several earthquakes have induced well-documented incidents of structural pounding resulting from seismic activity.
According to several researchers [4–7], one of the most destructive examples of damage caused by seismic pounding
occurred throughout the earthquake that hit Mexico City in 1985. Approximately 15% of the buildings that were affected
by this earthquake were damaged or collapsed due to the pounding, and in 20–30% of cases, the impact between adjacent
buildings was identified as a significant contributing factor to the damage or collapse of the structures. Investigations of
* Corresponding author: yazan.jaradat@student.uts.edu.au

http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-06-01
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
pounding damage between adjacent structures were conducted based on past and present earthquakes. Pounding damage
was acknowledged in numerous extreme earthquakes, such as the 1999 Taiwan Chi-Chi earthquake [8], and the 2008
Wenchuan earthquake [9]. After the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, pounding incidents between neighbouring buildings
as well as bridge structures were observed and reported [10, 11]. In the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal, the pounding
events noticed in valley settlements were limited to multistorey reinforced concrete structures, while those observed at
hilly urban settlements were focused on masonry structures [12].
Numerous studies have been implemented to explore the effects of seismic pounding between reinforced concrete
buildings situated in close proximity [13–15], the pounding of adjoining steel-frame structures [16–18], the pounding
of adjacent structures taking into account soil-structure interaction [19–21], and the pounding of a bridge deck excited
under earthquake acceleration [22, 23]. There are two common types of typically classified pounding scenarios: floor-
to-floor (slab-to-slab) impact and floor-to-column (slab-to-column) impact [24]. The scenario where the crashing
structures have the same floor heights is known as slab-to-slab collision, whereas slab-to-column collision is obvious
when the floor heights of the colliding edifices are unequal. Because of the substantial shear forces applied to the middle
section of struck columns, it is evident that slab-to-column pounding is more serious than slab-to-slab pounding [5].
Structural seismic pounding is an extreme, nonlinear occurrence. It encompasses plastic bending, crushing, local
cracking, and rupturing, along with friction destruction at the contact area. Taking into consideration the complexity of
this phenomenon, performing precise mathematical analysis can be challenging for this type of concern. Therefore,
using assumptions as a basis for analysis, various contact models were created to investigate and analyse structural
pounding during a seismic activity like an earthquake. The models include the linear spring model [16, 25], the linear
viscoelastic model [26–29], the nonlinear elastic model [17, 30, 31], the Hertz-damp model [32, 33], and the nonlinear
viscoelastic model [3, 31, 34]. The limitation of the linear spring model along with the Hertz model is that they assume
full elasticity and do not consider the dissipated energy due to damping. This can result in inaccurate predictions of
impact forces and structural response during pounding. The other impact models, namely, the linear viscoelastic, Hertz-
damp, in addition to nonlinear viscoelastic models, were discovered to provide relatively accurate outcomes for overall
structural reaction as long as the factors in these three impact models are well chosen [32].
The linear viscoelastic model is commonly adopted in the simulation of structural induced pounding for the reason
that of its simplicity, which can easily be applied in most commercial computer codes or software programs, as revealed
by most researchers [4, 31, 35–37]. The model has a significant limitation related to the negative impact force detected
just prior to the separation of two colliding structures. This phenomenon is not physically described, and it is attributed
to the fact that the linear damping term of the model is active during the entire contact period, assuming uniform energy
dissipation [38]. In order to correct the weakness of the linear viscoelastic model, Komodromos et al. [39] recommended
a variation. The proposed variation also has a significant constraint: the correct value of the impact stiffness k to be
applied in the simulation could not be determined beforehand. Licari et al. [40] recommended a special "viscoelastic
multi-link" finite element contact model for seismic driving between multistorey reinforced concrete frame edifices. The
proposed model was designed to replicate the nonlinear, time-dependent damping coefficients. Guo et al. [41] conducted
shaking table tests on a highway bridge model made from steel to evaluate the impact stiffness of four classes of contact-
element models. The study’s findings suggest that the theoretical impact variables considerably surpass the values
determined through experimentation since the assumptions made to develop the models do not align with the actual
impact conditions. An impact spring with under-stiffness can result in the overlaying of adjacent structures.
Alternatively, using a spring with an extremely high stiffness value can result in unrealistic, excessively large lateral
impact forces, which can introduce numerical instabilities and convergence issues.
Several studies have shown that impact stiffness k has a great bearing on the pounding response, particularly on the
inertia force response and the structural acceleration response, though the researchers have proposed various methods
and equations to compute the stiffness of the impact element model [26, 42–46]. The decision to employ impact stiffness
when examining structural pounding is difficult as it necessitates taking into account the uncertainties in the shapes of
the impact surfaces, the material properties when subjected to impact loads, the fluctuating impact velocities, and
additional factors. There is scant research on choosing impact stiffness. Usually, in the linear viscoelastic model, the
axial stiffness of the colliding elements is used as a basis to assume proportionality with the impact stiffness. This
method is usually adopted in evaluating structural seismic pounding [32].
The axial stiffness of a girder is used as the impact stiffness employed in analysing bridge pounding [27]. In building
pounding analysis, the impact stiffness used is assumed to be equivalent to the axial stiffness of the building’s slab. [25].
Cole et al. [47] derived a novel equation to determine an impact stiffness value by considering both the characteristics
of the colliding elements and the time duration of the impact. Xu et al. [48] created a different equation for the impact
stiffness of a linear model and contrasted it with the axial stiffness method and the Cole formula. The findings indicated
that the new equation yielded more precise outcomes than the two studied formulas.
1290
The structural response assigned to the pounding did not account for a high value for an impact stiffness coefficient.
Thus, Ghandil & Aldaikh [49] initiate that the pounding reaction is indifferent to the coefficient of impact stiffness when
its value exceeds 1010 N/m. On the other hand, Naserkhaki et al. [50] proposed that the coefficient of impact stiffness
supposed to be 50 to 100 times higher than the building’s lateral stiffness. Defining the appropriate k value is vital to
making certain that the results are valid. An unsuitable value of k may have direct effects on the peak force and number
of impacts between the adjacent buildings. At present, there is no relationship developed to bridge the gap in terms of
impact modelling.
The purpose of the present article is to develop a formula for the impact stiffness k for the linear viscoelastic model
on the basis of the experimental data. This study involved conducting shaking table experiments to simulate floor-to-
floor pounding between multistorey buildings at different elevations, and the outcomes are presented. The accuracy and
effectiveness of the derived experimental value are evaluated and verified by comparing it with the results of theoretical
analysis. Figure 1 shows a flowchart for the methodology implemented in this research. The flowchart explains the steps
involved in calculating the impact stiffness k, coefficient of restitution e, and impact damping ξ derived from four
different earthquake models and using various gaps between adjacent structures.
Figure 1. Flowchart for the implemented methodology
2. Linear Viscoelastic Impact Model

The linear viscoelastic model, which is also known as the Kelvin–Voigt model, is a widely used method to simulate
seismic pounding. This model incorporates a linear spring that models the impact in conjunction with a damper that
estimates the amount of energy dissipated during the collision, as shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Linear viscoelastic model and contact force-deformation relation
This model has been utilised by several researchers [28, 29, 51, 52]. The impact force, 𝐹𝑐 , in accordance with the
model is defined in equations 1 to 4.
𝑘(𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑑) + 𝐶(𝑢̇ 𝑖 − 𝑢̇ 𝑗 ) ; 𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑑 ≥ 0
𝐹𝑐 = { (1)
0; 𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑑 < 0
𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑗
𝐶 = 2𝜉 √𝑘 (2)
𝑚𝑖 +𝑚𝑗
ln 𝑒
𝜉= − (3)
√𝜋2 +(ln 𝑒) 2
𝑣𝑗−𝑣𝑖
𝑒= (4)
𝑣0𝑖 −𝑣0𝑗
where (𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢𝑗 ) and ( 𝑢̇ 𝑖 − 𝑢̇ 𝑗 ) are the relative displacements and velocities among the colliding elements at time t,
respectively. 𝑑 is the separating gap between the colliding elements. The damping coefficient is C and 𝜉 known as the
damping ratio. These can be linked to the coefficient of restitution by associating the energy losses throughout the
impact. In addition, 𝑚𝑖 and 𝑚𝑗 are the masses of the colliding elements while 𝑣0𝑖 , 𝑣0𝑗 and 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑖 are the velocities of
the crashing masses before impact and after impact, respectively. One drawback of the linear viscoelastic model is that
it generates negative pounding forces caused by damping before the colliding structures separate. This results in
comparable dissipation throughout both the approach along with restitution stages, which is not in line with actual
behaviour [22, 34]. Despite this limitation, much commercial software frequently uses the linear viscoelastic model for
simulating structural pounding.
3. Related Work in Impact Stiffness

Various methods are employed to determine the impact stiffness. The spring component k is employed to evaluate
the stiffness of the buildings by the contact point, which corresponds to the axial stiffness of the stronger structure [53].
1. Maison & Kasai [43] suggested a straightforward and fundamental formula for the impact stiffness coefficient k,
illustrated in Equation 5.
𝐸𝐴
𝑘= (5)
𝐿
where 𝐸 is the elasticity modulus and 𝐴 and 𝐿 are the area and the length of the crashing structural elements of
the building, respectively.
2. Naserkhaki et al. [50] proposed a succeeding equation proceeds on the assumption that the building’s lateral
stiffness should be multiplied by a coefficient of 50 to 100 to obtain the appropriate impact stiffness.
𝑘 = 𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 × (50 − 100) (6)
3. Based on the experiment performed by Jankowski [44], the impact stiffness parameter value for steel-to-steel
impact was 𝑘 = 482 k𝑁/m𝔪 under the linear viscoelastic model.
4. Xu et al. [48] developed the following formula for an impact stiffness (Equation 7) of the linear viscoelastic
model:
𝑚𝑗 (2 ln 𝑒/𝜋) (arcsin(𝜋/√𝜋2 +(ln 𝑒) 2 ))
𝑘= 𝑘1 𝑒 (7)
𝑚𝑖 +𝑚𝑗
where 𝑘1 is calculated based on Equation 5.
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4. Testing Program
4.1. Experimental Method
An experimental study has been designed on the basis of the shaking table concept. The aim of the experiment is to
exhibit the impact stiffness k of the linear viscoelastic model for seismic pounding. The experiment should consider the
different heights of adjacent buildings. The two model buildings were placed on the shaking table with a view to
simulating earthquakes with a certain gap between the buildings. The gap was carefully chosen to allow pounding
between the adjacent buildings in order to study seismic response, including acceleration, displacement, and impact
force. The experimental data were taken from three different sensors placed on the adjacent buildings. The sensors
collected three variables, namely, acceleration, displacement, and impact force time histories. The three variables were
analysed using MatLab to obtain the velocity from the acceleration data. The stiffness concerning the contact element k
was established by plotting the experimental impact force-displacement correlation.
4.2. Earthquake Simulator

The experimental work was carried out on the multi-axial simulation table type MTS 354.20 at the structural testing
facility in the state-of-the-art Tech Lab at the University of Technology, Sydney. The shaking table has plane dimensions
of 2.2 m × 2.2 m with six degrees of freedom. The shaking table used in the study has a capacity of testing samples up
to 2 tonnes and can provide acceleration up to 5 g, velocity up to 1000 mm/s, and stroke up to +/–200 mm. The system
can be used as an earthquake simulator and is powered by six hydraulic actuators in a hexapod arrangement with a
highly sophisticated control system to ensure the waveform is accurately reproduced.
4.3. Tested Frames

The experimental program examined steel-frame models of 15-storey and five-storey buildings in 1/30 scale.
According to AS/NZS 3678-2011, the two frame constructions were each individually developed at their smaller scale
(in structural steel). The tested frames were created using a methodology used by Tabatabaiefar et al. [54]. All versions
have a floor plan that measures 0.4 m by 0.4 m overall. The 15-storey frame is 1.5 m tall, while the five-storey frame is
only 0.5 m tall. Columns along with floors in the models were constructed from sections of flat steel with a rectangular
shape measuring 40 mm by 2 mm and 400 mm by 5 mm, respectively.
4.4. System Identification of the Steel-Frame Models

Through the execution of many initial tests, including free vibration, frame stiffness and a sine sweep test, the
dynamic properties of individually steel frame were established. The experiment’s goal in the free vibration testing was
to determine the structures’ fundamental period and damping. There are numerous ways to calculate damping. One
technique is to use the structure’s frequency response function’s width of peak value [55, 56]. The stiffness test was
created to gauge the frame structure’s stiffness parameter. The sine sweep test was conducted to determine the natural
frequency and vibration modes, specifically modes one, two and three. The dynamic properties of the experimental
along with the numerical findings for the 15-storey and five-storey steel models are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Structural model’s dynamic characteristics assessed through experiments and numerical analysis
Experiment Numerical
Stiffness Stiffness
Free Vibration Sine Sweep Test Modal Load Analysis
kN/mm kN/mm
Natural Damping Mode Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3
Frequency Hz % 1 Hz Hz Hz Hz Hz Hz
5-storey 6.53 0.467 6.43 19.99 35.91 0.0275 6.42 19.275 31.544 0.0278
15-storey 2.27 0.503 2.113 6.695 11.57 0.0083 2.0976 6.285 10.455 0.0087
4.5. Selected Seismic Acceleration Records

The four scaled earthquake ground motions utilised in the shaking table experiments are El Centro 1940 (Figure 3-
b), Hachinohe 1968 (Figure 4-b), Northridge 1994 (Figure 5-b) and Kobe 1995 (Figure 6-b) [57]. The first two quakes
were characterised as distant ground motions (far-field), whereas the last two were considered nearby earthquakes (near-
field). Near-field earthquakes have a distinct impact on structures compared to far-field earthquakes. When developing
buildings, the discrepancy between the two circumstances must be taken into consideration [58]. The properties of near-
field ground motion have received significant attention from researchers in determining elastic along with inelastic
behavioural dynamic of a structure [59, 60]. The International Association for Structural Control and Monitoring
selected these four earthquakes as a standard for seismic investigations [61]. The recordings contain multiple excitation
frequency mixtures, varied acceleration amplitudes and different time scales. These seismic records also differ in terms
1293
of distance to the epicentre. Regarding the peak ground acceleration (PGA), the Northridge earthquake had the greatest
value out of the four seismic events considered. The earthquake’s PGA is 0.843 g, and its epicentre is lower than 9.2 km
away. The Kobe earthquake occurred at a distance of 7.4 km and had a peak ground acceleration of 0.833 g. The El
Centro earthquake had a PGA of 0.349 g (calculated at a distance of 15.7 km). Finally, the Hachinohe earthquake’s PGA
was 0.229 g, and its epicentre was less than 14.1 km away.
0.4
Acceleration (g)
0.3 El Centro Earthquake
0.2 PGA = 0.349 g
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s)
(a)
0.4
Scaled El Centro Earthquake
Acceleration (g)
0.3
0.2 Scaling factor = 1/5.48
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 3. El Centro earthquake 1940, with (a) representing the primary record and (b) representing the resized record
0.4
Acceleration (g)
0.3 Hachinohe Earthquake

0.2 PGA = 0.229 g
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
(a)
0.4
Acceleration (g)
0.3 Scaled Hachinohe Eathquake

0.2 Scaling factore = 1/5.48
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 4. Hachinohe earthquake 1968, with (a) representing the primary record and (b) representing the resized record
1294
1.0
0.8
Acceleration (g)
Northridge Earthquake
0.6 PGA = 0.843 g
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (s)
(a)
1.0
0.8 Scaled Northridge Earthquake
Acceleration (g)

0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 5. Northridge earthquake 1994, with (a) representing the primary record and (b) representing the resized record
1.0
0.8
Acceleration (g)
Kobe Earthquake
0.6 PGA = 0.833 g
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s)
(a)
1.0
0.8
Acceleration (g)
Scaled Kobe Earthquake

0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 6. Kobe earthquake 1995, with (a) representing the primary record and (b) representing the resized record
4.6. Test Set-Up

The frame models used in the experiment were positioned and fixed onto the shaking table to represent a 15-storey
structure adjacent to a five-storey structure. As shown in Figure 7-a, once the experimental models were secured to the
shaking table, the accelerometer sensors and laser sensors for displacement (LD) were mounted. A force sensor was also
placed at the point of impact. The sensors were utilised to measure the pounding force, acceleration along with
displacement response of the impact. Shaking table tests were conducted using scaled earthquake acceleration recordings
(Figures 3 to 6). The reference frames are located outside of the shaking table. Therefore, the displacements that have
been recorded are the absolute displacement time history.
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(a) (b)
Figure 7. Test frames on shake table
Using scaled El Centro earthquakes, the coupled steel frames were evaluated with separation gaps of 10.5 mm, 9.7
mm, 9.5 mm, 9.3 mm and 8.5 mm. Under the scaled Hachinohe earthquake, the separating gaps were 12.5 mm, 12 mm,
11.5 mm, 11 mm and 10 mm. The neighbouring steel frames were evaluated with separating gaps of 21.8 mm, 21.4 mm,
21 mm, 19.5 mm and 18 mm under the scaled Northridge earthquake, and the separation gaps under the scaled Kobe
earthquake were16.8 mm, 16.4 mm, 15.6 mm, 15 mm and 14 mm. Separating distances were established based on a
previous experiment we carried out to ascertain the lowest safe space to avoid pounding. The spacing between the
components was meticulously designed to ensure the elasticity of the system remains intact and to detect pounding
without compromising the stability of the structure. It is important to mention that none of the conducted tests showed
any appreciable torsional motion [62].
The sensors were arranged as follows: accelerometers of type PCB 352C34 (±50 g) were mounted on the fifth and
15th floors of the 15-storey frame and the fifth floor of the five-storey frame, respectively. Two LD300 laser sensors for
displacement (with a range of ±150 mm) were mounted on the reference frames, one opposite the fifth floor of each
frame, and one LD400 sensor (with a range of ±200 mm) was mounted opposite the 15th floor of the 15-storey frame.
A force-measuring device was secured to the fifth floor of the pliable left frame, positioned directly across from the steel
plate of the inflexible right frame that would bear the impact force. A more extensive perspective of the intersection
point between the two frames is presented in Figure 7-b. The force generated by the impact due to pounding was
measured using a force sensor of type PCB 208C05 (with a range of measurement of 22.24 kN).
5. Experimental Results
More than 50 pounding experiments between the nearby structural steel models were conducted and subjected to
numerous input ground motions and separating distances. To accurately capture the impact force, displacement along
with acceleration, the data was sampled by the researchers at 10,000 samples per second. Using four ground motion
records that were adjusted in size, and as a result, scaled down, the experiments were conducted and impact force time
histories were recorded and analysed (as shown in Figures 13 to 16).
5.1. Experimental Impact Parameters

To ascertain the parameters concerning the impact model, for example in case of an impact stiffness 𝑘 and impact
damping 𝐶, the following steps were implemented:
1. Figures 8–11 illustrate the graphical representation of the experimental correspondence between impact force and
displacement. The area beneath each loop in these diagrams stands for the energy used in a collision. The stiffness
concerning the contact element is represented by the slope of the figure in any of the loops. According to the
experimental findings, the average of stiffness in contact element has been taken as k-experiment = 20,660 N/mm.
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Figure 8. Impact force-displacement relationship for pounding between the coupled 15-storey and five-storey buildings (fifth
floor) subjected to scaled El Centro earthquake with gap equal to a) 8.5 mm; b) 9.3 mm; c) 9.5 mm; d) 9.7 mm; e) 10.5 mm
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floor) subjected to scaled Hachinohe earthquake with gap equal to a) 10 mm; b) 11 mm; c) 11.5 mm; d) 12 mm; e) 12.5 mm
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floor) subjected to scaled Northridge earthquake with gap equal to a) 18 mm; b) 19.5 mm; c) 21 mm; d) 21.4 mm; e) 21.8 mm
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floor) subjected to scaled Kobe earthquake with gap equal to a) 14 mm; b) 15 mm; c) 15.6 mm; d) 16.4 mm; e) 16.8 mm
2. To derive the velocity time history, the acceleration data recorded at the fifth levels of both the 15-storey and five-
storey frames, where the pounding occurred, were subjected to numerical integration using the trapezoidal method.
After integration, Pitilakis et al. [63] used a technique that involves applying the high-pass Butterworth filter
numerous times to remove drift error and phase distortion. It was decided to implement the aforementioned
integration using a MATLAB code.
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3. By identifying the velocity at the moment of impact, we were able to compute the numerical values of the velocities
pre and post the impact; namely, the velocities of the crashing masses before and after impact 𝑣0𝑖 , 𝑣0𝑗 and 𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ,
respectively.
4. The coefficient of restitution e been calculated using Equation (4) based on the velocities pre and post each
collision event.
5. Equation 3 was taken into account for calculating the impact damping ratio 𝜉 at each value of 𝑒. For the full time
history record, the average value concerning the coefficient was calculated. Figure 12 illustrates the impact force
and the velocity within a short period.
Figure 12. (a) Experimental normal contact impact force within a short time; (b) velocity of 15-storey and five-storey frames
at the fifth floor for the same time interval
6. Equation 2 was employed to calculate the dashpot coefficient C in the contact element.
7. Lastly, the experimental parameters intended for the linear viscoelastic model are k-experiment = 20,660.0 N/mm,
C experiment = 1255.0 kg/s, 𝜉 = 0.078 and 𝑒 = 0.8.
Observations have been made that the range of the restitution coefficient e utilised to model actual collisions between
structures is 0.5 to 0.75 [28]. For typical buildings, Maison and Kasai [43] suggested an interval for e of 0.53 to 0.85.
Guo et al. [41] discovered that the coefficient of restitution for steel bridge structures ranges between 0.86 and 0.96
based on experimental findings. As a result, the computed e value is considered a suitable value for hammering steel on
steel.
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5.2. Theoretical Formulas for Impact Stiffness

As mentioned earlier, several researchers have carried out studies suggesting numerous assumptions in order to
assign a stiffness value 𝑘 to the spring element. These values were calculated based on the current experiment as follows:
1. In the experiment, the pounding occurred between the floor slab and the impact cap of the force sensor (called the
contact surface). The thickness of the slab steel plate is 5 mm. The impact surface area and length of steel plate
are 𝐴 = 63.5 𝑚𝑚2 and 𝐿 = 400 𝑚𝑚, respectively. The elasticity modulus is 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑀𝑃𝑎 [64]. Equation 5
can be utilised to calculate the impact stiffness parameter as:
200,000,000 × 63.5
(k-Masion & Kasai (1992) [43]) = = 31,750 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 (8)
400
2. Based on Equation (6) by Naserkhaki et al. [65]
(k-Naserkhaki et al. (2013)[65]) = 0.0275 × 100 = 2750 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 (9)
3. A 1/30 scale was used in this study. Therefore, according to Jankowski [44], (k-Jankowski (2008) [44]) = 482 ×
1
≅ 16,000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
30
4. Developed by Xu et al. [48], according to Equation 7, (k-Xu et al. (2016) [48]) = 12,858 N/mm
Using the aforementioned impact stiffness k, the researchers calculated the dashpot coefficient C in the contact
element with the help of Equation 2.
Having determined the linear viscoelastic impact model’s parameters – namely, the impact stiffness k along with
damping coefficient C (shown in Table 2) – the impact force time history has been calculated employing Equation 1.
Table 2. Impact parameters to linear viscoelastic model
Method Impact Stiffness 𝐤 N/mm Impact Damping Coefficient 𝐂 kg/s
Experiment 20,660 1255
Maison & Kasai (1992) [43] 31,750 1556
Naserkhaki et al. (2013) [65] 2750 458
Jankowski (2008) [44] 16,000 1104
Xu et al. (2016) [48] 12,848 990
6. Discussion
6.1. General Comparison
The impact stiffness value (k-experiment) derived from the experimental measurement was compared to that
determined by the other four methods in order to validate the correctness of the derived value. In addition, the accuracy
of the current experimental value is validated using theoretical simulations of the pounding response. A comparative
study was made based on five methods of determining impact stiffness, to wit: the experimental value (k-experiment),
Maison and Kasai formula (Equation 5), Naserkhaki et al. formula [65] (Equation 6), Jankowski’s value and the Xu et
al. formula (Equation 7).
To contrast the experimental impact force with the linear viscoelastic model impact force with regard to the impact
stiffness obtained from the five methods, Equation 1 was used to calculate the impact force time history. The results are
depicted in Figures 13 to 16. The computation was performed using an Excel spreadsheet, and a time step of 0.0001
second was utilised for the analysis. It is evident from the figures that the impact stiffness derived experimentally is
evidently different from that determined by other methods. The reason for this discrepancy can be traced back to the
sensitivity of the theoretical results and the accuracy with which the dynamic properties of the structures is identified.
Correspondingly, impact problems are highly sensitive, and even small changes in the parameters can lead to significant
differences in the response.
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(c) 13. Experimental peak impact force vs theoretical peak impact force with several k values for pounding between the
k-Jankowski
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(b)14. Experimental peak impact force vs theoretical peak impact force with several k values for pounding between the
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Figure 16. Experimental peak impact force vs theoretical peak impact k-Jankowski (2008)k values fork-Xu
force with several et al (2016)
pounding between the coupled
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6.2. Theoretical Validation

To confirm the accuracy concerning the experimentally determined impact stiffness value, a validation of the peak
impact forces obtained from the pounding simulations was performed utilizing the linear viscoelastic model. The impact
stiffness obtained using the five methods and similar model factors were utilised in running the theoretical analysis. The
difference between the results of the experimental measurement obtained by the force sensor and those of the theoretical
analysis was determined through calculating the percent error [66]. The relative error of the peak impact force using the
theoretical simulation was obtained using the succeeding formula:
|𝐹𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐹𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 |
𝐸= × 100% (10)
𝐹𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥
where E is the percent error, 𝐹𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the peak impact force on the basis of the experimental measurements and 𝐹𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥
is the peak impact force from the theoretical simulation.
Figure 17 displays the discrepancies between the peak impact forces obtained from theoretical simulations utilising
the linear viscoelastic model and the impact stiffness calculated from the five different methods, expressed as relative
errors. It is apparent from Figure 17 that the experimental value of impact stiffness derived from the linear viscoelastic
model had the least relative errors when compared with that of the axial stiffness formula (Equation 5), Naserkhaki et
al. formula (Equation 6), Jankowski’s value and the Xu et al. formula (Equation 7). Thus it can be stated that the impact
stiffness obtained from the adopted experimental formula of the linear viscoelastic model can produce a more accurate
simulation of the structural throbbing than those of other formulas.
Figure 17. The percent error of the theoretical peak impact forces, based on five types of methods to compute impact stiffness
It should be noted that the outcomes of the current study are valid for elastic response structure only [67]. In this
study, it is assumed that the soil beneath the foundations is infinitely inflexible and, consequently, the effects of soil-
structure interaction are neglected. The comparison with the theoretical results has confirmed that the adapted formula
is sufficiently accurate for practical engineering purposes
The results of this investigation led to the development of the subsequent equation for determining the optimal
rescaled impact stiffness 𝑘 value:
𝑘 = 20.66 × 𝜆 × 30 (11)
which can be written as
𝑘 = 620 × 𝜆 (12)
where λ denotes the scale factor used by the researchers and 𝑘 value was measured by kN/mm.
The value of k-experiment was based on a 1/30 scale factor for single-bay moment resisting steel-framed models. If
any other scale factors are employed, then Equation 12 will be used to calculate the new 𝑘 value. For instance, if a scale
of 1/8 were selected for this model, then the equation result would be:
1
𝑘 = 620 × = 77.50 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚 (13)
8
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6.3. Effect of the Mass Ratio and the Coefficient of Restitution

The impact force was examined based on various impact stiffness values, considering different values of parameters,
such as the restitution coefficient and the mass ratio of the two crashing bodies. The mass ratio of the two crashing slabs
𝑚𝑖 and 𝑚𝑗 is taken as 𝜑 = 𝑚𝑗 /𝑚𝑖 . The mass ratio φ been defined from 0.5 to 5, while the restitution coefficient e was
varied between 0.2 and 1, in increments of 0.2. However, only the impact results due to pounding within the 15-storey
building adjoining the five-storey building excited under the scaled El Centro earthquake (far-field) and scaled Kobe
earthquake (near-field) were selected for description. It is noticeable in Figures 18 and 19 that the restitution coefficient
has a significant influence while mass ratio has no effect on impact force. It was also found that the low value of the
restitution coefficient directly affecting the impact force; the negative force is clearly shown in Figure 19. The negative
impact force due to pounding simulated by the linear viscoelastic model generated just before separation reported by
Jankowski [34, 44] does not have a physical clarification. Nevertheless, choosing the linear viscoelastic model
parameters accurately is vital to eliminate the negative impact force, both the impact stiffness k and the restitution
coefficient e must be set correctly.
Figure 18. Impact force results obtained from five different methods for varying mass ratios subjected to scaled (a) El
Centro earthquake and (b) Kobe earthquake
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Figure 19. Impact force results obtained from five different methods for varying restitution coefficients subjected to scaled
(a) El Centro earthquake and (b) Kobe earthquake
7. Conclusion
Experimental tests using an earthquake simulator were conducted on pounding between adjacent steel-frame
structures of unequal heights. Two 1/30 scale 15-storey and five-storey steel-frame buildings were considered. The
impact forces, acceleration responses and displacement responses due to floor-to-floor pounding were investigated as
subjected to various earthquake acceleration records. Based on experimental data from this study, novel equation for
calculating the impact stiffness k of the linear viscoelastic impact model used for simulating pounding was thus
developed. The k values in the experimental data were measured using accelerometers, laser displacement and load cell
sensors. The results show the value of the impact stiffness using the linear viscoelastic model compared with the
theoretical values advanced by other researchers. Based on the results of our experiments, we conclude that the proposed
value of 𝑘 = 620 kN/mm can be scaled up based on 𝑘 = 620 × 𝜆, where 𝜆 presents the scale factor. This formula was
generated by comparing the theoretical and experimental findings. This theoretical study presented numerical analysis
that utilised various earthquakes with different k values. It was found that the 𝑘 value of the experimental study was the
most relevant value given the standard deviation and error rate of the numerical analysis.
The simulation of impact force is significantly affected by the impact stiffness along with the coefficient of
restitution, whereas the effect of mass ratio of the colliding floors is insignificant.
To validate the accuracy of the suggested 𝑘 value, pounding simulation results using the four different formulas were
compared. The outcomes of the analysis show that the impact stiffness, derived using the adopted formula of the linear
viscoelastic model, is smaller than the axial stiffness concerning the colliding body. The accuracy of the proposed
formula was substantiated by comparing the numerical simulation results with the experimental results.
Hence, the present formula concerning impact stiffness considering the linear viscoelastic model is recommended
for purposes of obtaining more reliable results when conducting experimental and numerical simulations of earthquake-
induced structural pounding.
One suggestion for future research would be to investigate the impact model parameters for various building
configurations to gain a better understanding of their impact on simulation accuracy. Moreover, this study focuses on
floor-to-floor pounding; further studies are required to conduct column-to-floor pounding as this can increase the
likelihood of structural failure compared with impacts at equal floor heights. Lastly, we note that several parameters
were neglected in this study; for example, P-delta effect, soil-structure interaction, direction of incidence of earthquake
and structural system. We recommend that additional studies are conducted to take these parameters into account.
8. Declarations
8.1. Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Y.J. and H.F.; methodology, Y.J.; software, Y.J.; validation, Y.J. and H.F.; formal analysis, Y.J.;
investigation, Y.J.; resources, Y.J.; data curation, Y.J.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.J.; writing—review and
editing, H.F.; visualization, Y.J.; supervision, H.F.; project administration, H.F.; funding acquisition, Y.J. and H.F. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
8.2. Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in the article.
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8.3. Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
8.4. Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
The Acoustic Performance of Natural Composites in Reducing

Stress Levels: Textile Industry
Maria P. Widjanarti 1, 2* , Ari Probandari 3, Sumardiyono 3, Sunarto 4

1
Occupational Health and Safety department. Vocational School, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia.
2
Doctoral Program in Environmental Science, Postgraduate Program, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia.
3
Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia.
4
Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia.
Received 20 February 2023; Revised 09 April 2023; Accepted 03 May 2023; Published 01 June 2023
Abstract
The porous characteristics of recycled natural fibres make them suitable for use as acoustic materials. Straw and water
hyacinth fibres are natural materials that can potentially be used as composites in damping devices. This study evaluated
the acoustic performance of two types of reinforced composites containing natural fibers (water hyacinth and rice straw)
and gypsum adhesives in reducing stress levels in the textile industry. The evaluation was carried out through laboratory
tests using impedance tubes and direct testing in a textile factory to reduce the stress level of production machine workers
and operators. Rice straw and water hyacinth fibres were thoroughly mixed in proven mass ratios of 10% and 30% with
water and gypsum plaster as a binder. The mixture was pressed into a mould at a pressure of 3 MPa before being heated in
an oven at 900ºC for 5 hours. Perforations measuring 4 to 8 mm in diameter were then made at equal distances on the
panels. Acoustic panel performance tests were carried out with impedance tubes according to ISO 10534-2 standards at
sound frequencies ranging from 0 to 6400 Hz. Field tests were also conducted at a textile factory, with each machine unit
generating a sound source of 100 to 110 dB. Heart rate data was collected, and noise measurements were carried out before
and after the panels were installed in the area around the operating machines. The results showed that the rice straw-gypsum
composite with four perforations performed the best, achieving an α coefficient of 1.0 at a frequency of 1500 Hz and an
NRC of 0.50, indicating effective noise reduction. The installation of acoustic panels around the noise source in the textile
industry reduced noise levels by up to 9.8 dB and was found to affect workers' heart rates, indicating reduced stress levels.
The questionnaire results also showed a significant effect on the stress levels of workers. The use of natural fibers in
composite materials has the potential to be an eco-friendly and sustainable solution for soundproofing applications.
Keywords: Rice Straw; Water Hyacinth; Gypsum; Composite; Sound Absorption; Stress Level; Acoustic Materials.
1. Introduction
Noise is any unwanted sound that interferes with human hearing. Sound has multiple frequencies and amplitudes,
while noise is sound that occurs at high frequencies. Types of noise include constant, continuous, fluctuating,
intermittent, impulsive, random, and impact noises. Noise affects the physiological, psychological, communication, and
deafness of the workforce or listeners. It often occurs in crowded areas, such as urban areas, due to the sounds of vehicles
and activities. In addition, in the manufacturing industry, noise is often caused by the operation of a group of industrial
machines. In an industrial sector where production machines are commonplace, the noises that factory equipment emits
* Corresponding author: maria.paskanita@staff.uns.ac.id

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during operation are a nuisance that can potentially affect the comfort and health of its environmental components,
primarily the operators or employees who operate this factory equipment. Therefore, it is necessary to control the noise
levels in the factory environment for the benefit of employees and the factory environment.
Noise from transportation, industrial, and recreational activities has auditory and non-auditory effects. The effects
of noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) stem from exposure to occupational and social noise as well as increasing age [1].
According to the Global Burden of Disease (2019) report, 1-3 million people have been affected by NIHL [2]. The
United States and Europe report that 23% of adults have NIHL, while the WHO states that there are 466 million people
with hearing loss globally [3]. The non-auditory effects of noise are mental health disorders [4–8], cardiovascular
diseases [9–11], cognitive performance [12, 13], and sleep disturbances [14, 15].
Acoustic damping devices are one of the multiple noise control methods that have been examined to decrease noise
levels. Although industries take noise levels into consideration while outlining their needs, the actual noise levels
produced were most likely unanticipated due to several factors, such as the expansion of production capacity, which
requires an increase in the number of operating machines. Furthermore, many small industries often do not prioritise
occupational health and safety in various regions. As such, noise-absorbing devices should be installed to decrease noise
levels as well as improve occupational health and safety.
Multiple aspects of acoustic damping devices, such as performance, design, materials, and efficacy; have garnered
significant attention recently. Of these, field testing potential noise-absorbing materials for acoustic absorber devices is
one of the most popular. Composite materials are often used in acoustic damping devices as they provide sound
management and control with the use of natural and waste materials. Porous materials are, generally, preferred for sound
attenuation devices. Therefore, a combination of both materials could be used to develop a damping device that
effectively decreases noise levels. Perforated panels and absorption membranes; which are types of resonance materials,
are commonly used as sound absorption materials in various applications. The basic working principle of perforated
panels is the prioritisation of the effect of internal resonance within a certain frequency range. Porous materials are ideal
sound absorbers as they are light as well as easy to handle and manufacture.
Natural composite materials play an integral role in acoustic control. As the use and material properties of natural
materials are on the rise, they present opportunities to design acoustic materials that are cheap and biodegradable. Natural
materials of varying compositions, porosities, thicknesses, and other properties are generally used as composite materials
in acoustic damping devices to improve and control their performance. Natural fibre materials are widely used in the
acoustics industry due to their internal porosity, which makes them ideal for sound absorption as they provide more
airflow resistivity. Furthermore, inherent material properties such as fibre diameter, fibre length, density, and porosity,
to name a few, play a significant role in sound absorption. Berardi et al. examined the sound absorption coefficient (α)
of natural fibres; such as hemp, kenaf, cotton, coconut, wood fibre, cork, and sheep wool. Other natural materials that
are commonly used to make composite materials, such as coconut coir, corn husk, kenaf fibre, and wood fibre; are still
in the development stage of improving their acoustic performance. Natural waste; such as rice straw and water hyacinth
fibre; also has significant noise-reducing potential.
Rice straw; the second largest agricultural waste after wheat, has several potential advantages. According to multiple
studies, rice straw comprises 7.36% silica, 38.7% carbon, 2.37% potassium, 1.13% calcium, 0.53% magnesium, and
water in its natural state. Rice straw is preferred over coconut fibre, husk, rice, hemp, sugar cane, and other agricultural
waste due to its outstanding mechanical, thermal, and acoustic properties [16-21]. The α of wood-rice straw composites
is 0.5 at a frequency of 2000 to 8000 Hz [22-27]. Rice straw has a noise reduction coefficient (NRC) of 0.8, which is
akin to that of hemp but lower than that of hemp and cotton waste [28]. Furthermore, rice straw- methylcellulose fibre
adhesive has been found to increase α by 2000 to 3500 Hz and decrease the frequencies that follow [29]. Bio-foam; a
mixture of 5% rice straw and polyurethane-urea; has an NRC of 0.116 [30].
Most countries consider hyacinth or Eichhornia crassipes a waste product [31] as it is a highly-proliferative and
invasive plant that grows in tropical and subtropical regions [32]. However, in the construction industry, water hyacinth
fibre is used to reinforce polymer composites [33] and to produce a cement composite [34] that has an α of 0.92, which
is made by blending water hyacinth fibre with recycled palm oil-based polyurethane foam (PUF) [35]. Gypsum plaster
is used as a binder as it is fire retardant, provides heat and thermal insulation [18], and has an NRC of 0.12 [36]. Rice
straw and water hyacinth are natural fibres that are usually mixed with cement, polymers, or wood chips. However,
studies into gypsum-reinforced rice straw and water hyacinth composites are limited. Therefore, this study used gypsum
as a binder to compare the use of rice straw waste and water hyacinth waste as reinforcement. Research related to natural
fibers has been carried out by various researchers in the field of materials. Such as egg container waste, wood, straw,
and water hyacinth. One of the studies conducted by Setyowati et al. (2021) [37] is a study related to water hyacinth
fibers used as acoustic panels. In the study conducted, water hyacinth fibers were reinforced with ceramics and
composites. The ceramic mixture is added to clay as a water hyacinth reinforcement. The results reviewed are the
acoustic performance which shows that the absorption coefficient of water hyacinth with ceramics averages 0.29. While
the resin composite has a worse absorption coefficient value of 0.10. Furthermore, research related to rice straw in the
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study by Abdullah et al. (2011) [20], said that the acoustic material with rice composites has good performance,
especially at frequencies above 2000 Hz and is comparable to classical synthetic absorption. In another study, water
hyacinth fiber was used as a fiber-reinforced polymer composite material as a reinforcing material for concrete restraints
[38, 39]. Research conducted by Jirawattanasomkul et al. (2021) [33] shows that the mechanical properties reinforced
by water hyacinth are acceptable for the purposes of strengthening concrete with good environmental friendliness. From
these two studies, it became a strong foundation and the finding that water hyacinth fiber reinforced by gypsum material
can be used as a good and environmentally friendly acoustic panel.
The aim of this study was to determine the acoustic performance of acoustic damping devices made of gypsum-
reinforced rice straw and gypsum-reinforced water hyacinth composites and field test them at a textile factory in
Surakarta City, Java, Indonesia. The perforated panels were first arranged on several frames before their manufacturing
processes were adjusted to satisfy the unique needs and conditions of the textile industry; the target market of this study.
The ability of these panels to decrease the stress levels of machine operators by decreasing the noise emissions of the
machines was examined. The findings of this present study that water hyacinth and rice straw, which are easily available
natural waste products in Indonesia, can be used to address occupational safety and health. The data was collected in
two stages. An impedance tube was used to examine the performance of the damping device in the first stage before the
the stress levels of operators using the machines was collected in the subsequent field test stage.
2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Material Preparation
This present study used raw materials; specifically, rice straw and water hyacinth; from local farms in Central Java.
The rice straw was cut into 10 mm lengths with scissors and crushed using a crusher. Rice straw and water hyacinth
fibres, at densities of 0.276 gr/cm3 and 0.363 gr/cm3, respectively were subjected to 3 MPa of pressure. The composites
were produced by, first, cutting the 10 mm long rice straw and water hyacinth then crushing them with a five-mesh
crusher. The rice straw and water hyacinth were then weighed before a dose-dependent amount of water was added to
each. The rice straw and water hyacinth were mixed in separate containers with a gypsum reinforcement and adhesive.
Lastly, a gypsum compound and water were added to each form a strong material.
The rice straw-gypsum-water mixture was then poured into a steel mould and set aside three hours before a hydraulic
jack with a maximum capacity of 5 MPa was used to press the mould. This process was repeated with the water hyacinth-
gypsum-water mixture. The composites were then removed and dried in the sun for a day before being heated in an oven
at 900˚C for five hours to homogenise the moisture. Table 1 provides the physical characteristics of the water hyacinth
and rice straw composites. Multiple samples of the rice straw and water hyacinth composites were prepared to either
contain 10% and 30% of rice straw and water hyacinth fibres. Solid samples as well as samples with one to four
perforations were also prepared. All the samples were 20 mm thick. The α of the samples was tested according to the
ISO 10534-2:1998 standard. Some samples were cut to measure 30 mm in diameter and tested using two-microphone
impedance according to the international ASTM 1050-98 standard. The absorption measurements were conducted at a
frequency of 0 to 6500 Hz.
Table 1. Sample preparation and characteristics of composites
Gypsum Water Rice Straw Water Diameter Depth
Sample Fraction Design
(g) (g) (g) Hyacinth (g) Perforation (mm) (mm)
RS_10%_0 690 552 33.12 - 10% No Perforation - 20
RS_10%_1 690 552 33.12 - 10% Perforation 1 8.46 20
RS_30%_1 536 429 99.36 - 30% Perforation 1 8.46 20
RS_30%_4 536 429 99.36 - 30% Perforation 4 5.40 20
WH-10%-0 690 552 - 43.56 10% No Perforation - 20
WH-10%-1 690 552 - 43.56 10% Perforation 1 8.46 20
WH-30%-1 536 429 - 130.68 30% Perforation 1 8.46 20
WH-30%-4 536 429 - 130.68 30% Perforation 4 5.40 20
The field tests were conducted at a textile factory in Surakarta City, Java, Indonesia by placing the panels around
several industrial machines. The sound acoustic panels were made separately with several frames (Figure 1). Figure 2
depicts the production space for the machinery. In one production room of the textile factory, there were 144 production
machines divided into three blocks of 48 devices each. In one work shift, 16 machines were working in Block 1. The
damping panels were placed in one of the production room blocks. Prior to collecting the sound attenuation data of the
panels, the noise level in Block 1 was measured at several location points and the highest noise value was recorded. The
machine operators also were equipped with Xiaomi® Mi Band 5 heart rate detection smartwatches to determine their
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stress levels due to engine noises. The heart rate of every participant was recorded at hourly intervals to assess their
stress levels. The heart rate data was collected both before and after the installation of the damping device. Apart from
heart rate data, the participants were also required to answer a questionnaire once every hour to monitor the compatibility
of the heart rate data and their subjective evaluations. The field test was conducted over a 30-day period. IBM® SPSS
Statistics was used to process the questionnaire data and determine if there was a correlation between the noise generated
by the industrial machines and the stress levels of the operators.
Figure 1. The acoustic panels developed and installed in the textile factory
Figure 2. The layout of production machines in the textile factory
2.2. Methodology
The research was started by making samples, as shown in the material preparation section above. Furthermore, lab-
scale testing is carried out on samples that are ready by adjusting the sample size on the impedance tube test equipment.
The objective of this study was to investigate the acoustic performance of gypsum-reinforced rice straw and water
hyacinth composites in reducing stress levels in the textile industry. The study was conducted in two phases: (1)
laboratory testing of the acoustic properties of the composites using an impedance tube, and (2) field testing of the
composites installed in a textile factory to measure their sound attenuation performance and their effect on workers'
stress levels. To evaluate the acoustic properties of the gypsum-reinforced rice straw and water hyacinth composites, an
impedance tube was used. The impedance tube was calibrated using a reference microphone, and the composites were
placed at the end of the tube to measure their sound absorption coefficient and transmission loss. The impedance tube
measurements were conducted in a reverberation-free laboratory environment at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure. The sound pressure level (SPL) in the textile factory was measured using a calibrated sound level meter. To
assess the effect of the composites on workers' stress levels, heart rate data was collected using smartwatches worn by
the workers. The smartwatches recorded the workers' heart rates continuously during their work shifts. To gather
subjective data on the workers' stress levels, a questionnaire was designed consisting of questions related to the workers'
perception of the noise level and stress level during their work shifts. The questionnaire was administered to the workers
after they had completed their work shift. The flow of research conducted is shown in the following flowchart (Figures
3 to 5).
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Environment
Work Environment
Social - economic: Waste

Abiotic Biotic Culture Re-cycle
Physic Stressor Psychosocial

(Noise) Human / Worker Stressor Recycle Agricultural
waste
Personal Coping
Character Mechanism Rice Straw + Water Hyacinth
Gypsum + gypsum
Higher
Work Related Stress Composite Test
(Acoustic Test)
Lower Work-Related Optimum

Stress INTERVENTION
Composite
Figure 3. Environmental frame work to stress level
Textile Industry
Pre-experiment
One Group Pretest Post-test
(Weaving department – noise > 85 dBA
Pre-Test
Noise Measurement
Work Related Stress Measurement
Intervention
Natural Composites: Rice Straw Gypsum Paired Sample
Reinforced T Test
Post-test
Noise Measurement
Work Related Stress Measurement
Figure 4. Pre-experimental one group pre-test and post-test design in textile industry
Material
 Availability
 Organic waste / eco-friendly
 Literature review
Rice-straw Water
Hyacinth
Rice Straw fiber: gypsum Perforation 0
10%: 90% Perforation 1
Fiber shredding
Rice Straw fiber: gypsum Perforation 1
30%: 70% Perforation 4 Optimum
Acoustic Test
Composite
Solidification
Composite Sample Perforation 0
and Drying Water Hyacinth fiber: gypsum
Mass
Production
Water Hyacinth fiber: gypsum Perforation 1
Installation in
Textile Industry
Figure 5. Laboratory research flowchart
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The layout of the production room and a sketch of the room used for the data collection showed that it had a length,
width, and height of 20×40×4 m, respectively. With these dimensions and with the number of machines in operation,
simulations were used to predict the distribution of acoustic pressure and sound pressure levels in Block 1 (Figure 6).
Figures 6-a and 6-b show the prediction of the pressure distribution from the resulting engine sound sources. Figure 6-
a shows an image of the sound pressure level in decibel units in the room used for testing while Figure 6-b shows the
resulting pressure distribution in MPa. The sound distribution predicted in the simulation was used to identify ideal
locations to collect the highest and lowest sound data. The purpose of identifying and collecting data at the location with
the lowest sound was to compare and statistically test the heart rate and questionnaire data of participations in that
location with their counterparts in other parts of the factory.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Description of predicted (a) sound pressure level and (b) pressure in the textile factory room
Figure 7 shows the installation of the sound attenuation panels in the field and the data collection process. Each panel
was 3 m long and 2 m high with a composite thickness of 3 cm. Rice straw-gypsum acoustic panels with one to four
perforations were installed. The impedance tests results indicated that the rice straw-gypsum acoustic panel with four
perforations performed the best.
Figure 7. The installation of acoustic panels and data collection process
Figure 8 illustrates an impedance tube test of a sample by generating plane waves from the sound source in the
impedance tube. A sound source, usually a loudspeaker, is attached to one end of the impedance tube while a sample of
the tested material is placed at the other end. The speaker generates random fixed broadband sound waves, which are
propagated as plane waves and bounce off after hitting the sample. The decomposition of the selected sound wave
pattern into components that travel forward and backward in the tube produces a standing wave interference pattern. By
simultaneously measuring the sound pressure at two fixed locations (mics 1 and 2) and calculating the complex transfer
function, it is possible to determine the complex reflection coefficient, α, and normal acoustic impedance of the
specimen.
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Figure 8. A schematic diagram of the plane wave generated during acoustic measurement with a two-microphone
impedance tube
A sound level meter (Benetech GM1356) was used to measure the SPL before and after the installation of the acoustic
absorber panels. The meter was calibrated before each measurement, and measurements were taken at different locations
in the textile industry to evaluate the overall effectiveness of the panels. Each measurement was taken for a duration of
30 seconds, and the average value was recorded. The heart rate (HR) measurements were taken using a band Xiaomi®
Mi Band 5 smartwatch worn by the workers before and after the installation of the panels. The HR data were collected
using a heart rate monitor Xiaomi® Mi Band 5 smartwatch and analyzed to assess the stress levels of the workers. The
band was placed around the worker's chest, and the data were recorded for a duration of 5 minutes. Then the data
collected from the SPL measurements and HR measurements were stored on a computer to be analyzed. The data were
saved in CSV format for further analysis.
3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Tube Impedance Test Results
An impedance tube was used to determine the acoustic performance of four types; (1) solid, (2) 10% fibre with one
perforation, (3) 30% fibre with one perforation, and (4) 30% fibre with four perforations; of both the rice straw-gypsum
composite and the water hyacinth-gypsum composite. The tests were conducted using a Bruel & Kjær® 4206 Impedance
Tube Kit (Norcross, GA, USA), which comes with two types of tubes; namely, a large 100-mm tube for measuring a
frequency range of 50 to 1600 Hz and a small 29-mm tube for measuring a frequency range of 500–6400 Hz. The
experiments in this present study were conducted using only the small 29-mm tube. Figure 9 depicts the composite
samples used for the tube impedance tests. Rice straw and water hyacinth fibres were chosen for their high cellulose
content. Cellulose is insoluble in water and present in all wood-containing molecules. Linear cellulose molecules are
crystalline, insoluble, and difficult to degrade chemically and mechanically. These characteristics were taken into
consideration in the choice of rice straw and water hyacinth as reinforcement in polymer composites [40].
Rice Straw
Image RS_10%_0 Image RS_10%_0 Image RS_30%_1 Image RS_30%_4

Water Hyacinth
Image WH_10%_1 Image WH_10%_1 Image WH_30 %_1 Image WH_30 %_4
Figure 9. The rice straw-gypsum composites and the water hyacinth-gypsum composites used in the impedance test
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Plant structures and cells comprise lignin, cellulose, and other fibres. Lignocellulosic biomass, consisting of 10–25%
lignin, is a natural polymer that is abundantly available in nature. Lignin is insoluble in water, remains stable, and acts
as a binding agent between cellulose and hemicellulose [41]. Lignin is a critical material between one component and
another in plants. Plants with lignin and fibre are analogous to building structures that use concrete with steel frames
[42]. Figure 10 shows the impedance testing of the acoustic samples. Impedance tests were conducted to evaluate the
characteristics and performance of the composite samples before they were mass-produced and installed in the textile
industry.
Figure 10. The impedance testing of composite samples

As seen in Figures 11 to 16, the examined test results included α, reflection coefficient, and the impedance ratio of
each material and their variations. The addition of perforations to the 10% rice straw-gypsum composite changed its α.
The α of the solid rice straw-gypsum composite reached 0.32. However, the addition of one perforation increased the α
of the 10% rice straw-gypsum composite to 0.89 at a frequency of 1500Hz, decreased it to 0.24 at a frequency of 3000
Hz, and increased it again to 0.60 at a frequency of 6400 Hz. The 30% rice straw-gypsum composite and one perforation
achieved a maximum α of 1.00 at a frequency of 1750 Hz, which decreased to 0.47 at a frequency of 3000 Hz then
increased to 0.91 at a frequency of 6400 Hz. Meanwhile, the α of the 30% rice straw fibre with four perforations reached
1.00 at a frequency of 1500 Hz, which then decreased at 3000 Hz then increased to 0.91 at 3000 to 6400 Hz.
1.0
RS_10%_0
0.9
RS_10%_1
Sound Absorption Coefficient (α)
0.8
RS_30%_1
0.7
RS_30%_4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 11. The sound absorption coefficient (α) of the rice straw-gypsum composite
1.0 WH_10%_0
Sound Absorption Coefficient (α)
0.9 WH_10%_1
0.8 WH_30%_1
0.7 WH_30%_4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12. The sound absorption coefficient (α) of the water hyacinth-gypsum composite
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6
NRC
dB Drop
NRC and dB Drop 5
0
RS_10%_0 RS_10%_1 RS_30%_1 RS_30%_4 WH_10%_0 WH_10%_1 WH_30%_1 WH_30%_4
Samples
Figure 13. The decibel drop (dB) results of the impedance tests and the equations used for each material
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
NRC
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Material
Figure 14. A comparison of the maximum NRC value of acoustic materials examined and commercialized
0.8
0.6
Reflection Coefficient
0.4
0.2
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
-0.2
Frequency (Hz)
-0.4
-0.6 RS_10%_0 RS_10%_1 RS_30%_1
RS_30%_4 WH_10%_0 WH_10%_1

-0.8
WH_30%_1 WH_30%_4
-1
Figure 15. The reflection coefficient of each sample in the impedance test
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30 RS_10%_0 RS_10%_1
RS_30%_1 RS_30%_4
25 WH_10%_0 WH_10%_1
WH_30%_1 WH_30%_4
Impedance Ratio
20
15
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 16. The impedance ratio of the impedance test
The addition of four perforations to the rice straw-gypsum composite maximised its α to 1.00. At frequencies above
3000 Hz, it had an α of 0.33. Meanwhile, the α of the 10% rice straw-gypsum composite with one perforation increased
to 0.89 at a frequency of 1500 Hz then decreased to 0.25 at a frequency of 1500 Hz. At a frequency of 3000 Hz, the α
increased again to 0.60 at 6000 Hz. Therefore, the addition of rice straw fibre increased the α. Despite changes in the
frequencies, the addition of perforations increased the α. Figure 9 depicts the α of the water hyacinth-gypsum composite.
The α of the solid 10% water hyacinth-gypsum composite reached 0.37 at a frequency of 1500 Hz, which then
decreased to below 0.2 at a frequency of 1500 to 6400 Hz. The α of the 10% water hyacinth-gypsum composite with
one perforation was 0.91 at a frequency of 1500 Hz, which decreased to 0.35 at a frequency of 2500 Hz, increased to
0.51 at a frequency of 3500 to 3700 Hz, then decreased to 0.28 at 6400 Hz. The addition of one perforation to the 30%
water hyacinth-gypsum composite increased its α to 0.93 at 1500 Hz, which then increased to 0.49 at 6400 Hz. The
addition of perforations to the 30% water hyacinth-gypsum composite increased the α to 0.97 at 1000 Hz, which then
decreased to 0.29 at 3000 Hz, increased to 0.54 at 5000 to 5750 Hz, and decreased to 0.45 at 6400Hz. Therefore, the
higher the water hyacinth fibre content and number of perforations, the higher the α. Furthermore, the α of composites
containing different amounts of fibre remained relatively the same so long as the number of perforations remained the
same. However, the frequency did shift.
When sound waves enter a porous material, perforations support the sound absorption process and decrease the level
of sound reflection. Friction occurs between high-speed wind molecules and stagnant wind molecules. When the sound
waves rub against the rough surface of the porous walls, abrasion of the sound waves occurs. Sound absorption occurs
when the kinetic energy of sound waves is converted into heat energy [43]. Calculating the α of the rice straw-gypsum
composite and the water hyacinth-gypsum composite indicated how many decibels each composite was able to absorb.
Figure 10 shows the reduction in decibels of every composite variation. As seen, the rice straw-gypsum composite was
able to reduce noise levels better than the water hyacinth-gypsum composite. The composite with 30% fibre and four
perforations had the best design variation.
Both NRC and noise pressure reduction are interrelated. The sound reduction coefficient was obtained using the α.
The NRC is a rating that is used to measure how effectively a material absorbs sound. The NRC was calculated by taking
the arithmetic mean of the α of the material at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz and then rounding it off to the nearest 0.05.
Although the standard test procedure measures absorption efficiencies at 125 Hz and 4000 Hz, these values were not
used to calculate the NRC. The NRC approximates the centre frequency, making it suitable for most situations but not
all. The higher the NRC, the better the sound absorption of a material. The NRC obtained was then used to calculate the
decrease in noise pressure in the following equation.
𝑑 = −20 log10 (1 − 𝑁𝑅𝐶) (1)

where d is the decibel drop (dB) while the NRC is the e sound reduction coefficient, which directly relates to the α when
a sample is tested. Based on the test results and with the above calculations, the rice straw-gypsum composite with four
perforations had the best dB (6.07 dB).
The 30% rice straw-gypsum composite with four perforations had the highest decrease in sound pressure (6.07 dB)
during the impedance tube test. The water hyacinth-gypsum composite with four perforations decreased noise by 5.39
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dB. As seen in Table 2, the highest decrease in noise that the water hyacinth-gypsum composite with four perforations
achieved was still less than that of the rice straw-gypsum composite with one perforation. Therefore, the higher the fibre
content and number of perforations in the rice straw-gypsum and water hyacinth-gypsum composites, the higher the
sound absorption and dB. As such, these composites could be used as absorbent walls in a noisy environment and
decrease auditory and non-auditory effects on persons exposed to noise.
Table 2. The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) and decibel drop (dB) of the composites
Ricestraw-gypsum Waterhyacint-gypsum
10%_0 10%_1 30%_1 30%_4 10%_0 10%_1 30%_1 30%4
NRC 0.14 0.31 0.47 0.50 0.11 0.24 0.32 0.46
dB drop (dB) 1.36 3.31 5.55 6.07 1.06 2.38 3.43 5.39
As seen in Figure 14 and Table 3, the NRC of the prepared composites were compared to that of the α of several
composite materials examined in extant studies to determine their feasibility [44]. The 3-1/2" fiberglass batt has the
highest NRC (0.90 to 0.95). Nevertheless, the prepared composites still performed better than some of the other
materials, such as the indoor-outdoor carpets, heavy concrete or foam rubber, polyurethane foam (1" thick, open cell,
reticulated), and wood. The NRC of the prepared composites were equivalent to that of the sprayed cellulose fibres (1"
thick on concrete) and better than that of the the gypsum reinforcement and adhesive material alone as pure gypsum
only has an NRC of 0.00 to 0.05. Thus, the innovation of making natural composites reinforced with gypsum is a good
improvement in the field of acoustics.
Table 3. A comparison of the NRC of acoustic materials examined and commercialised by extant studies and
the prepared composites
Material NRC
Carpet, indoor-outdoor 0.15 – 0.2
Carpet, heavy on concrete 0.2 – 0.3
Carpet, heavy on foam rubber 0.3 – 0.55
Fiberglass, 3-1/2" batt 0.9 – 0.95
Polyurethane Foam (1" thick, open cell, reticulated) 0.3
Sprayed Cellulose Fibers (1" thick on concrete) 0.50 – 0.75
Wood 0.05 – 0.15
Fiberglass, 1" Semi-rigid 0.50 – 0.75
Gypsum 0.00 – 0.05
Ricestraw-gypsum 0.5
Waterhyacint-gypsum 0.46
The dB performance also related to the reflection coefficient and the impedance ratio of the prepared samples. As
seen in Figures 15 and 16, there was an inverse correlation between the reflection coefficient and the α and dB. Adhesives
and gypsum were used as reinforcement due to the low density of the prepared samples. The fibre content and number
of perforations greatly affected the the reflection coefficient of the prepared samples. A fibre content of 30% performed
better than 10% while four perforations was the best design. Differences were also observed in the frequency range of
each composite. Samples with one perforation performed better at a frequency of 1500 Hz. However, at low frequency
ranges or below 1500 Hz, samples with four perforations performed better, especially at 1000 Hz. At high frequencies
of above 4000 Hz, composites with 30% fibre and one perforation performed best. These results were used to select
samples for the field test. Subsequent panels were made to contain 30% rice straw fibre reinforced with gypsum and
perforation. The selection was made based on several factors; such as better performance at low and high frequency
ranges and more straightforward sampling.
The results of the impedance tube tests showed that the rice straw-gypsum composite with four perforations
performed the best among all the tested composites. This composite achieved an α coefficient of 1.0 at a frequency of
1500 Hz, indicating that it absorbed almost all of the incident sound. The NRC of this composite was also high, reaching
0.50, which means that it could reduce noise levels effectively. These results were satisfactory compared to other
damping materials that have been studied, indicating that the rice straw-gypsum composite could be a promising material
for soundproofing applications.
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3.2. Acoustic Panels on Field Test Results

Figure 17 depicts the results of the field tests and show changes in the noise level and heart rate of each respondent.
Pre-panel installation, the average noise around the operator was 100.89 dB, with a maximum noise of 104.6 dB, and
the average heart rate of all the respondents was 56.56, with a maximum of 82. Post-panels installation, the noise and
heart rate of the respondents changed at all the sampling points. The noise level and overall heart rate decreased. The
heart rate trendline post-installation was visibly below the heart rate. The average noise post-installation at the same
point pre-installation was 94.16 dB, with a maximum noise of 96.2 dB while the average heart rate was 56.6, with a
maximum value of 79.
Therefore, there was a reasonably good reduction in noise, which also affected the heart rate of the machine
operators. As seen in Figure 17, one respondent in particular; Respondent 2; experienced the highest noise level of 104.6
dB pre-panel installation. When measured at the same point post-panel installation, Respondent 2 only experienced 94.8
dB; which is a reduction of 9.8 dB. Meanwhile, Respondent 25 experienced the lowest reduction in noise (2.8 dB). This
could may be explained by differences in the position of the machines that each respondent operates. More specifically,
operators of machines located in the middle of the room or in between two other machine operators experienced the
highest noise levels while those located the farthest from the sound source had the advantage of low noise levels even
pre-panel installation.
90
100 80
Sound Pressure Level (dB)
70
80
60
Heart rate
60 50
40
40
30
20
20
10
00 00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Respondent
SLP before panels installation SLP after panels installation
HR before panels installation HR after panels installation
Linear (HR before panels installation) Linear (HR after panels installation)
Figure 17. The sound pressure during field testing and the heart rate of the respondent
The results showed that although the installation of panels was adequate to reduce the noise level, the panel design
and the number or dimensions of the panels could be improved to further reduce the noise level. Nevertheless, the
installation of panels had a good effect and was even able to reduce the stress levels of the respondents, as evidenced by
their heart rates. The relevant company had requested that the dimensions and number of panels be limited so that they
did not interfere with the activities of its employees and the operations of its machines. The maximum number of panels
that the company permitted was installed in the factory. Therefore, improvements could be made by selecting new
materials or creating new geometries to enhance the performance of the acoustic damping device.
The field test results indicated that the installation of acoustic panels around the noise source could reduce noise
levels in the textile industry by up to 9.8 dB. The maximum noise level reduction achieved was from 104.6 dB pre-
installation to 94.8 dB post-installation. The decrease in noise levels was also found to affect the heart rate of workers,
as indicated by the measurement results of the respondents. The trendline test showed that the heart rate decreased as
the noise level decreased, indicating that the installation of acoustic panels could improve the well-being of workers by
reducing their stress levels.
3.3. Stress Level Statistical Testing
Statistical tests were carried out to determine the stress levels of the respondents who were operating the machines.
These respondents were given a 42-question survey over a 30-day period that aimed to determine changes in attitudes
pre- and post-panel installation. Although questionnaires were distributed to 25 respondents, only 21 responses could
be used in the data processing stage as the responses of four respondents differed significantly.
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A Shapiro-Wilk normality test that was conducted to show the presence of noise pre-panel installation (p = 0.559)
and noise post-panel installation (p = 0.693). The distribution of the data was deemed normal and a paired t test could
be performed. Table 4 provides the results of the data testing. The difference in the mean noise pre- and post-panel
installation over the 30-day period was 6.1 dBA, with p = 0.00. There was a difference in the noise with the installation
of the rice straw-gypsum composite. The minus sign indicates that the mean noise post-panel installation was less than
the noise pre-panel installation.
Table 4. Noise paired t test pre- and post-panel installation
Noise (dBA) n Mean ± SD Mean Difference ± SD IK 95% t p

After intervention 21 94.5 ± 0.8 -6.1 ±2.1 -6.94 s/d-5.1 -13.7 0.00
Before intervension 21 100.5 ± 1.6
The Shapiro-Wilk normality test showed that the results were normally distributed, and thus, the prerequisites for a
paired sample t test were met. The results of the paired t test showed that there was a significant difference between
heart rates. The mean heart rate post-panel installation (50.8) was lower than the heart rate pre-panel installation (65.5).
Table 5. The heart rate-based stress levels using paired t test pre- and post-panel installation
Stress level based on heart rate monitoring n Mean ± SD Mean Difference ± SD IK 95% t p
Stress level (post-intervention) 21 50,8± SD -14.6 ± 11.9 -20.1 s/d 9.2 -5.6 0.00
Stress level (pre-intervention) 21 65.5 ± SD
Noise has direct and indirect effects on humans. Exposure to high noise through direct pathways damages the ear
and causes deafness while exposure via indirect pathways interfere with communication as well as cognitive and
emotional responses, thereby causing stress responses; such as discomfort and depression. Stress responses activate the
autonomic nervous system and endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) and, if the stress occurs
continuously (chronic), it can affect blood pressure, blood lipids, blood viscosity, blood glucose, and cause heart disease
[45].
Dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system is associated with several psychiatric disorders [46]; such as
depressive disorders [47] post-traumatic stress disorders, anxiety disorders [48], and schizophrenia. Heart rate is a
transdiagnostic biomarker for clinical checks in identifying a subject's risk of developing physical and psychiatric health
problems [49].
Heart rate had been used as an indicator of cardiac health. A resting heart rate above 80 bpm is associated with a
33% and 45% increased risk of cardiovascular death, and a heart above 60 bpm presents a risk of cardiovascular disease
(CVD) of 1.19 (0.95-1.50) at a 95% confidence interval. There is a non-linear correlation between heart rate and heart
failure [50]. Workers who are exposed to acute and chronic noise can produce biological stress responses in the form of
body pressure, hypertension, heart rate, cardiac arrhythmia, vascular resistance, and cardiac output. The heart rate
indicator for workers exposed to noise above 85 dB showed an increase in heart rate compared to exposure to noise
below 85 dBA [51]. Heart rate and blood composition can change due to exposure to noise, where the heart rate can rise
to 3 beats per minute for every 10% increase in the minutes of exposure to peak noise that does not disappear [52].
Noise exposure creates an autonomic imbalance, which results in a continuous increase in heart rate even though the
noise source has been turned off [53]
This study used heart rate and heart rate variability as stress response biomarkers from the autonomic nervous system
of workers exposed to noise. The stress prediction measurements were based on physiological signals from the workers
who were exposed to noise. Each worker had to wear a Xiaomi® Mi Band 5 smartwatch, which was equipped with a
photoplethysmogram (PPG) and a stress measurement sensor. The Xiaomi® Mi Band 5 has a PPG sensor and uses heart
rate data to determine the interval between each heartbeat. When using the stress feature, the Xiaomi® Mi Band 5 uses
the heart rate and heart rate variability (HRV) data to determine the interval between each heartbeat. Technical advances
have also made it possible to measure the HRV by detecting the pulse with a belt around the chest [54] or on the wrist
[55]. The respondents were workers worked eight hours a day in the loom-weaving section of a textile factory in Central
Java, Indonesia. A random sampling method was used to select the respondents. A Benetech® sound level meter was
used for the noise measurements while a Xiaomi® Mi Band 5 smartwatch was used for the stress measurements. Paired
t tests were performed to determine differences in noise levels and stress levels pre- and post-panel installation.
The variation in the length of time between each heartbeat is regulated by the body's autonomic nervous system
(ANS), which also controls the heart. The ANS consists of parasympathetic and sympathetic branches. The sympathetic
branch of the ANS is active when stress is being experienced and keeps the limbs in a state of alert while the
parasympathetic branch of the ANS is the relaxing part of the nervous system. When the sympathetic branch is active,
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the heart rate increases in a more regular rhythm so that the HRV decreases. When the parasympathetic branch is active,
the heart rate decreases according to the body's needs but with a rhythm that is not too strict, thereby increasing the
HRV. Heart rate variability (HRV) is an indicator of the balance of the activity between the two branches of the
autonomic nervous system. A low HRV means high stress, while a high HRV means low stress. It measures this balance
in the time and frequency domains and, as it is affected by stress, it can be used as an objective assessment of stress [56,
57]. This study conducted examined textile workers who were exposed to noise >85 dBA, which exceeded the
permissible level of noise by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Indonesian Ministry
of Manpower. The pre-experimental one-group pretest-posttest design was used (pictured experimental design). Pre-
panel installation, the average noise level was 100.5 dBA with an average stress level of 65.5 (moderate stress category),
as measured by the heart rate and heart rate variability, which were converted to stress levels on the Xiaomi® Mi Band
5 smartwatch. After 30 days of using the rice straw-gypsum noise-absorbing material, the noise level had decreased by
6 dBA and stress level had decreased by 14.6.
The questionnaire results showed that the installation of acoustic panels had a significant effect on the stress levels
of workers in the textile industry. The results suggest that the installation of acoustic panels could provide a more
comfortable and less stressful working environment, which could contribute to improving the overall well-being of
workers.
4. Conclusion
The characteristics and performance of two types of reinforced composites and gypsum adhesives containing varying
amounts of natural fibre were evaluated using impedance tubes and field tests. The impedance tube test results were
satisfactory compared to other damping materials that have been studied. The acoustic performance of the prepared
samples in the impedance tube was evaluated by examining their α, NRC, dB, and reflection coefficients. The rice straw-
gypsum composite with four perforations performed best. The maximum α of the rice straw-gypsum composites reached
1.0 at a frequency of 1500 Hz, while that of the water hyacinth-gypsum composites with the same variations reached
0.97 at a frequency of 1100 Hz. The NRC of the rice straw-gypsum composites reached 0.50, while that of the water
hyacinth-gypsum composites reached 0.46. The NRC was good compared to other acoustic materials that have been
studied. The NRC of all the variations also exceeded the NRC of pure gypsum. Based on the NRC, the rice straw-
gypsum composites were able to decrease sound pressure by up to 6.0 dB. The reflection coefficient results indicate that
each sample had different characteristics.
The rice straw-gypsum composites had the best reflection coefficient performance in the high (above 4000 Hz) and
low (1100–1900 Hz) frequency ranges. The field test results indicated a correlation between sound pressure and heart
rate during the production process. It was proven that noise in the textile industry can be reduced by installing panels
around the noise source. The maximum noise level reduction achieved in the field was 9.8 dB. The maximum noise
measured in the field during pre-panel installation was 104.6 dB. This decreased to 94.8 dB post-panel installation.
Furthermore, the decrease in the noise level was proven to affect heart rate, as indicated by the measurement results in
the trendline test that was presented. To validate the measurements that were conducted on the respondents, a
questionnaire was used to subjectively evaluate each respondent. The results of the statistical tests showed significant
pre- and post-panel installations. Therefore, the installation of acoustic panels affected the stress levels of the
respondents. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for industries looking to improve their working
environment and reduce stress levels in their workforce. The use of natural fibers in composite materials also has the
potential to be an eco-friendly and sustainable solution for soundproofing applications. Future research could explore
the use of other natural fibers and adhesive materials to develop more efficient and effective soundproofing materials.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.P. and A.P.; methodology, M.P. and Sum.; software, M.P.; validation, M.P., A.P. and Sun.;
formal analysis, M.P.; investigation, M.P.; resources, M.P.; data curation, M.P.; writing—original draft preparation,
M.P. and A.P.; writing—review and editing, M.P.; visualization, Sun.; supervision, Sum., A.P., and Sun.; project
administration, M.P.; funding acquisition, M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.

5.3. Funding and Acknowledgements

This research was funded by Universitas Sebelas Maret under Doctoral Research Funding number 260/UN27.22/
HK.07.00/2021.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Prediction of Soil-Water Characteristic Curves of Four

Subgrade Materials using a Modified Perera Model
Rokhaya Gueye 1 * , Makhaly Ba 1, Ibrahima Mbaye 2, Ida Bibalo Josiane Ki 1

1
UFR Sciences de l’Ingénieur, Université Iba Der Thiam, Thiès, Sénégal.
2
UFR Sciences et Technologie, Université Iba Der Thiam, Thiès, Sénégal.
Received 27 February 2023; Revised 13 May 2023; Accepted 21 May 2023; Published 01 June 2023
Abstract
One of the main hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils is the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC). It is essential to
understand, predict soil water storage and determine the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour of soils. These curves can be
obtained by direct and indirect measurements. The measurements to obtain these curves are expensive, delicate to perform
and can be really slow for fine soils, so predictive models become necessary. In order to make a numerical model, a couple
of identification tests were carried out to obtain the physical properties of each sample among the four subgrade materials
collected in the regions of Dakar and Thies (Senegal). The measurement tests of the matric suction were then conducted
depending on the nature of the material (fine-grained soil or coarse-grained soil) and allowed to draw the SWCC of each
soil. Among numerous predictive models developed for SWCC in the last decades; this study used the Perera model to fit
the SWCC of four (04) subgrade materials, which did not give a satisfactory coefficient of correlation (R2 = 58% and a
relatively low sum of the squared residuals (SSR)). This leads to modifying the Perera model to better fit the SWCC on
the basis of an understanding of the effect of each parameter on the shape of the SWCC. The proposed modified model
was validated by checking the adjusted R2, minimizing the SSR in order to approach at most the experimental air entry
value. The modified model works pretty well on coarse-grained and fine-grained soils. This modified model of Perera
provided a very good correlation R2 equal to 99.98, 98.74, 99.64, and 99.73 for the sandy soils (Sebikotane and Keur Mory)
and the Marley and Clayey soils of Diamniadio, with a minimal SSR obtained compared to Perera’s and Hernandez model.
Keywords: Soil-Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC); Suction; Degree of Saturation; Predictive Model; Grain Size Distribution.
1. Introduction
Several research studies have been done over the last decades to better understand the mechanics of unsaturated
soils. In the previous studies [1–5], the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) was defined as the most useful concept
of unsaturated soil mechanics. It can serve to estimate the water storage and also intervene in slope stability, bearing
capacity, and agriculture fields [6]. The SWCC is a non-linear relationship between the volumetric water content,  or
degree of saturation, Sr and matrix suction,  The latter is defined as that suction component that relates to the height
to which water can be drawn or sucked up into unsaturated soil. These retention curves can be obtained either directly
or indirectly by measurement. A SWCC describes the amount of water retained in soil under equilibrium at a given
matric suction. This most important hydraulic property of unsaturated soils is related to the size and connectedness of
pore spaces and is strongly affected by the soil texture and structure. However, the shape of the SWCC is hysteretic,
with wetting and drying curves. In this study, only the drying process (Figure 1) is determined due to the experimental
difficulties associated with the measurement of the wetting curve [7, 8].
* Corresponding author: rokhaya.gueye@univ-thies.sn

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Figure 1. Typical features of the Soil-Water Characteristic Curves (SWCC) [9])
Figure 1 describes a typical sigmoidal shape, which can be divided into three parts commonly named boundary effect
zone, transition zone, and residual conditions. There are three main features that necessarily define the shape of the
SWCC. The first is the air entry value (AEV) corresponding to the suction required to drain freely the water from the
largest pores; the second feature represents the slope of the SWCC obtained in the transition zone or the rate of water
loss [10], and the third feature represents the volumetric water content below which an increase in suction has no effect
on the water content [11].
These tests are expensive, really delicate to handle, and can be influenced by several factors [12]. To overcome the
lack of devices, expensive cost, and delicacy of these tests, an estimation of the SWCC became necessary in this field.
Several models have already been developed for the prediction of the SWCC and can be classified into three groups.
The first approach and the most popular are classified as empirical models [13–16]. In this approach, having data
(measured suction and water content) is necessary to make predictions in order to find the corresponding suction for a
given water content. The second approach was based on the soil properties [17–19]. This approach is really interesting
as it uses the physical properties of the materials (Atterberg limits, grain size distribution) to predict the suction value.
It is an alternative, given that suction measurement tests are expensive, delicate to handle, and very difficult to perform.
And finally, the third approach was based on machine learning using programming software. Artificial Neural Networks
is used to estimate the soil-water characteristic curves. This method is considered an aid to determining the suction value
[20–25]. This system is built similarly to the human brain, with a neural network to connect the input data to the output
data. The advantage of this method is the unnecessity to know the link between the input and output data. However, the
main inconvenience of this approach is the need for a very large database. Given the required time, the complexity of
these tests, the lack of a device to measure the SWCC in Senegal, and the ease of obtaining physical parameters in
practically all laboratories, the second approach was used to predict the SWCC in this paper.
Fredlund & Xing (1994) model is a popular empirical model used to estimate the SWCC because it can describe a
much wider range of suction than other models up to 10 6 kPa at zero water content [14]. Each parameter of the model
has an impact on the shape of the SWCC. Indeed, the parameter “𝑎𝑓 ” is related to air entry value, “𝑏𝑓 ” to the pore size
distribution (PSD); while “𝑐𝑓 ” is related to the residual zone, specifically the water content and the residual soil suction.
Fredlund et al. (2002) also used a database of 6000 soils implemented in SoilVision to found a predictive model using
the particle size distribution to predict the fitting parameters 𝑎𝑓 , 𝑏𝑓 and 𝑐𝑓 in the Fredlund model [26].
Zapata et al. (2000) developed a model based on 190 soils depending on the nature of the sample (granular or plastic
soils) [19]. The parameter 𝐷60 was used for the granular soils, while the parameter 𝜔𝑃𝐼 was used for the plastic soils.
The coefficient of determination 𝑅2 was not high; but at the time it was a real advance in the field. Moreover, numerous
authors have used that work to find new correlations.
Perera et al. (2005) selected the 134 best soil-water characteristic curves from a database collected by Zapata and
added another dataset of 83 from the NCRHP 9–23 project [18]. After identification tests, this database was divided
into 154 non-plastic soils and 63 plastic soils. The particle size distribution of each soil was used to obtain the
diameters from 𝐷10 through 𝐷90 as well as the Atterberg limits (LL, PL, and PI) for the statistical analysis used to
find the fitting parameters. The results of this study, compared with Zapata results, showed a decrease in the algebraic
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and absolute errors from 88.5% to 8.6% and 14.8%, respectively, associated with an increase in adjusted R 2 values
from 2% to 58% for the non-plastic soils. However, the algebraic errors decreased from 20.4% to 0.1% for the plastic
soils, while they decreased from 23.9% to 9.2% with a R 2 of 51. It can therefore be observed that these results are
not satisfactory enough, even if they were a notable advance in the field because they managed to minimize the errors
of Zapata’s model.
Torres Hernandez (2011) collected the largest database at the time to predict the SWCC and also used the Fredlund
& Xing equation and a non-linear regression analysis to predict the fitting parameters of the model [17]. In this model,
hysteresis is not taken into account; only the dry path is presented. 36394 samples were obtained from the NRCS
"National Resources Conservation Service," including 31876 plastic soils, 4518 granular soils and 68 soils not usable
for lack of insufficient information. Two series of equations were proposed according to whether the soil was granular
or plastic. For plastic soils, the 𝑃200 , plasticity index, and liquidity limit constituting the “Group Index” were used to
estimate the fitting parameters. For granular soils, the model of prediction depends only on a single parameter named
𝐷10 (diameter of sieve corresponding to 10% of passing). The results showed an adjusted R 2 of 81% for fine soils and
89% for the granular materials.
In the present study, the Perera model was used to fit the SWCC based on the experimental data. The study was
also interested in understanding the effect of each parameter on the shape of the curve in order to propose a modified
Perera mode. A statistical analysis to minimize errors was also carried out to test the reliability of the modified
model.

2.1. Sample Locations and their Physical Properties
The marl and clay were sampled at Diamniadio in the city of Rufisque, around 25 km southeast of Dakar. The marl
and clay lie between 14° 73' 50'' North, 17° 19' 64'' West in the context of the Senegalese-Mauritanian sedimentary
basin. The geology of Diamniadio is part of the geology of the Cap Verde peninsula, which is located at the western end
of the Senegal-Mauritania basin. The various outcrops encountered in the Rufisque-Bargny zone are formed by a
volcanic group and a sedimentary group of Tertiary or Quaternary. Diamniadio is marked by the appearance of faults
delimiting ascending blocks such as the Ndiass and Dakar horsts, and collapsed blocks such as the Rufisque garden.
Two other sandy soils have also been collected, one at Sebikotane (14° 78' 74'' North, 17° 13' 03'' West) and the other
at Keur Mory (14° 77' 80'' North, 16° 75' 47'' West). These are characterized by a Quaternary dune system composed of
three elements that were established between the Ogolian and Holocene periods in Senegal. These are:
 Rubbed sands of the Ogolian ergs of Sangalkam, Pikine, Keur Massar, Bambilor and Tivaouane;
 Semi-fixed dune sand known as yellow dune;
 Sand of living dune of the north coast called white dune.
The Sebikotane sample belongs to the Ogolian ruby sand and the Keur Mory sand would belong to the white dune
dated to the Holocene.
All four samples were subjected to a series of identification tests. These included grain size analysis, Atterberg limits,
specific gravity test, to identify and classify them. The physical properties are given in Table 1 while the sample location
map is shown in Figure 2. A summary of the methodology used in this study in Figure 3.
Table 1. Summary of the physical properties of the subgrade materials
𝒌𝑵 𝑷𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑫𝟏𝟎 𝑫𝟐𝟎 𝑫𝟑𝟎 𝑫𝟔𝟎 𝑫𝟗𝟎

Materials 𝜸 ( 𝟑) 𝑮𝒔 𝑪𝒖 𝑷𝑰
𝒎 (%) (𝒎𝒎) (𝒎𝒎) (𝒎𝒎) (𝒎𝒎) (𝒎𝒎)
Sebikotane Sand 1.817 2.666 1.26 - 0.78 0.17 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.248
Keur Mory Sand 1.78 2.668 3.41 - 4.61 0.082 0.099 0.19 0.28 0.39
Diamniadio Clay 1.63 2.741 - 26 77.13 - - - - -
Diamniadio Marl 1.92 2.609 - 14.38 51 - - - - -
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Figure 2. Sample location
Sampling
Sebikotane & Keur Mory Sand Marl & Clay of Diamniadio

Sand
Hanging column test and Dew Pressure plate test and Dew
Potentiometer test Potentiometer test
Soil-Water Characteristic
Curve
Analyze and understand the impact of each

parameter
Build the modified model
Verify the reliability of the model
Adjusted R2 Validation with previous Sum Squared

value work Residual SSR value
Figure 3. Flowchart describing the methodology of this work
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2.2. Experimental Methods

The selected materials were subjected to suction measurement tests, mainly depending on the nature of the material.
The pressure chamber test was conducted on the Marl and Clay soils to determine the equilibrium water content retained
in the soil. The testing procedure described in ASTM standard D6836-16 method B or C was followed [27]. After
saturation and setting the sample in the chamber, the suction is applied until equilibrium is reached, i.e., when the level
of water does not change. Another step of suction is then applied until the curve is complete or the maximum suction
that the device can apply is reached. On the other two samples (Sebikotane and Keur Mory sand), the hanging column
test adapted for granular soils was carried out following procedure method A in ASTM D6836-16 [27]. And to complete
the SWCC at low water content, a chilled hygrometer test (Method D of the ASTM standard D6836-16) was used to
measure the activity water of the soils within 0.001.
When the tests were done, the Perera model described in the Equations 2 to 16 was used to plot the retention curves.
Let’s recall that Perera model is based on Fredlund’s equation (Equation 1) to predict the fitting parameters.
𝜓
ln(1+ ) 1
ℎ𝑟
𝜃 = (𝜃𝑠 − 𝜃𝑟 ) [1 − 106
] 𝑏𝑓 𝑐𝑓
+ 𝜃𝑟 (1)
ln(1+ ) 𝜓
ℎ𝑟 ln(𝑒+( ) )
[ 𝑎𝑓 ]
where θ is Volumetric water content, θr is Residual volumetric water content, θs is Saturated water content, ψ is Matric
suction, hr is Residual suction, and a f, bf et cf is Fitting parameters of Fredlund’s model.
Equations 2 to 16 described below the two sets of equations used by Perera to find the fitting parameters of Fredlund’s
model.
 For non-plastic soils
𝑎𝑓 = 1.14𝑎 − 0.5 (2)

40
[ +𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷60 )]
𝐷100 = 10 𝑚1 (3)
𝑎 = −2.79 − 14.1𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷20 ) − 1.9 ∗ 10−6 𝑃200

4.34
+ 7𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷30 ) + 0.055𝐷100 (4)
30
𝑚1 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷 (5)
90 )−𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷60 )]
𝐷90
𝑏𝑓 = {5.39 − 0.29𝑙𝑛 [𝑃200 ( )] + 3𝐷00.57 + 0.021𝑃200
1.19
} 𝑚10.1 (6)
𝐷10
−30
[ +𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷30 )]
𝐷0 = 10 𝑚2 (7)
20
𝑚2 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷 (8)
30 )−𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷10 )]
𝑐𝑓 = 0.26𝑒 0.758𝑐 + 1.4𝐷10 (9)
1
𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑚1.15
2 − (1 − ) (10)
𝑏𝑓
ℎ𝑟 = 100 (11)
with D10 is Grain diameter corresponding to 10 % passing by weight, D20 is Grain diameter corresponding to 20
% passing by weight, D30 is Grain diameter corresponding to 30 % passing by weight, D60 is Grain diameter
corresponding to 60 % passing by weight, and D90 is Grain diameter corresponding to 90 % passing by weight.
 For plastic soils
𝑎𝑓 = 32.835𝑙𝑛(𝑤𝑃𝐼) + 32.438 (12)
𝑏𝑓 = 1.421𝑤𝑃𝐼 −0.3185 (13)
𝑐𝑓 = −0.2154𝑙𝑛(𝑤𝑃𝐼) + 0.7145 (14)
1333
ℎ𝑟 = 500 (15)
𝜔𝑃𝐼 is Weighed Plasticity index
𝜔𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃200 ∗ 𝑃𝐼 (16)
𝑃200 is Material passing the n°200 Standard Sieve expressed as a decimal, 𝑃𝐼 is Plasticity Index (%) = Liquid
Limit – Plastic Limit
Figures 4 to 7 describe the SWCC with the Perera model used to fit the experimental data.
100 Hanging Column data

Activity Meter data
Perera's model
80
Degree of Saturation (%)
60
40
20
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Matric Suction (kPa)
Figure 4. SWCC fit with Perera model on Sebikotane Sand
100
80
60
40
20
Hanging coulum data
Activity meter data
Perera's model
0
0.001 0.1 10 1000 105
Suction (kPa)
Figure 5. SWCC fit with Perera model on Keur Mory Sand
1334
100
80

60
40
20
Hanging Column data
Activity Meter
Perera's model
0 5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 6. SWCC fit with Perera model on Diamniadio Marl
100
80
60
40
20
Hanging Column data
Activity Meter
Perera's model
0 5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 7. SWCC fit with Perera model on Diamniadio Clay
The prediction of the four (04) SWCC fitting with the Perera model does not give a good correlation. It can be
observed that the air entry value pressure is underestimated for the sandy soils; while it is overestimated for marly and
clayey soils of Diamniadio. This leads to thinking that it would be necessary to modify the values of 𝑎𝑓 related to the
air entry value; but also, for 𝑏𝑓 and 𝑐𝑓 related to the slope of the transition zone and the residuals suctions of the SWCC.
As shown in Figure 6 and 7, the air entry value for the clayey and marly soils of Diamniadio is overestimated. So in
order to fix it, it is necessary to understand how the fitting parameters of Perera’s model behave on the SWCC.
2.3. Process of Analysis

For the plastic soils (clay and the marl of Diamniadio), Equations 12 to 16 show that the fitting parameters only
depend on 𝑤𝑃𝐼 which itself depends on 𝑃200 and 𝑃𝐼. The 𝑤𝑃𝐼 was varied from 1 to 30 to see how it affects the shape of
the SWCC. Compared with the experimental data, Figure 8 shows that varying 𝑤𝑃𝐼 influences the three zones (boundary
effect, transition and residual zone) of the SWCC. This means that not only the 𝑎𝑓 must change by decreasing it to get
the right air entry value; but also, the 𝑏𝑓 and 𝑐𝑓 must be modified to better fit the experimental data. Some modifications
have been made in the fitting parameters of Perera’s model. Equations 17 to 21, describe the new fitting parameters for
plastic soils.
1335
𝑎𝑓 = 32.835𝑙𝑛(𝜔𝑃𝐼) + 3.3781 (17)
𝑏𝑓 = 3.2937𝜔𝑃𝐼 −0.3185 (18)
𝑐𝑓 = −0.1𝑙𝑛(𝜔𝑃𝐼) + 0.942 (19)
ℎ𝑟 = 500 (20)
where
𝜔𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃200 ∗ 𝑃𝐼 (21)
100
Hanging Column
80 Activity Meter
wPI=1
wPI=2.5
wPI=5
60
wPI=7.5
wPI=10
wPI=12.5
40 wPI=15
wPI=17.5
wPI=20
wPI=22.5
20
wPI=25
wPI=27.5
wPI=30
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 8. Impact of 𝒘𝑷𝑰 on the shape of the SWCC of Diamniadio Marl
For non-plastic soils, three new parameters 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝜆 have also been introduced in the Perera’s model to modify
the fitting parameters. The modified model is presented below:
𝑎𝑓 = 𝛼 ∗ (1.14 𝑎 − 0.5) 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑓 ≥ 1 (22)
𝑎 = −2.79 − 14.11𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐷20 − 1.9. 10−6 𝑃200

4.34
+ 7𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐷30 + 0.055𝐷100 (23)
40
[ +𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷60 )]
𝐷100 = 10 𝑚1 (24)
30
𝑚1 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷 (25)
90 )−𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷60 )]
𝑏𝑓 = 𝛽 ∗ (0.936𝑏 − 3.8) (26)

𝐷90
𝑏 = {5.39 − 0.29 𝑙𝑛 [𝑃200 ( )] + 3 𝐷00.57 + 0.021 𝑃200
1.19
} 𝑚10.1 (27)
𝐷10
−30
[ +𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷30 )]
𝐷0 = 10 𝑚2 (28)
20
𝑚2 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷 (29)
30 )−𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐷10 )]
𝑐𝑓 ≥ 0.5
𝑐𝑓 = 𝜆(0.26𝑒 0.758𝑐 + 1.4𝐷10 ) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ { (30)
𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝜆 = 1
1
𝑐 = log 𝑚1.15
2 − (1 − ) (31)
𝑏𝑓
ℎ𝑟 = 100 (32)
1336
3. Results and Discussions

Firstly, the analyze is made on how separately each new parameter influences the shape of the SWCC in the non-
plastic soils. Figure 9 shows that a variation of α from 0.5 to 20 does not have an effect on the shape of the SWCC; but
on the other hand, it increases the air entry value suction. It is like a translation of axis. So, comparing with the
experimental data, we can say that α is close to 20.
100 Hanging Column

Activity Meter
alpha=0,5
alpha=1
80
alpha=5
alpha=10
alpha=15
60 alpha=20
40
20
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 9. Impact of α on the shape of the SWCC of Sebikotane Sand
An increase of β from 0.05 to 0.25 influences the air entry value as well as the slope of the transition zone, while
above 0.25 up to 1, a slight increase of the air entry value can be observed. For β higher than 1, the air entry value, the
slope of the transition zone as well as the residual suction remain unchanged (Figure 10).
100 Hanging Column

Activity Meter
beta=0,05
beta=0,1
80
beta=0,25
beta=0,5
beta=1
60 beta=2,5
beta=5
40
20
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 10. Impact of β on the shape of the SWCC of Sebikotane Sand
1337
λ affects the residual suctions unlike β where the effect was more noticeable on the transition zone. Figure 11 shows
that λ and the residual suctions act in opposite direction. Indeed, when the value of λ is low, the residual suctions are
high; while they tend to zero when λ tends to 0.5.
100
80
60 Hanging Column
Activity Meter
lamda=0,0001
40 lamda=0,001
lamda=0,01
lamda=0,05
lamda=0,1
20
lamda=0,5
lamda=1
lamda=5
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 11. Impact of λ on the shape of the SWCC of Sebikotane Sand
The separate analysis of the impact of each parameter allows to have a rough overview of α, β, and λ that could
predict the whole SWCC based on the experimental data. According to that analyze, α seems to be around 20, while
0.25 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 2.5 and λ appears to be equal to 0.5. By varying α, β and λ, mentioned above taking into account the
approximative values found earlier gives the best combinations.
3.1. Statistical Analysis

Equation 17 to 32 were used to fit the experimental data by finding the fitting parameters; while minimizing the
errors. Indeed, a statistical analysis is associated with this study. In order to verify the reliability of the model, three
parameters that can be considered as the most relevant were analyzed.
 The adjusted 𝑅2 is widely used for a regression analysis because it allows to compare the experimental data with
the predicted model. It is considered good when it is close to 100%.
 A statistical technique named Sum Squared Residuals (Equation 33) is used to find the best fit from the data. It
measures the amount of error remaining between the regression function and the experimental data by altering the
fitted parameters iteratively until the squared differences between the predicted and measured data were minimized.
According to previous study [7, 28] a best fit should have a SSR less than 10−3
2
𝑆𝑆𝑅 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 (𝜃𝑖 − 𝑓(𝜔𝑖 )) (33)
where 𝜃𝑖 represents the value of the measured volumetric water content, 𝑓(𝜓𝑖 ) represents predicted value of the
volumetric water content, and 𝜔𝑖 weighting factor set equal to 1.
 And finally, the results obtained with the modified model should be compared with those obtained with other
authors (Hernandez and Perera).
In order to obtain the best SWCC while minimizing the errors, several simulations were carried out with α, β and λ.
The values of these three parameters introduced in the modified Perera model for granular soils and used to predict the
SWCC of the Sebikotane and Keur Mory sands (Figures 12 and 15) are presented in Table 2.
1338
100 Hanging Column data

Activity Meter data
Perera's model
Modified Perera's model
80

60
40
20
0
0.001 0.1 10 1000 105
Figure 12. SWCC fit with modified Perera’s model on Sebikotane Sand
100
80
60
40
Hanging coulum data

20
Activity meter data
Perera's model
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Figure 13. SWCC fit with modified Perera’s model on Keur Mory Sand
100
80
60
40
Hanging Column data

20
Activity Meter
Perera's model
0
5
0.001 0.1 10 1000 10
Suction (kPa)
Figure 14. SWCC fit with modified Perera’s model on Marl of Diamniadio
1339
100
80
Degree of Saturation (%) 60
40
Hanging Column data

20
Activity Meter
Perera's model
0
0.001 0.1 10 1000 105
Suction (kPa)
Figure 15. SWCC fit with modified Perera’s model on Clay of Diamniadio
Table 2. values of parameter α, β et λ for the modified Perera’s model
Parameter Value
α 16.1
β 1.222
λ 0.6
The following Tables 3 to 6, show the results obtained with the Perera’s model, Hernandez model and the modified
Perera’s. It can be observed a clear improvement of the coefficient of correlation 𝑅2 associated with the Sum Squared
Residuals 𝑆𝑆𝑅 in particular for the two coarse-grained soils. Indeed, as mentioned above, for the sandy soils (Sebikotane
and Keur Mory respectively), the 𝑅² increased from 58% to 99.98% and 78.78 to 98.74% while the minimum sum
squared residual is obtained with the modified model defining the error committed by the predictive model on the
experimental data was obtained with the modified model (1.96 10 -5 and 6.73 10-4) in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Soil Water Characteristic Curve fit parameters for Sebikotane Sand
Parameters
Model R2 (%) SSR
𝛉𝐬 𝛉𝐫 𝐚𝐟 𝐛𝐟 𝐜𝐟 𝐡𝒓
Perera 2.45 9.494 1.55 58 2.8 10-2
Hernandez 0.3550 0.004 5.894 3.964 0.693 100 85 8. 10-3
Perera’s modified 39.442 11.53 0.849 99.98 1.96 10-5
Table 4. Soil Water Characteristic Curve fit parameters for Keur Mory Sand
Parameters
Model R2 (%) SSR
Perera 6.735 6.415 0.739 78.78 1.47 10-2
Hernandez 0.375 0.102 8.703 6.773 0.646 100 78 1.51 10-2
Table 5. Soil Water Characteristic Curve fit parameters for Marl of Diamniadio
Parameters
Model R2 (%) SSR
Perera 97.862 0.753 0.285 90.48 2.24 10-3
Hernandez 0.2621 0.0047 519.955 4.013 1.005 500 92.6 2.7 10-3
1340
Table 6. Soil Water Characteristic Curve fit parameters for Clay of Diamniadio
Parameters
Model R2 (%) SSR
Perera 130.891 0.547 0.069 94.88 4.31 10-3
Hernandez 0.4048 0.0227 809 1.06 1.104 500 91.8 9.4 10-3
The same can be said for the fine soils. As a matter of fact, the adjusted 𝑅2 value is respectively equal to 99.64 and
99.93 for the Marley and Clayey soils of Diamniadio were going from 58% to 85% for Perera’s and Hernandez model.
It is also found that the minimal SSR respectively equal to 6.09 10 -5 and 6.85 10-5 were obtained with the modified
model (Tables 5 and 6). All the results obtained in this study, show that this modified model is good for fitting these
four subgrade materials.
4. Conclusion
Determining the soil-water characteristic curves (SWCC) is delicate to perform, time-consuming, and the devices
are expensive. To overcome all these parameters, prediction was and still is the way to go in this field. In this paper,
Perera’s model did not give a good fit. Therefore, the look at modelling, starting from understanding the effect of each
parameter on the shape of the SWCC, finally allowed to modify the Perera’s model. The results of this study show that
the modified model works well for both fine- and coarse-grained soils. A statistical analysis was carried out to confirm
these results. Indeed, the adjusted R2 values for the sandy soils of Sebikotane and Keur Mory and the clayey and marly
soils of Diamniadio are respectively 99.99, 98.74, 99.64, and 99.93, which are high compared to the other models
(Perera’s and Hernandez). This study also showed that the minimal SSR was all obtained with this modified model,
respecting the values prescribed by Miller et al. and Leong et al. According to them, the lower the residual value SSR
is, the closer the model is to the experimental data, which is the case here. The statistical analysis confirms the result,
this modified model better fits the SWCC of these four subgrade materials. However, even if this work is a good start,
it has only been tested on four soils, and the database should be expanded to test it on more samples. That will be useful
for using Artificial Neural Network to play our part in this unsaturated field.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, R.G.; methodology, R.G.; formal analysis, R.G.; investigation, R.G., M.B., I.M., and I.B.J.K.;
data curation, R.G.; writing—original draft preparation, R.G.; writing—review and editing, R.G., M.B., I.M., and
I.B.J.K.; visualization, M.B. and I.M.; supervision, M.B. and I.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding
Financial support for this study was provided by Family.
5.4. Acknowledgements
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of the University of Wisconsin - Madison is acknowledged for
their valuable input in this study and facilitating the use of their testing equipment. I also would like to thank Prof.
Adamah Messan, Dr. Philbert Nshimiyimana and Marie Therese Marame Mbengue for their assistance and support.

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Experimental Study on Ultimate Strength of Steel Tube Column

Filled with Reactive Powder Concrete
Bahaa Al-Abbas 1, Zainab M.R. Abdul Rasoul 1 , Dhafer Hasan 1, Sajjad E. Rasheed 1*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Kerbala, Kerbala, Iraq.
Received 23 January 2023; Revised 14 May 2023; Accepted 22 May 2023; Published 01 June 2023
Abstract
Composite concrete Filled Tubular Steel (CFT) members, which have excellent deformability due to the well-known
confined and constrained interaction between steel tube and concrete, have largely been utilized as bridge piers or columns
in high-rise buildings, resulting in increased strength and decreased column size. This study examined the experimental
performance of steel tube columns filled with reactive powder concrete (RPC) under axial compression. Three sets of
columns were used in the experiment, each with variations in shape (square, rectangular, and circular), length-to-diameter
ratio, and compressive strength of the RPC. The first set consisted of five columns, while the second and third sets each
had seven columns with three different lengths (750 mm, 600 mm, and 450 mm) and two different compressive strengths
(54 and 92 MPa). A new numerical model was developed to calculate the ultimate failure load of the columns by
considering factors such as the yield strength of steel, the compressive strength of concrete, the column shape, and the ratio
of concrete to steel. This model was validated by comparing the results obtained from the experiments to those predicted
by the model, as well as by designing equations from various codes. The results showed that the proposed numerical model
accurately predicted the ultimate failure load for columns filled with different types of concrete, especially for RPC, while
maintaining conservatism compared to the ACI, AISC, and EN codes equations.
Keywords: Steel Column; Hollow Section; Reactive Powder Concrete; Local Buckling; Lateral Displacement.
1. Introduction
Concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST) have grown in popularity in seismic zones in recent years. The composite effect
associated with these members, which is caused by the interaction between the steel tube and the concrete core, can
improve both the ductility and capacity of the member [1]. Many researchers have studied the behavior of steel tube
columns filled with normal concrete, such as Stephen et al. [2], Uenaka et al. [3], Yang & Han [4], Liao et al. [5], and
Almamoori et al. [6]. However, it appears that little attention has gone into studying the behavior of a composite member
subjected to axial compression with high or ultra-high-strength concrete. Experiments were carried out [7, 8] on
concentrically and eccentrically loaded circular, square, and rectangular CFST stub columns filled by high-strength self-
compacting concrete with a length-to-diameter (width) ratio of 3. The test findings revealed that there were substantial
variations between partially loaded CFST stub columns and the corresponding fully loaded composite columns due to
the presence of partially compressive forces. In recent years, structural engineers have been interested in the performance
of CFST under axial compression loads with different concrete types. However, design codes for composite columns
have not adequately addressed this issue. Moreover, the design formula was proposed by Uenaka et al. [3] based on the
* Corresponding author: sajjad.e@uokerbala.edu.iq

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yield strengths of the tubes and the filled concrete cylinder. In recent years, a novel group of concrete known as reactive
powder concrete (RPC) has recently gotten a lot of interest all over the world due to its superior mechanical properties,
such as high strength, high ductility, high durability, low shrinkage, and high resistance to corrosion and abrasion. Many
researchers have been studying the properties of RPC, such as Hassooni & Al-Zaidee [9] and Muteb & Hasan [10]. The
authors showed that the increase in steel fiber improves the compressive and rupture stresses of the developed concrete.
Other researchers studied the effect of RPC or UHPC on the behavior of composite sections, such as Luo et al. [11],
Hoang et al. [12], and Mi et al. [13]. Based on their results, the strength and hoop coefficient of the developed column
increased due to the growth in the ultimate strength of the RPC core, which highlighted an improvement in the ductility
of developed columns. Limit studies on the behavior of steel tube columns filled with RPC under axial compression
utilizing various cross-sections can be seen in the above preview. As a result, the focus of this work is on utilizing RPC
to experimentally and analytically investigate the CFST's performance.
1.1. Research Significance

The purpose of the current study was to experimentally investigate the effect of using RPC on the behavior of CFST
under axial compression loads. This is done by changing the column shape, the compressive strength of the concrete,
and the length-to-diameter ratio. In addition to the experimental work, a numerical model has been developed to compute
the failure load of the developed CFST columns.
2. Experimental Program
2.1. General Description
The behavior of CFST using RPC while exposed to concentric axial compression stress was investigated using
nineteen steel columns in this study. High-quality steel with a yield stress of 363 MPa was employed in this research.
The details of the test columns are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1.
Table 1. Characteristics and details of the used columns
Column Column Length Section Length/Diameter Thickness Compressive strength of

Group
shape symbols (mm) (mm) ratio (mm) concrete (MPa)
S10 750 10 2 -
S10-54 750 10 2 54
1 Square S8-92 600 75*75 8 2 92
S6-54 450 6 2 54
S6-92 450 6 2 92
R10 750 10 2 -
R10-54 750 10 2 54
R10-92 750 10 2 92
2 Rectangular R8-54 600 75*100 8 2 54
R8-92 600 8 2 92
R6-54 450 6 2 54
R6-92 450 6 2 92
C10 750 10 2 -
C10-54 750 10 2 54
C10-92 750 10 2 92
3 Circular C8-54 600 75 Dia. 8 2 54
C8-92 600 8 2 92
C6-54 450 6 2 54
C6-92 450 6 2 92
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Steps of the Work
Configuration of Steel
Specimens
Mix Design
Circular Cross Rectangular Cross Square Cross

Section Section Section
Mix (1) Mix (2) RPC
0% steel fiber 1% steel fiber
Three Specimens Three Specimens One Specimen

Filled with Mix2 Filled with Mix1 Steel Only
Pressing and Curing for the First 28 days
Test Specimens
Tests in Hardened State for Two Mixes Test CFST Specimens New Model Suggestion
Compressive Strength
(MPa) Modes of Failure Load-Deflection Curves Lateral Displacement
Conclusions
Figure 1. Flowchart for Process of Work
2.2. Materials
A CRESTA 42.5R cement was used in this study. This type of Portland Limestone cement agrees to ASTM
C150/C150M–22 [14]. Locally available fine sand with a maximum particle size of 600μm (0.6mm) was used to produce
the RPC. Fine aggregate testing was carried out in accordance with [15]. Master Glenium 51's commercial brands of
additive (superplasticizer) were used. It’s a non-hazardous third-generation superplasticizer produced by BASF–The
Chemical Company. The steel fibers used in this study were straight steel wire, which has an aspect ratio (length to
diameter) of about 59. ConMix Company's microsilica fume was employed as a mineral additive in the combination.
Based on earlier research done by Muteb and Hasan [10], the mixes were employed to achieve maximum compressive
strength after trial mixes. The details of the mixes are shown in Table 2. Following that, all specimens were cast and
cured inside curing tanks at 60 Co for twenty-eight days.
Table 2. Concrete mixture proportions
3 3
Mix Cement kg/(m) Sand kg/(m) S.F* kg/(m)3 w/C** super plasticizer, L/m3 Steel Fiber % Steel Fiber kg/m3
M54*** 900 1050 100 0.20 45 0% 0
M92**** 900 1050 100 0.20 45 1.5% 117.75
*S.F: silica fume, **W/C: water to cementitious (cement + silica fume) ratio, ***M54: mix with compressive strength 54 MPa, ****M92: mix with compressive
strength 92 MPa.
2.3. Instruments and Procedure

After 28 days, all of the columns were removed from the curing water tank, dried, cleaned, and painted. Typical
testing equipment with a 2000 kN capacity was used to provide axial compression force on the columns supported by a
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stiff, thick plate (20 mm). The plate is used to transfer the axial load from the machine to the column. Three Linear
Variation Displacement Transducers (LVDT) sensors with a 0.001 precision were used. The first one records the axial
deformation, while the second measures the lateral deformation of the developed CSFT columns, as shown in Figure 2.
When each tested column's resistance decreased (the loading curve levelled), the loading was terminated.
Figure 2. CFST Column Testing Equipment
3. Experimental Results and Discussion

3.1. Modes of Failure
Figure 3 illustrates the failure modes of the tested CFST columns. At first, all columns were in the elastic stage, then
moved to the elastic-plastic phase. Local yielding began to appear at the ends of each column as the axial load increased
due to stress concentration. All columns collapsed with local buckling at the ends during the last phases of loading; these
results were comparable to those found by Luo et al. [11]. In general, the RPC that filled steel tube columns increased
the compressive strength, delaying the failure of all columns. Also, the circular shape is more resistant to failure
compared to square and rectangular ones. The results also showed that the length-to-diameter ratio was less effective
compared to other variables.
Figure 3. Failure Modes for Tested CFST Columns
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3.2. Load-Deflection Curves

With various weights, the vertical displacement of the tested columns was recorded and drawn. The effects of three
factors on load-deflection behavior were investigated as follows:
3.3. Length to Diameter Ratio Effect
The effects of the length-to-diameter ratio on the behavior of load-vertical displacement are shown in Figure 4 and
Table 3. It can be seen that there is a significant improvement in the behavior of all filled columns compared with
reference columns (without filling using RPC). The column filled with RPC (compressive strength of 92 MPa) is stiffer
in behavior compared to a column filled with concrete (compressive strength of 54 MPa). This is due to the stiffer
behavior of RPC containing microsteel fiber. And it can be observed that the presence of steel fiber makes the behavior
of the curve stiffer for shorter columns and the stage after ultimate load more ductile for intermediate circular columns,
which corresponds with the results of Hoang et al. [12]. The failure load for all shapes increased as the compressive
strength of concrete increased. However, the failure load for the square and rectangular columns is less than the failure
load for the circular columns when using the same concrete.
400 700
350 600
300
500
250
Load (kN)
400
200 Load (kN)
300
150
R10 R10
200
100 R10-54 R10-92
50 R8-54 100 R8-92
R6-54 R6-92
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Vertical Displacement (mm) Vertical Displacement (mm)
500 700
450
600
400
350 500
300
Load (kN)
400
Load (kN)
250
200 300
150 S10 S10
200
100 S10-54 S8-92
S6-54
100 S6-92
50
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
700 700
C10
600 C10-54 600
500 C8-54 500

Load (kN)
C6-54
Load (kN)
400 400
300 300
C10
200 200 C10-92
C8-92
100 100
C6-92
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 4. Effect of Length to Diameter Ratio Columns
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Table 3. The Tests Results of Columns
Lateral displacement (mm)

Group Column shape Column symbols Failure Load (kN) Vertical displacement (mm)
X-direction Y-direction
S10 153.2 2.022 1.16 0.5
S10-54 452.7 5.573 0.76 0.49
1 Square S8-92 531.3 5.801 -0.17 0.79
S6-54 392.8 5.042 -0.13 1.18
S6-92 638.8 4.234 -0.5 1.42
R10 185.2 4.099 1.79 0.05
R10-54 372.4 5.860 0.19 -0.17
R10-92 550.20 13.295 1.9 0.6
2 Rectangular R8-54 344.6 4.158 -0.73 0.53
R8-92 451.9 5.018 -0.01 -0.003
R6-54 366.9 4.724 0.88 0.81
R6-92 571.4 4.203 -0.09 0.68
C10 172.7 6.389 -0.146 Not available
C10-54 584.3 7.12 -0.52 1.19
C10-92 556 10.252 -0.005 1.28
3 Circular C8-54 614.5 7.115 -0.27 0.32
C8-92 581.1 8.293 -1.6 0.92
C6-54 475.8 5.947 -0.75 1.36
C6-92 557.1 6.886 -0.71 0.87
3.4. Compressive Strength Effect

The influence of compressive strength on vertical displacement behavior is seen in Figure 5. It can be noticed that
the compressive strength has a significant effect on the behavior of each column. The columns filled with 92 MPa
compressive strength concrete performed better than the columns filled with 54 MPa concrete by 62.5%, 54%, and
16.5% for the square, rectangular, and circular columns, respectively. From that, it can be concluded that the columns
with higher compressive strength exhibit stiffer behavior; these results correspond to those found by Hoang et al. [12].
700 700
S10
600 S10-54 600
R10
500 R10-54 500
Load (kN)
C10
load (kN)
400 400
C10-54
300 300 S10
R10
200 200 R10-92
100 100 C10
C10-92
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
700 700
S10
600 S6-54 600
R10
500 R6-54 500
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
C10
400 400
C6-54
300 S10
300
S6-92
200 200 R10
R6-92
100 100 C10
0 C6-92
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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700
600
500
Load (kN)
400
S10
300 S8-92
R10
200
R8-92
100 C10
C8-92
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Vertical Displacement (mm)
Figure 5. Effect of compressive strength on Vertical Displacement
3.5. Lateral Displacement

The relationships between the axial load and lateral displacements at mid-height for all columns are shown in Figures
6 to 8. Small values of lateral displacements in all specimens are noticed and the lateral displacements in the x-direction
are smaller than the displacements in the y-direction. This was referred to as the position of local-buckling occurred far
from the place of the LVDT, which measured this displacement. In most situations, the columns behaved similarly in
terms of lateral displacement in the x and y directions. Besides, the compressive strength of the concrete used as well as
the column shape have an insignificant effect on the lateral displacement at mid-height of each column as clearly noticed
in Figure 9 for square, rectangular and circular shape.
700 700
600 600
500 500
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
400 400
300 300
S8-92
S10-54
200 S6-54
200 S6-54
S6-92
100 S6-92
100
0 0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
X-Displacement (mm) Y- Displacement (mm)
Figure 6. Lateral Displacement in Group 1

600
600
500 500
400 400
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
300 300
R8-54
200 200
R8-92 R10-54
100 R6-54
100 R6-54
R6-92 R6-92
0 0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
X-Displacement (mm) Y- Displacement (mm)
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700 700
600 600
500 500
Load (kN)
400 400
Load (kN)
C10-54 C10-54
300 300
C8-54 C8-54
200 C8-92 C8-92 200

C6-54 C6-54
100 100
C6-92 C6-92
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
X-Displacement (mm) Y-Displacement (mm)
(a) square (b) rectangular
(c) circular
Figure 9. Lateral displacement for various sections
3.6. New Model Suggestion

Many equations such as the equations found in ANSI/AISC 360-22 [16], Eurocode 4 [17], and ACI 318 [18] codes
are used to determine the strength of concrete-filled columns. Besides, many researchers suggested equations to calculate
the compressive strength of concrete-filled columns like [3]. The common questions used to calculate the strength of
the circular concrete-filled columns are listed as follows:
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𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝐴𝑐 𝑓𝑐´ (C2=0.85)(AISC360-16) (1)
𝑃𝑃𝐿,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 + 𝐴𝐶 𝑓𝐶´ (EN1994) (2)
𝑃𝑈 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑖 + 𝐴𝑆𝑜 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑜 + 0.85𝐴𝐶 𝑓𝐶´ (3)

𝐷 𝐷𝑖
𝑁𝑢 𝐶𝐹𝐷𝑆𝑇 = [2.86 − 2.59 ( 𝑖 )] 𝐴𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑦𝑜 + 𝐴𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑦𝑖 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑓𝑐´ (0.2 < < 0.7) (Uenaka et al. equation [3]) (4)
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
The model developed in this research to predict the compressive load of concrete-filled tubular steel column is as
follows:
𝑃𝑢 = 𝛽(𝑘1 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 𝑓′𝐶 ) (5)
where 𝑃𝑢 is the ultimate axial load, 𝛽 is the shape factor, 𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘2 are variables coefficients.
Regression analysis was done to estimate the impact of each parameter on the performance of the developed model
with a coefficient of determination (R2) equal to 0.982 and the resulted values are:
0.95 steel tube
0.68 composit rectangular tube
β={ } (6)
1.05 composit square tube
1.36 composit circular tube
Table 4 shows the difference between the experimental and theoretical results for all columns. It can be seen that the
results of failure load for EN code are higher than the results of AISC and ACI code. Comparing the results of the current
research with the results from the aforementioned codes, this study's proposed equation offers a better prediction of the
compressive strength than the prediction offered by the codes equations when used to predict the compressive strength
for square and circular cross-section. However, this study equation offers a less accurate prediction of the compressive
strength for rectangular cross-sections columns compared to different codes equations. It can be concluded from these
results that the effect of the cross-section of the column on its performance was clear. The suggested equation, based on
R2, was able to predict 98% of the change in compressive strength depending on the factors employed.
Table 4. Theoretical and Experimental Axial Compressive Load of All Columns
Theoretical axial compressive load (kN)

Experimental
Column axial Yield
Compressive Area Area of Steel
symbols compressive Stress AISC EN ACI proposed
strength fc´ of steel concrete Fiber
load (Pu) kN fy equation equation equation equation
MPa mm2 mm2 Ratio
MPa
S10 153.2 0 250 584 0 0% 146 146 146 201.39
S10-54 452.7 54 250 584 5041 0% 377.38 418.21 377.38 445.53
S8-92 531.3 92 250 584 5041 1.5% 540.21 609.77 540.21 602.42
S6-54 392.8 54 250 584 5041 0% 377.38 418.21 377.38 445.53
S6-92 638.8 92 250 584 5041 1.5% 540.21 609.77 540.21 602.42
R10 185.2 0 250 684 0 0 171 171 171 235.87
R10-54 372.4 54 250 684 6816 0% 483.85 539.1 483.85 364.059
R10-92 550.20 92 250 684 6816 1.5% 704.01 798.1 704.01 501.43
R8-54 344.6 54 250 684 6816 0% 483.85 539.1 483.85 364.059
R8-92 451.9 92 250 684 6816 1.5% 704.01 798.1 704.01 501.44
R6-54 366.9 54 250 684 6816 0% 483.85 539.1 483.85 364.059
R6-92 571.4 92 250 684 6816 1.5% 704.01 798.1 704.01 501.44
C10 172.7 0 250 458.44 0 0 114.61 114.61 114.61 160.26
C10-54 584.3 54 250 458.44 3957.185 0% 296.24 328.29 296.24 456.103
C10-92 556 92 250 458.44 3957.185 1.5% 424.06 478.67 424.06 615.62
C8-54 614.5 54 250 458.44 3957.185 0% 296.24 328.29 296.24 456.103
C8-92 581.1 92 250 458.44 3957.185 1.5% 424.06 478.67 424.06 615.62
C6-54 475.8 54 250 458.44 3957.185 0% 296.24 328.29 296.24 456.103
C6-92 557.1 92 250 458.44 3957.185 1.5% 424.06 478.67 424.06 615.62
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Figure 10-a shows the normal probability plot of the residuals which verifies the assumption of the normal
distribution of the residuals. The normal probability plot of the residuals generally follows a straight line. There is no
evidence of abnormality, outliers, or unidentified variables. The residuals versus fits plot are used to confirm that the
residuals are distributed randomly and have a constant variance. Ideally, the points would fall randomly on both sides
of zero, with no discernible patterns. The data appears to be scattered randomly about zero. There is no indication that
the residual value is influenced by the fitted values as seen in Figure 10-b. The residuals are not related to one another,
as seen in Figure (10-d). When displayed in time order, independent residuals show no trends or patterns. Patterns in the
points might suggest that residuals that are near each other are associated and hence are not independent. The residuals
should appear to fall randomly around the centreline.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10. The Results of Statistical Analysis
4. Conclusion
This study has investigated the performance of steel tube columns filled with reactive powder concrete (RPC) under
axial compression with different cross sections. The collected test data from nineteen specimens was analyzed and
compared with previous studies and design codes. The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study.
Due to the high compressive strength and presence of steel fiber, the composite effect caused by the interaction
between the steel tube and the concrete core can improve both the ductility and capacity of the member. On the other
hand, the failure mode of the columns filled with RPC differs from that of the columns filled with normal concrete. As
a result, local buckling and local yielding appeared at the ends of the column due to some stress concentration at these
locations. The behavior of the columns in terms of load-vertical displacement is stiffer with the increase in compressive
strength due to the use of RPC with micro-steel fiber. The maximum ratios of increase in displacement resistance with
increase in compressive strength were 62.5%, 54%, and 16.5% for square, rectangular, and circular columns,
respectively. Also, with respect to the effect of shape, circular columns have a better vertical displacement compared
with other shapes, as the displacement resistance increased by 28.5% and 20% for rectangular and square columns,
respectively. While the lateral displacement was unaffected by the compressive strength or shape of the columns, this is
attributed to the confinement effect. In addition to these main findings in the part of experimental results, there are some
concluded remarks about the theoretically proposed equation, which, despite its limitations to pinned boundary
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conditions and concentrated axial load. Furthermore, it provided an accurate prediction while remaining conservative
compared with the underestimated results offered by the ACI, AISC, and EN codes equations. In details, the
enhancement of concrete capacity within the section represented by the parameter k2 converges the results of the
proposed equation with the values obtained from the experimental test, and the shape factor β is very sensitive and
affects the ultimate capacity of the CFST column.
5. Nomenclature
RPC Reactive Powder Concrete LVDT Linear Variation Displacement Transducers
CFST Concrete-filled steel tubes Pu Ultimate axial load
β Shape Factor k1, k2 Variable coefficients
FE Finite Element ACI American Concrete Institute
OPC Ordinary Portland cement AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
UHPC Ultra-High-Performance Concrete EN European Standard
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, B.A. and D.H.; methodology, B.A. and D.H.; software, B.A. and S.E.R.; validation, B.A. and
Z.M.R.A.; formal analysis, B.A. and Z.M.R.A.; investigation, B.A. and D.H.; resources, B.A. and Z.M.R.A.; data
curation, B.A. and D.H.; writing—original draft preparation, B.A. and Z.M.R.A.; writing—review and editing, B.A. and
S.E.R.; visualization, B.A. and S.E.R.; supervision, B.A. and D.H.; project administration, B.A.; funding acquisition,
B.A. and D.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding

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steel tubes after lateral impact loading. Structures, 26, 549–561. doi:10.1016/j.istruc.2020.04.032.
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Baghdad, Iraq.
[16] ANSI/AISC 360-22. (2022). Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. American Institute of Steel Construction, Illinois,
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[17] Eurocode 4. (2014). Design of composite steel and concrete structures. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels,
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Michigan, United States.
1355

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
River Mobile Armor Layer Induced by Flood
Arlendenovega S. Negara 1*, Cahyono Ikhsan 2 , RR. Rintis Hadiani 2 ,

Yusep M. Purwana 2
1
Doctoral Program in Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Jawa Tengah, Indonesia.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Jawa Tengah, Indonesia.
Abstract
The armored layer is crucial for protecting the riverbed. The bed layer of the river is a movable material that protects the
material below the surface layer. This study aimed to develop formulas to estimate the thickness of a mobile armor layer
with noncohesive materials and establish a correlation between the flow velocity and shear stress under conditions of
erosion and sedimentation. The research methods included field measurements, laboratory tests, and numerical simulations.
The primary data included grain size gradation profiles, river topography, and flood discharge. The results demonstrated
consistency in the behavior of the riverbed under various flood discharge conditions. The fundamental variables affecting
the mobile armor thickness included the gradation coefficient (v) and the dimensionless shear stress (0/c). The
fundamental novelty of this study is the derivation of the mobile armor layer thickness, which is influenced by grain size
and shear stress. The present findings significantly contribute to the design of more efficient and environmentally friendly
riverbed protection rather than rigid structures. These results indicated that erosion and sedimentation were primarily
influenced by the flow velocity and the applied shear stress above the riverbed.
Keywords: Armor Layer; Shear Stress; Grain Size; Bed Load; River.
1. Introduction
The research delves into the high frequency of erosion and sedimentation phenomena in rivers and irrigation canals,
which incurs high costs for maintaining and constructing canals. This phenomenon has forced policymakers to construct
rigid river structures, which are more expensive than unlined channels. Thus, riverbed control work utilizing natural
materials is essential for innovating lower river maintenance costs, greater efficiency, and more environmentally friendly
river maintenance work. As such, riverbed variations occur naturally in rivers and can affect their environment and
hydraulic structures. The variations in riverbed elevation are influenced by the flow velocity [1] and bedload of the
sediment transport [2, 3]. Based on the characteristics of the riverbed armor, it can be divided into two types: static and
mobile [4, 5]. Although previous research on armor layers should provide a formula for determining the thickness of the
armor developed under certain flow conditions, only a few studies have calculated the thickness of the armor layer.
For example, Ikhsan et al. [6] evaluated the thickness of the armor under stationary conditions, and Marion &
Fraccarollo [5] presented the formation of mobile armor under steady flow conditions. To date, no study has attempted
to derive the thickness of the mobile armor under flood conditions. This research gap inspired us to develop a numerical
simulation of mobile armor under flood hydrograph conditions for deriving a formula for the thickness of the mobile
armor. In principle, we defined the thickness of the mobile armor as the average thickness of the riverbed alterations in
* Corresponding author: satrianegara@student.uns.ac.id; satrianegara@gmail.com

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a single flood hydrograph cycle. To maintain the stability of the river bed, the estimated thickness of the mobile armor
is key for the river maintenance work, including gravel augmentation [7] and river restoration [8]. The present study
employed numerical simulations using the sediment transport equation with a single hydrograph input under unsteady
conditions to derive an overview and formula describing the behavior of the riverbed, especially the thickness of the
mobile armor layer formed. The study utilized the HEC-RAS 6.1 software.
The bed layer of a river generally exhibits a larger grain size than the subsurface layer. The process of forming a
coarser surface layer to protect the river bed is called armoring [9, 10]. The armoring process poses an essential impact
on the channel hydraulics, availability of sediment for sediment transport, determination of the habitat conditions of
aquatic species in rivers, geomorphology and turbulence of the river, and degradation of the riverbed [11]. Armoring is
more significant in the case of prolonged flooding that reduces the discharge hydrograph compared to the event of a
flash flood [9]. The field observations exhibited that a single event of unsteady flow/flood hydrograph can significantly
alter the morphology of the riverbed, but no formula has been derived to determine the extent to which the river
morphology varies. The texture of the riverbed can transform rapidly under the combined effects of shear stress and
grain material availability [12].
The static armor layer is a protective layer at the bottom of rivers/channels formed by flows that only pass finer
grains selectively in cases of deficient sediment supply from upstream [13] or when the flow-induced shear stress is less
than that required to move the armor grains but is sufficiently large to transport smaller particles [14]. The existing
research on static armor indicates that the formation of a layer is influenced by grain size, flow depth, flow rate, sand
content, and shear stress [14, 15]. Ikhsan et al. [6] reported that an armor layer is formed when coarser grain materials
are arranged in a relatively uniform shape after the maximal transportation of the fine sediments. Moreover, the
formation of the channel bottom-surface structure is strongly influenced by grain size and bedload movement, and the
thickness of the armor layer is presented as a non-dimensional number.
The mobile armor layer transforms into a protective layer when the variations in the mobility of large and small
grains decrease and the percentage of larger grains exposed to flow increases [16, 17]. The concepts of static and mobile
armor are explained in Figure 1. The investigation of the mobile armor revealed that its layer structure is not sensitive
to the sediment transport rate, except at low magnitudes of transport rate [18, 19]. The formation of the mobile armor
layer and the channel bed geometry are strongly influenced by the composition of the grain material in the channel bed.
In addition, variations in the shape of the initial surface significantly affect the response to the geometry. Wilcock and
DeTemple [11] stated that the mobile armor layer prevalent at low flows can survive at high flows as well. Furthermore,
they identified that the armor layers persisting during low flow can simplify the predictions of sediment transport,
hydraulic roughness, and habitat disturbance during flood events.
Figure 1. Basic concept of static and mobile armor [18]
The armor layer is a noncohesive natural material located on the riverbed surface in the form of gravel grains. The
granules actively merged according to the flow conditions. Therefore, in this study, the material samples from the
riverbed were acquired and tested for grain gradation as input for the numerical simulations. To accurately represent the
conditions at the instant of the flood, a flood discharge hydrograph calculation was performed based on the actual rainfall
data for the last 10 years. Furthermore, numerical simulations were conducted based on grain gradation inputs, river
topography, and flood hydrographs under unsteady flow conditions. The unsteady flow condition is a real representation
of the river's conditions. Therefore, the present findings are beneficial and purposeful. The existing research literature
motivating this study has been adequately studied and referenced, including flood hydrographs, armor layers, shear
stress, grain size, and shear strength of grain materials.
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1.1. Flood Hydrograph

Flood discharge can control the degree of riverbed armoring. Prior investigation indicated that flooding causes the
rupture of armor layers and provides a variable bottom sediment pattern owing to the scavenging flows and successive
events [20]. Plumb et al. [21] investigated the impact of hydrograph variations on bedload transport and riverbed
morphology. Flood hydrographs with short durations implied that greater bedload transport could result from long
periods of above-critical shear stress. In general, sediment supply and hydrograph configuration govern riverbed
armoring [22], and a significant amount of sediment is transported in the falling limb hydrograph. The relatively
symmetrical shape of the flow hydrograph significantly influences the formation of the riverbed surface, especially in
the case of a short hydrograph.
1.2. Mobile Armor Layer and Bed Load Transport

A simple definition of mobile armor is that when the static armor layer breaks and then exposes the sand material
underneath, there is a change in the structure of the armor layer, which again closes the gap. This is called mobile armor.
Marion et al. [23] demonstrated two groups of grain scales: the conditions for the formation of grain structures tend to
be gradual in the form of a stable base and static armor, and second, the conditions for tight formation in the form of
mobile armoring are related to strong flow. Generally, the grains in mobile armor are smaller than those in the static
armor layer [18]. The formation of the gravel bed clusters apparently influences the formation of armor [24]. Armoring
is more significant in the case of a flood over a longer duration that decreases the discharge hydrograph compared to the
event of a flash flood [9]. The armoring process at the bottom of the channel is segmented into two processes: surface
roughening and cluster formation. The shear stress caused by the flow in the clustering process is greater than that in the
roughening process [25].
The formation of mobile armor layers and channel bed geometry are strongly influenced by the composition of the
grain material at the bottom of the channel [5]. In addition, the variations in the shape of the initial surface significantly
affect the response to the geometry. This study was conducted using a laboratory flume experiment with mixed bimodal
and trimodal materials. The response to the basic geometry shows that running on a bimodal sedimentary terrain results
in the formation of anti-dunes, whereas the response to the trimodal material exhibits variations in the mobility of the
coarse sand material/middle material. Based on empirical evidence, Elgueta-Astaburuaga & Hassan [26] stated that the
cycle of degradation and aggradation of the channel/river bottom can be influenced by the upstream sediment supply of
escaping sediments and the topography and composition of the channel bottom. Therefore, the surface conditions and
sediment availability at the channel bottom are the fundamental factors controlling the sediment transport conditions.
Moreover, large-scale cycles of degradation and aggradation are caused by significant fluctuations in the sediment
supply, whereas alterations in the local channel bed cause small-scale cycles.
1.3. Shear Stress and Grain Size

In the fields of hydraulic engineering, mechanical engineering, river morphology, and environmental studies, the
evaluation of bed shear stress is a challenging task. Lisle & Madej [27] concluded that the flow variations in natural
rivers affect the conditions of spatial variation in shear stress by inducing spatial variations in grain size on the surface
and subsurface. Chin et al. [10] conducted experimental research on the development of armor layers in nonuniform
sediments. As such, nonuniform sediment establishes stable armor layers within a specific range of shear stress. The
dimensionless shear critical stress depends on the ratio of the maximum and median sediment particle sizes; the critical
armor layer is proportional to the lower limit of a nonuniform material, and the uniform sediments do not bear an armor.
The equilibrium time associated with the diminishing sediment rate in the process of forming the armor layer and
geometric roughness is influenced by four parameters: Reynolds number, nondimensional grain median diameter, ratio
of the basic shear stress of the channel to the critical shear stress, and ratio of width to the depth of flow [28, 29]. Powell
et al. [19] concluded that the structure of the mobile armor layer is insensitive to the transportation rate, except for the
low transport rate, which is the nondimensional shear stress of 0.03. Generally, fine materials can transport coarse
materials present on the bottom surface of the channel, which can be attributed to the effect of the grain ratio [30]. The
model developed by Viparelli et al. [31] demonstrated that the fraction of fine sediments in the uppermost substrate and
surface layers can be reduced by flood flow and gravel augmentation.
Wilcock et al. [32] reported that the sand content strongly influences the coarse-grain/gravel transport rate. In mixed
conditions of sand and gravel, the increase in the rate of coarse grain transport will rapidly increase across the sand
content range of 15–27%. Although the size of the surface grains varies with the sand content, laboratory experimental
results revealed a marginal influence of the surface roughening process, including variations in the flow rate and the rate
of grain material transport. Moreover, Butler et al. [33] presented a transport model for mixed sand and gravel, which
used the full-size distribution of the layers including sand and incorporated the nonlinear effect of the sand content on
the gravel-haul rates, which were earlier disregarded in the existing model. Sediments with fine materials or sand tended
to form a relatively coarse median grain surface.
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1.4. Shear Strength

This study examined the shear strength of the grain material in the armor layer on the riverbed surface to determine
its effect. The shear strength of the granular soil can be defined as a function of the normal stress on the failure plane
and corresponds to the angular friction of the soil [34]. Shear strength parameters were required to analyze the bearing
capacity, slope stability, and thrust. As such, several factors affect the shear strength [35], depending on the relative
density, gradation, particle strength, particle size, shape, and degree of saturation. The gravel content primarily
influences the shear strength of the coarse material in the gravel-sand mixture. Large-scale direct-shear test equipment
is one of the most appropriate methods for determining the shear strength parameters of coarse-grained soils [36]. The
shear strength between the bed surface and subsurface layers hypothetically contributes to the development of the armor
layer.
2. Research Methodology
The research location is situated on the Krasak River in Magelang Regency, Central Java, and Sleman Regency,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The Krasak River originates from the active volcano Mount Merapi. A map of the Krasak
Watershed is displayed in Figure 2.
Krasak Watershed
Indonesia
Java Island
Figure 2. Location of Krasak Watershed
2.1. Research Arrangement

The study aimed to investigate the behavior of the mobile armor layer acting on the surface of the riverbed based on
numerical simulations and verify the field measurement results. The study was conducted in four stages, comprising the
(1) collection of data on rainfall and river topography, (2) sampling and field measurements, (3) laboratory testing, and
(4) numerical simulations using HEC RAS 6.1 software. The study method is schematically illustrated in Figure 3, and
the riverbed grain samples were acquired from the Krasak River in the DI Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia. The material
from the field was transported to the laboratory for grain gradation and large-scale direct shear tests. Subsequently, the
rainfall data and characteristics of the Krasak Watershed were processed into a flood hydrograph based on the GAMA
I and SCS Synthetic Unit Hydrograph (SUH) methods. Furthermore, the results of laboratory tests on grain gradation
profiles, river topography, and flood hydrographs were employed as inputs in the numerical simulations to record the
riverbed response to the flow across various flood discharge conditions.
2.2. Flood Analysis

In terms of river hydraulic analysis, the discharge data are required to devise an overview of the riverbed behavior
under flow. As a part of the hydrological analysis, a flow simulation was conducted to determine the riverbed behavior
in response to floods. Based on the field surveys and corrected data, no record of water level/discharge was observed in
the Krasak River. Moreover, in areas with no runoff records available to derive unit hydrographs, we constructed SUHs
based on catchment characteristics to analyze the flood discharge [37]. In particular, the research location was situated
at the Krasak River on Java Island in the Magelang Regency and Sleman Regency, Indonesia. Furthermore, the flood
discharge hydrograph simulations were performed using two methods: GAMA I (G1–G6) and SCS (S1–S6) SUH.
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Flood discharge analysis Numerical Simulation:

Start Data Analysis
 Variation flood hydroraph (2,
5, 10, 25, 50, 100 years return
period)
Specify research
Flood hydrograph (return  Variation of sediment
location Report
periods of 2, 5, 10, 25, transport methods (Meyer
50, 100 years) Peter-Muller and Wilcock-
Crowe)
 Collection rainfall data  Material variations (3
 Collection river gradation profiles) Finish
geometry data
Numerical simulation
utilizes HEC-River Simulation Result Data
Collection armor Analysis System (HEC- Collection
material on the river RAS) 6.1 software:  Shear stress
 River geometry (cross  Armor layer thickness
section, longitudinal
 Shear Velocity
section and river slope)
 Gradation parameter after
Grain size analysis  Flood hydrographs
flood simulation (d90, d84, d50,
 Gradation profiles d16, d10)
Grain size profiles

Yes No
Run for other
data sets
berikutnya
Figure 3. Flowchart of research methodology
2.3. Riverbed Material Analysis

Riverbed material samples were collected from the Krasak River in the Tempel District, Sleman Regency, DI
Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia. Materials were collected from three locations by excavating the riverbed. Sampling
was conducted by digging the riverbed to obtain a cross-section of the riverbed material. Material sampling was
conducted in the middle area of the river, which is an ideal location because the bottom layer of the river experiences
high-velocity flow [38]. The riverbed layer of the Krasak River is shown in Figure 4. Based on visual observations, the
surface layer has a larger grain size than the layer below it. The surface layer can be referred to as the armor layer, which
protects the grain material below [9, 17]. The riverbed material samples were then delivered to the laboratory for grain
size analysis. The results of the grain-size analysis of each location were then combined to obtain a single-grain size
distribution for each location as an input to the model simulation. The grain-size distribution of the bed material is shown
in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Riverbed layers
2.4. Simulation Parameters

This research was conducted using a numerical simulation model (HEC RAS version 6.1), wherein the input data
included cross-sectional data of the 18.93-km-long section of the Krasak River, flood hydrographs, and grain gradation
profiles. A combination of sediment transport simulations was performed with 12 variations of flow discharge
hydrographs containing flood hydrographs from GAMA I (G1–G6) and the SCS (S1–S6) with 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and
100-year return period. The grain grading input is composed of three material variations (Z1, Z2, and Z3) and two
variations of sediment transport using the Meyer–Peter Muller (T1) and Wilcock–Crowe (T2) methods. In total, 72
iterations were simulated to obtain an overview of the response of the riverbed to flood discharge.
In this study, the parameters influencing the formation of the mobile armor layer included shear stress (t), critical
shear stress (tc), average grain diameter (d50), and gradation coefficient (sg). The results of the numerical simulations
highlighted the 16% grain diameter passing through the sieve (d a16), average grain diameter (da50), 84% grain diameter
passing through the sieve (da84), shear stress (t), critical shear stress (tc), and thickness of the mobile armor (Ma). In this
1360
case, the thickness of the mobile armor is defined as the average fluctuation in the riverbed elevation because a mobile
armor forms by kinematic sorting and fine grain infiltration into the riverbed [17, 18].
100
Z1
Z2
80
Z3
Percent finer (%)
60
40
20
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Grain Size (mm)
Figure 5. Gradation profiles of riverbed material
2.5. Bedload Transport Analysis

Bedload transport is a component of sediment transport, as the material at the bottom of the channel experiences
rolling, sliding, or jumping movements in the vicinity of the channel bottom. Bedload transport is an event that occurs
with high variability and is influenced by turbulence [39, 40]. The transport bedload equation was developed by Müller
and describes the phenomenon of mobile armor [4]. The Meyer–Müller equation is expressed in Equation 1 [41]:
𝑘 3/2 𝛾 1/3 𝛾𝑠 −𝛾 2/3 2/3
( 𝑟′ ) 𝛾𝑅𝑆 = 0,047(𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾)𝑑𝑚 + 0,25 ( ) ( ) 𝑔𝑠 (1)
𝑘𝑟 𝑔 𝛾𝑠
where kr denotes the roughness coefficient, 𝑘𝑟′ indicates the roughness coefficient based on grains, γ indicates the unit
weight of water, γs denotes the unit weight of the sediment, R represents the hydraulic radius, S denotes the energy
gradient, dm indicates the median particle diameter, g denotes the acceleration of gravity, and gs represents the unit
sediment transport rate in weight/time/unit width. The Meyer–Müller equation was derived from laboratory experiments
and its applicability was verified based on field tests in rivers with coarse sediment bottoms. The amount of sediment
transported was proportional to the difference between the average shear stress and critical grain shear stress.
Wilcock et al. [32] presented a transport model for gravel-sand-sediment mixtures. This model was developed based
on laboratory experiments and research in rivers, with a sand content of 16–34% in the riverbed surface [42]. As the
grain gradation in the Krasak River was 10.8–18.16%, the Wilcock and Crowe (W-C) formula can be suitably applied
in the simulation. W-C defines the W-C surface-based sediment transport formula in terms of nondimensional numbers
 = */*ri in Equations 2 and 3. The volumetric transport rate formula per unit width is expressed in Equation 4.
𝑊𝑖∗ = 0,002𝜙 7,5 for  < 1.35, (2)

0,894 4,5
𝑊𝑖∗ = 14 (1 − ) for   1.35, (3)
𝜙0,5
(𝑠−1)𝑔𝑞𝑏𝑖
𝑊𝑖∗ = , (4)
𝐹𝑖 𝑢∗3
where  denotes the non-dimensional number of surface-based transported sediments (/ri),  indicates the bed shear
stress (N/m2), ri denotes the reference bed shear stress (N/m2), qbi indicates the discharge of the transported grain fraction
per unit width, 𝑊𝑖∗ accounts for the sediment transported for each grain fraction, Fi denotes the armor grain fraction, s
indicates the sediment density, 𝑢∗ represents shear velocity, and s denotes the ratio of sediment to water density (s/).
The reference bed shear stress (τ*ri) was derived from the basic reference shear stress (τ*rm) on the average grain class,
ratio of the particle size of a certain grain class (di) on the surface to the average surface grain size (dsm), factor b, and
mean surface sand content (Fs), as expressed in Equations 5 to 7:
1361
∗ ∗ 𝑑𝑖
𝜏𝑟𝑖 = 𝜏𝑟𝑚 ( ) (5)
𝑑𝑠𝑚
0,67
𝑏= 𝑑𝑖 (6)
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝(1,5− )
𝑑𝑠𝑚
∗
𝜏𝑟𝑚 = 0,021 + 0,015𝑒𝑥𝑝[−20𝐹𝑠 ] (7)
The bedload transport simulation of the Meyer–Müller and Wilcock–Crowe equations generated 36 equations
corresponding to the mobile armor layer thickness. These equations were analyzed by conducting an optimization
process with the Excel solver. Principally, we attempted to derive a general equation that can accurately estimate the
thickness of the mobile armor layer protecting the underlying riverbed layer.
3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Thickness of Mobile Armor Layer
The numerical simulations were executed with 12 datasets of flood hydrographs, three datasets of grain size
distributions, and two methods of the sediment transport equation. The flood hydrographs were sourced from GAMA I
(G1–G6) and SCS (S1–S6), containing 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and 100-year return periods. The GAMA I SUH was initially
developed based on research on flood data and simulations on Java Island [37]. In particular, we utilized the SCS method
considering that it is widely used in research and applications and provides an accurate estimation of flood hydrographs
[43]. The grain size distributions were obtained from the Krasak River samples (Z1, Z2, and Z3). These three sets of
riverbed materials were sampled from three distinct locations on the Krasak River, representing the general
characteristics of the river based on the statistical homogeneity test. The sediment transport was evaluated using the
Meyer–Müller (T1) and Wilcock–Crowe (T2) equations. The Meyer–Müller equation is a prominent method for
evaluating sediment transport loads. The Wilcock–Crowe equation was developed from the bed surface gradation
material of the flume and river with a sand content of 6–34% and is represented by the sand content of the Krasak River
in the range of 10.8–18.16%.
The variations in the tendencies of the mobile armor in the simulation results obtained using the MP-M and W-C
sediment transport methods are presented in Figure 6. The thickness of the mobile armor with respect to the
nondimensional shear stresses in the W-C method was steeper than that in the M-PM method, implying that the amount
of sediment transported by the W-C method is more sensitive to the increase in shear stress associated with the grain
size and mobile armor layer thickness (Figure 6). This finding demonstrated that the W-C bedload equation provided a
larger amount of bedload transport than that predicted by the MP-M formula. Therefore, an optimization analysis of the
two graphs was separately performed. Based on numerical modeling, Cordier et al. [44] reported that the W-C (2003)
formula [33] provides a more relevant fractional and total sediment transport rate than the classic MP-M formula.
However, Bettess & Frangipane [45] claimed that the MP-M formula has more accuracy than other experimental data
methods, even if the initial assumption considers excessive sediment transport rates.
45
40
MP-M
35
W-C
30
+ 13.45
25
𝑑50
𝑀𝑎
20
15
10
5
𝜏
0 𝜏𝑐
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Figure 6. Correlation of dimensionless shear stress and the thickness of mobile armor layer
In total, 72 iterations of the numerical simulation were conducted to obtain an overview of the riverbed response to
the flood discharge hydrograph. These 72 equations were processed using Excel to obtain an optimization formula
representing a series of functions. Hypothetically, the equations generated by the MP-M and W-C simulations can be
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applied to certain grain types or flow characteristics. An example of the combinations executable on three material
datasets (Z1-3), six combinations of flood hydrograph datasets (G1-6), and the M-PM transport sediment formula (T1)
is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Simulation of mobile armor layer thickness for T1, G1–6, and Z1–3 data sets
Maximum Mean diameter of The mean diameter of Shear stress Critical shear Coefficient of 𝑀𝑎 𝜏 𝛽
Maximum flow 𝜒
Running discharge in riverbed sediment active/armor layer in induced by flow stress of the river the gradation 𝐸=[ + 𝜃] − 𝛼 [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ]
m3/s
velocity in m/s
in mm (Db50) mm (Da50) 2
in N/m (0) bed in N/m2 (g) 𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
T1G1Z1 173.89 2.99 24.45 23.91 20.41 21.52 3.43 E1=9.20-[0.93][3.43]

T1G1Z2 173.89 3.27 18.93 20.50 29.82 18.46 5.39 E2=16.42-[1.61][5.39]
T1G1Z3 173.89 3.46 26.85 21.55 33.99 19.40 4.62 E3=17.98-[1.70][4.62]
T1G2Z1 162.35 3.20 24.45 24.32 20.04 21.89 3.40 E4=8.34-[0.88][3.40]
T1G2Z2 162.35 3.56 18.93 20.59 29.08 18.53 4.60 E5=16.97-[1.57][4.60]
T1G2Z3 162.35 3.56 26.85 21.64 33.47 19.47 4.63 E6=17.41-[1.67][4.63]
T1G3Z1 150.62 3.23 24.45 24.79 19.46 22.31 3.21 E7=9.93-[0.84][3.21]
T1G3Z2 150.62 3.52 18.93 20.60 28.24 18.54 5.23 E8=16.82-[1.52][5.23]
T1G3Z3 150.62 3.58 26.85 21.69 32.08 19.52 4.48 E9=16.88-[1.59][4.48]
T1G4Z1 134.47 3.27 24.45 25.57 18.57 23.02 3.12 E10=8.71-[0.78][3.12]
T1G4Z2 134.47 3.48 18.93 20.60 26.53 18.54 5.19 E11=12.60-[1.43][5.19]
T1G4Z3 134.47 3.63 26.85 21.79 30.13 19.62 4.48 E12=16.15-[1.50][4.48]
T1G5Z1 121.25 3.30 24.45 26.21 17.62 23.59 3.05 E13=10.44-[0.72][3.05]
T1G5Z2 121.25 3.48 18.93 20.80 24.30 18.72 5.15 E14=12.84-[1.32][5.15]
T1G5Z3 121.25 3.67 26.85 21.92 28.77 19.73 4.36 E15=15.17-[1.42][4.36]
T1G6Z1 100.20 3.32 24.45 27.59 15.95 24.83 2.93 E16=9.98-[0.63][2.93]
T1G6Z2 100.20 3.49 18.93 21.40 21.19 19.26 5.01 E17=14.64-[1.14][5.01]
T1G6Z3 100.20 3.60 26.85 22.17 24.95 19.96 4.22 E18=11.89-[1.22][4.22]
Powell et al. [19] demonstrated that the variables tested in the mobile armor events included shear stress consistency,
critical shear stress, and grain size. Essential specifications of grain size have been applied to evaluate sediment transport
in river gradation coefficients [46]. In this study, the key parameters influencing the formation of the mobile armor layer
included the shear stress (), critical shear stress ( c), average grain diameter (d50), and gradation coefficient (g). The
thickness function of the mobile armor (Ma) can be mathematically expressed through the analysis of dimensionless
numbers, as expressed in Equation 8.
Ma = f (, c, d50, g) (8)

Furthermore, the dimensionless formula is expressed in Equation 9.
𝑀𝑎 𝜏
= 𝑓 [ , 𝜎𝑔 ] (9)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
Based on the simulation results, Equation 9 was modified for field applications, as expressed in Equations 10 and
11:
𝑀𝑎 𝜏
− 𝜃 = [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ] (10)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
𝑀𝑎 𝜏 𝛽 𝜒
− 𝜃 = 𝛼 [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ] (11)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
𝑀𝑎
where is dimensionless mobile armor layer thickness,  is mobile armor thickness coefficient,  = bed shear stress,
𝑑50
c is critical shear stress, g is gradation coefficient is √𝑑84 /𝑑16 ,  is coefficient of optimization, Ma is thickness
of the mobile armor layer, d50 is average grain diameter, and  is coefficient of nondimensional shear stress difference.
Thereafter, an optimization analysis was conducted to derive the values of , , and  in the dimensionless mobile armor
layer formula expressed in Equations 12.
[ + 𝜃] = 𝛼 [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ] (12)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
The variations between the points on the curve (E) in Figure 6 are highlighted in Equation 13:
1363
𝐸=[ + 𝜃] − 𝛼 [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ] (13)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
with  =13.45.
As observed, the coarsening process of the material corresponds to shear stress. A consistent coarsening process
occurs when the shear stress caused by the flow exceeds the critical shear stress. The results of the optimization analysis
using the Excel solver yielded the optimization coefficient values listed in Table 2. Based on the analysis results, the
equation generated based on the MP-M sediment transport method (Equation 14) can be used for relatively larger grain
sizes compared with the W-C method formula (Equation 15).
Table 2. Optimization Results of , , and  value
Sediment transport method   

MP-M 7.74 0.10 0.70
W-C 13.14 2.46 0.10
𝑀𝑎 𝜏 0,1 0,7
= [7,74 [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ] ] − 13,45 (14)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
with boundary conditions:  > c; 3,39  d50  43,98 mm; 2,93  g  5,56;   14,87 N/m2
𝑀𝑎 𝜏 2,46 0,1
= [13,14 [ ] [𝜎𝑔 ] ] − 13,45 (15)
𝑑50 𝜏𝑐
with boundary conditions:  > c; 1,13  d50  29,1 mm; 5,65  g  6,3;   8,91 N/m2
To estimate the thickness of the mobile armor, Equations 14 and 15 can be practically executed for designing the
armor layer as riverbed protection. As evaluated from the equations, mobile armor materials can be sourced from local
gravel and sand with a minimum diameter. The mobile armor layer condition occurs when the shear stress on the riverbed
exceeds the critical shear stress. Conversely, the size of the static armor material is the minimum diameter at which the
shear stress occurring on the bed is smaller than the critical shear stress. Therefore, the diameter of the mobile armor
material can be smaller than that of the static armor material, thereby facilitating its field implementation.
3.2. Simulation Accuracy and Verification
To verify and control the sensitive parameters during the numerical simulation, we conducted field measurements
of the velocity profile of the Krasak River. The field measurements were conducted at the same three locations as the
riverbed sediment sampling locations. The logarithmic law of the velocity profile method could accurately calculate the
shear stress [47]. The correlation between the results of the field shear stress measurements and numerical simulations
is displayed in Figure 7.
7.0
Numerical simulation
6.0 Field measurement
5.0
4.0
0/c
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1 2 3
Location
Figure 7. Dimensionless shear stress generated by flow obtained by numerical simulation and field measurement
The boxes plotted in Figure 7 represent the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles, and the whiskers in the upper and lower
layers correspond to the maximum and minimum values of the numerical simulation results for the dimensionless shear
1364
stress, respectively. The dimensionless shear stress evaluated from the simulation results was consistent with that of the
field measurements. Moreover, the standard deviation values ranged from 0.08–0.32. The shear stress of the flow to the
riverbed was relatively sensitive to the characteristics of the surface bed materials.
3.3. Velocity
Debris flows with particle collisions dominating the shear stress are referred to as "stony debris flows," whereas
those dominated by the turbulent shear stresses are referred to as "turbulent muddy debris flows," and those dominated
by viscoplastic pressures are called "viscous debris flows" [48]. The correlation of the velocity coefficient values with
the nondimensional relative depth is depicted in Figure 8 based on the previous studies on the Nojiri River by the Ohsumi
Work Office [48], the Mizhunasi River by Hirano et al. [49], and the Kamikamihori River and Jianjia Gully by Takahashi
[50]. The data were compared with those obtained from a numerical simulation at Kali Krasak. Based on the relative
depth and velocity coefficients, the findings demonstrate that the Krasak River exhibits characteristics identical to those
of the Jiangjia River, containing viscous-type debris flows. For instance, it bears less resistance than the stony-type
debris flow in the Kamikamiori Ravine. Takahashi [50] stated that stone-type debris flows can occur only at relatively
shallow depths ranging from 20 to 30. The Krasak River follows a viscous debris flow with a relative depth of more
than 30, similar to the Nojri and Mizunashi rivers. Based on this analysis, mobile armor can occur in viscous-type debris
flows with relative depths larger than 30.
100
Krasak River
Data range in Data range in
Kamikamihori Ravine Nojiri River Mizunashi River
Jiangjia Gully
U/u*
10
1
1 10 100 1000
h/d50
Figure 8. Characteristics of dimensionless velocity correspond to relative depth (Previous study by Takahashi [50]
compared with Krasak River)
3.4. Shear Stress

The flow velocity affected the scour process at the bottom of the channel, which was protected by the armor layer.
The maximum scour depth on a riverbed surface with a finer particle size was greater than that on a channel bed surface
with a coarser grain diameter [51]. In Figure 9, the regression line indicates the correlation between the shear stress and
flow velocity. According to the Newtonian fluid law, the shear stress on the bed surface is proportional to the flow
velocity along the boundary [52]. Negara et al. [53] stated that erosion occurs if the shear stress is less than 21 N/m2.
Otherwise, the deposition occurrs at shear stresses greater than 21 N/m2. Therefore, by determining the correlation
between velocity and shear stress (Figure 9), the flow velocity limits causing sedimentation and erosion can be
determined. In principle, the mobile armor moves to the bottom of the channel to cause erosion temporarily and
replenishes the erosion into deposition. Therefore, if riverbed protection is to be achieved, then theoretically, the value
of the shear stress is maintained at ~21 N/m2, which is heaped with an average grain size, as illustrated in the optimization
results in Figure 9.
1365
50
40 0 = 29.172v - 74.045
30
0 (N/m2)
20
Deposition
Erosion
10
MP-M
W-C
0
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4
v (m/s)
Figure 9. Correlation between shear stress and flow velocity
3.5. Soil Shear Strength

Large-scale direct-shear testing was performed in a soil mechanics laboratory. The tests were conducted according
to the principles listed in SNI 3420:2016 concerning the direct shear strength test method for unconsolidated and non-
drained soils. Based on the Unified Soil Classification System, gravel is defined as a grain material with a size ranging
from 4.76–75 mm [54]. The results of the grain material gradation test from the Krasak River indicated that the number
of grains measuring 4.76–75 mm ranged from 81.84–89.2%. Therefore, this material can be categorized as gravel.
However, conducting the shear strength test for gravel materials is relatively challenging using conventional triaxial test
equipment and direct shear tests. Therefore, the shear strength test can utilize large-scale direct shear instruments [55].
As illustrated in Figure 10, the large-scale direct shear results signified an increase in the shear stress as the load or stress
was applied to the material specimen. If a specific shear stress occurs at the bottom of a river, the horizontal displacement
can be estimated to correspond to the movable riverbed of the mobile armor layer. The behavior of the shear ratio of the
Krasak riverbed material with  = 0.64 kg/cm2 exhibited a similar behavior with sand (Dr = 0.22) [56]. Therefore, a
substantial increase in the shear stress ratio (/) contributes to bed resistance.
Figure 10. Shear strength ratio corresponds to shear displacement. (a) Previous study by Simoni & Houlsby (2006); (b)
Large-scale direct shear test of Krasak riverbed material
4. Conclusions
This study conducted field measurements, laboratory tests, and numerical simulations to investigate the effects of
grain size and shear stress on the thickness of mobile armors with noncohesive materials. As such, the movement of
material in a riverbed is a natural process resulting from sediment transport. Nonetheless, examining the movable layers
of the armor is considered more relevant according to field conditions than the discussion of static armor layers.
Therefore, this study focused on determining the thickness of the mobile armor through numerical experiments. The
major findings of this study are stated as follows:
 The mobile armor thickness estimation formulas are expressed in Equations 14 and 15. As observed, the thickness
1366
of the mobile armor layer is influenced by the gradation coefficient (v) corresponding to the material grain size
and dimensionless shear stress (0/c). The equation for estimating the thickness of the mobile armor derived
herein can facilitate engineers in estimating the grain size requirement such that the riverbed elevation conditions
are maintained and do not undergo significant alterations. The maintained riverbed elevation can reduce the
potential for damage to river structures owing to the threat of degradation and scouring.
 The amount of sediment transport calculated by the Wilcock–Crowe (2003) method was more sensitive to the
increase in shear stress associated with the flow velocity than that evaluated by the M-PM method. This
conclusion is crucial for selecting the calculation method to be employed for sediment transport simulations
according to field observations and considerations of safety factors for estimating the bedload transport.
 The correlation between shear stress and flow velocity (Figure 9) can describe the behavioral conditions of the
riverbed, which experiences aggradation or degradation to facilitate policymakers in river improvements.
 The sediment transport estimation formula derived using the MP-M method can be used for relatively larger grain
sizes compared to the formula obtained from the W-C method.
 A consistent coarsening process occurs when the shear stress caused by the flow exceeds the critical shear stress.
The present findings exhibit consistency in the behavior of the riverbed under various flood discharge conditions.
The equation for estimating the thickness of the mobile armor derived herein contributes to the design and calculation
of more efficient riverbed protection compared with rigid structures and static armor. A limitation of this study is that
only two methods were used for the sediment transport analysis. In such cases, various methods may yield varying
effects of shear stress on the armor layers. The limitations of this study include challenges for further investigation, and
future studies should assess more appropriate methods for estimating the thickness of the mobile armor layer.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, A.S.N., and C.I.; methodology, A.S.N.; software, A.S.N.; validation, A.S.N., and C.I.; formal
analysis, A.S.N.; investigation, A.S.N.; resources, A.S.N.; data curation, A.S.N.; writing—original draft preparation,
A.S.N.; writing—review and editing, A.S.N., C.I., R.H., and Y.M.P.; visualization, A.S.N.; supervision, C.I., R.H., and
Y.M.P.; project administration, A.S.N.; funding acquisition, A.S.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
5.3. Funding

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Optimal Bracing Type of Reinforced Concrete Buildings with

Soil-Structure Interaction Taken into Consideration
Yassine Razzouk 1* , Mohamed Ahatri 1, Khadija Baba 1 , Ahlam El Majid 1

1
Civil Engineering and Environment Laboratory (LGCE), Mohammadia School of Engineering, Mohammed V University Rabat, Morocco.
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the impact of soil-structure interaction (SSI) on the seismic behavior of reinforced concrete
buildings. An advanced numerical model for SSI was developed and verified using ABAQUS software. The seismic
response of a 12-story building on four types of soil (rock, dense soil, stiff soil, and soft soil) was examined using a
Normalized Response Spectra based on the Moroccan paraseismic regulation RPS 2011. The global lateral displacement,
inter-story drift, and period were compared for two types of bracing (column and shear wall). The results show that SSI
has a significant impact on the seismic behavior of buildings, and the seismic responses of soil-structure systems with
column and shear wall bracing are quite different. The research contributions of this paper include developing an advanced
numerical model for SSI, examining the impact of SSI on the choice of bracing for reinforced concrete buildings, and
providing guidance on the most reliable bracing method for structures of various heights and soil types. The study's findings
have important implications for seismic design and can help improve the safety and reliability of buildings in earthquake-
prone regions. The study also highlights the importance of considering SSI in seismic design and the need for guidelines
that describe the bracing systems to be used based on the structure's height and type of soil.
Keywords: Bracing System; Reinforced Concrete; Soil-Structure Interaction; Seismic Response; ABAQUS.
1. Introduction
To ensure the overall stability of a building, it is necessary to provide bracing. The most commonly used types of
bracing for reinforced concrete buildings are columns and shear walls, which enable the transmission of loads to the
ground and contribute to the good behavior of buildings during earthquakes. Several standards and regulations address
this issue and enable engineers to choose the most optimal seismic design. However, in most cases, soil-structure
interaction is neglected, and buildings are assumed to be embedded in the ground. Additionally, several software tools
used by engineers do not effectively account for the influence of the soil. This can result in uncontrollable material and
human damage during seismic stresses, highlighting the importance of conducting further scientific research in this area
[1]. While there have been numerous studies on the behavior of buildings considering the soil-structure interaction,
further research is needed to accurately represent the real behavior of buildings. Some researchers have demonstrated
the effect of increasing the thickness of shear walls on the building's performance by reducing displacement under
seismic loads [2]. Additionally, the location of the shear walls can significantly reduce displacement due to seismic
loads [3]. One study presented the effect of the position of steel bracing in L-shaped reinforced concrete buildings under
lateral loads [4]. Another study was conducted using ETABS software to present the effect of seismic loads on various
criteria such as story drift, base shear, and displacement [5]. Others have studied the effects of seismic loads on
reinforced concrete frame buildings with shear walls as bracing systems [6]. This study showed that shear walls affect
* Corresponding author: yassine.razzouk@um5s.net.ma

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the lateral strength of high-rise buildings but have less effect on lateral stiffness. On the other hand, shear walls for low-
rise buildings have a strong effect on lateral stiffness but a lesser effect on lateral strength. A study on the effect of the
position and size of shear walls on the attracted forces revealed that increasing the upper dimension of the shear walls
will increase the horizontal forces resisted by that wall.
It is evident from the literature review that very little work has been done to study and analyze the effect of seismic
loads on reinforced concrete buildings, considering the soil-structure interaction and comparing the types of bracing
systems used. Most research has focused on analyzing buildings using a single bracing system, either columns or shear
walls. The present study aims to investigate and analyze the effect of seismic loads on reinforced concrete buildings
using the two most common bracing systems (columns and shear walls) while considering the soil-structure interaction.
The objective of this work is to evaluate the effect of different bracing systems on a structure with soil-structure
interaction subjected to seismic loads and identify the most suitable bracing system to resist seismic loads.
There are several methods for analyzing soil-structure interaction (SSI), which is a field of applied mechanics
focused on developing and investigating theoretical and practical approaches for structure analysis that consider soil and
foundation behavior [7, 8]. Before the 1971 San Fernando earthquake and the start of nuclear construction in California,
the effects of SSI on seismic response were not given much attention. However, recent catastrophic earthquakes in
various parts of the world have raised concerns among engineers [8, 9]. A comparative review of various SSI analysis
methods can be found in Mohammadioun & Pecker [10] and Wolf et al. [11]. Guéguen et al. [12] and Bard et al. [13]
have confirmed the influence of soil on a structure's response as well as the significance of certain structural
configurations such as burial, mass, and geometry. Impedance functions [14, 15] have been used to account for SSI. The
research has also demonstrated that the movement of a structure generates reaction forces at the interface between the
soil and the structure, resulting in a secondary wave field backscattered in the soil from the foundation, known as the
Structure-Soil Interaction. A simplified two-dimensional anti-planar motion model [16] has confirmed that the presence
of a structure can modify the ground motion recorded in the free field, even at significant distances of kilometers.
Additionally, Jennings [14] has recorded the movements created by the forced vibration of a structure at a distance of
several hundred meters. A recent experiment [12] has quantified the wave field radiated into the ground from the base
of a structure that was artificially excited by release tests. This study showed that the motion transmitted to the ground
from the structure is not negligible.
The soil's deformability can result in Davidovici [17]:
 An increase in the first mode's vibration period, leading to a variation in acceleration values depending on the
zone.
 Considerable damping (including radiative damping and specific damping of the soil material).
 Rotation of the foundation, which can significantly alter the calculation of modal deformation and, in turn, the
distribution of accelerations across the building's height [18].
 In most cases, the ground motion at the building's base is assumed to be the same as that of the free field, and this
approximation is usually deemed acceptable [19, 20].
There is a general tendency for SSI to have beneficial effects on most typical building structures, as it can reduce
bending moments and shear forces in individual structural elements [21]. When SSI is not required by codes such as
Eurocode 8 [22] or Eurocode 7 [23], considering it can often lead to reduced loads through ground-level dissipation and
a more favorable spectral response. There are several reasons why it is important to consider soil-structure interaction
[24]:
 To include the movements at the base of the structure in the analysis of deformation modes by considering a
coupled soil-structure system.
 To obtain a better understanding of the vibration frequency of the coupled system, which has implications for the
design and assessment of the structure.
 To fully evaluate the behavior of critical structures.
An analysis was performed to investigate the impact of soil-structure interaction under various conditions, including
different soil types (soft, medium, and hard) and the use of an embedded foundation. The structures were subjected to a
normalized response spectrum based on Moroccan seismic code RPS 2011, specifically for the Al Hoceima region,
which is one of the most seismically active areas in the north of Morocco, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. To achieve this,
10 models were created using ABAQUS finite element software to simulate dynamic soil-structure interactions
accurately and realistically. Infinite soil elements were used to avoid seismic wave reflection. The two most common
types of bracing (columns and shear walls [25]) were also extensively studied to contribute to the creation of a design
guide.
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Figure 1. Seismicity map of Morocco [26]
Figure 2. Map of maximum felt intensities in northern Morocco between 1901 and 2000 [27]
The major goal of this study is to determine how bracing affects structures of various heights with various types of
soils when subjected to seismic loads and to identify the best bracing strategy in each situation. In order to thoroughly
examine the subject, we followed the methodology presented in Figure 3. The methodology of this study, was carefully
planned and executed to achieve the research goals. It started with a comprehensive literature review to identify the
different types of bracing and soil-structure interaction phenomena. This information was used to gather data on the
different types of soils and materials mandated by Moroccan regulations. The next step was to design and model a 12-
story building with different types of bracing on the four soil types specified by Moroccan regulations. The model was
validated using the ABAQUS software, which is a powerful tool for analyzing complex structural systems under seismic
loading. Data analysis was performed by comparing the amplitude of displacements and time periods of the buildings
with different types of bracing and soil types. The impact of soil-structure interaction on the choice of bracing type for
RC buildings was highlighted, and the results were discussed in terms of global lateral displacement, inter-story drift,
and period.
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Literature Review
Data Gathering Design And Modeling
Identifying the bracing types

Identifying types of soil and Validating the structural design
and novelties about soil-
characteristics of materials and 3D modeling with the
structure interaction from the
mandated by Regulations. appropriate types of soil.
literature.
Research Results
Data Analysis
Highlighting the impact of the

Checking and comparing the
soil-structure interaction on the
amplitude of displacements and
bracing type choice of RC
time periods of buildings.
buildings
Figure 3. General research methodology flowchart
Figure 4 shows the approach followed in the study to investigate the effects of soil-structure interaction on different
types of bracing for a 12-story building. The study focused on two types of bracing, columns, and shear walls, which
are commonly used in reinforced concrete (RC) buildings. To determine the impact of soil type on the performance of
these two types of bracing, the study considered five different soil types: rock, dense soil, stiff soil, soft soil, and fixed
base. Simulations were carried out for each soil type, and for each simulation, an analysis of the amplitude of
displacement and time period of the building was performed. By changing the soil type for each building, the study was
able to establish results that can contribute to the improvement of seismic regulations, which do not address the soil-
structure interaction for each type of bracing. Overall, the methodology used in the study was rigorous and
comprehensive, and the results obtained can be used to improve the seismic design of RC buildings in Morocco, and
potentially in other regions with similar geological conditions.
12-Story building
Shear Wall
Column Bracing
Bracing
With SSI Without SSI
Rock Dense Soil Fixed Base
Stiff Soil Soft Soil
Figure 4. Technical flowchart explaining subject processing
3. Study Data
3.1. Seismic Area
In a previous study, it was demonstrated that the seismic zone plays a significant role in the seismic response of a
building and in determining the type of bracing required [28]. The 2011 RPS earthquake regulations divide Morocco
into five different zones and provide two seismic zoning maps, one based on acceleration and the other on velocity [29].
Due to its history [26], especially the city of El Hoceima [30, 31], the northern seismic zone of Morocco is the least
favorable zone in the country, as shown in Figure 5. The seismic hazard is characterized by using 5% damped elastic
response spectra from a probabilistic perspective, which represents a 475-year recurrence interval. For our study, a
response spectrum derived from the national seismic code is suggested.
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Figure 5. Map of maximum felt intensities taking historical data into account [27]
The elastic response spectrum Se(T) is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Seismic acceleration values based on the national seismic code RPS 2011 [29]
Za/Zv Ratio * 0 ≤T ≤ 0.25 0.25 ≤T ≤ 0. 5 0.5 ≤ T

Za/Zv > 1 1.9.S.ag** 1.9.S.ag
Za/Zv = 1 2.5.S.ag (-2.4.T + 3,1).S.ag 1.20.ag.S / (T)2/3
Za/Zv < 1 3.5.S.ag (-6.4.T + 5,1).S.ag
where Za and Zv are respectively the acceleration and the velocity values corresponding to the seismic zone, ag is the
acceleration value which ranges between 0.04 g and 0.18 g, S is the soil factor having values displayed in the Table 2.
Table 2. Site classification according to the national seismic code RPS 2011 [29]
Site Shear Wave Velocity Vs Standard Penetration Resistance Undrained Shear Strength Su Soil Factor
Class (m/s) N60 (kPa) (RPS2011)
S1 Vs > 760 Not Applicable Not Applicable 1
S2 360 < Vs < 760 Ns > 50 Su > 100 1.2
S3 180 < Vs < 360 15 < Ns < 50 50 < Su < 100 1.4
S4 180 < Vs Ns < 15 Su < 50 1.8
Figure 6 displays the resulting 5% damped elastic response spectra for several types of soil using matching values
from the seismic area chosen, Al Hoceima (S1: Rock – S2: Dense Soil – S3: Stiff Soil – S4: Soft Soil).
1
S1 S2
0.8 S3 S4
Seismic acceleration (g)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (s)
Figure 6. Normalized Response Spectra of the Moroccan paraseismic regulation RPS 2011 [29] For Al Hoceima
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In order to match the response spectra to a historical earthquake event, we used the software SeismoMatch [32]. The
software utilizes a matching algorithm to compare the recorded ground motion with a database of ground motions from
historical earthquakes. It is capable of adjusting earthquake accelerograms to achieve a specific target response using
the wavelet algorithm [33]. To achieve this, data from real earthquakes "ghiss" [30] and "zeghanghane" [31] was used
to match the specified target response spectra, considering a minimum and maximum time period of 0.02 sec and 4 sec,
respectively, with a tolerance of 0.02. Figure 7 shows the normalized response spectra for soil S1 with its matched
response spectra, and Figure 8 shows the matched historical earthquakes obtained for all 4 types of soils. Figure 9
illustrates a comparison between the seed/input and seismically matched time histories for soil type 1 over a time span
of 10 to 20 seconds.
0.5
0.45 Target Response Spectra
0.4 Matched Response spectra

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Period (s)
Figure 7. Normalized Response Spectra of the Moroccan paraseismic regulation RPS 2011 For Soil S1 and its Matched
Response Spectra
0.9
0.8 S1 S2
S3 S4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Period (s)
Figure 8. The Matched Response Spectra for the four soil types
3.2. Soil Data

The classification of sites is based on the soils that comprise them, in accordance with Moroccan seismic rules. RPS
2011 [29] specifies four types of sites, which are listed in Table 2. All soil types can be described as follows:
 S1: Rock.
 S2: Very Dense soil and Soft Rock.
 S3: Stiff Soil.
 S4: Soft Soil
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The intensity of an earthquake at a given location depends significantly on the type of soils through which the seismic
wave travels, as well as the local geological and geotechnical conditions [34]. Consequently, RPS 2011 defines a Soil
Factor S for each type of site.
0.6
Input Time History
0.4 Matched Time History
Acceleration (g)
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)
Figure 9. The seed/input and seismic matched time histories for soil S1 over a time span of 10 to 20 sec
3.3. Building Design and Materials

To ensure a fair comparison between different types of bracing, we selected the designs presented in Figure 10.
These designs feature simple and regular structural configurations while adhering to the minimum section requirements
outlined by Moroccan regulations [34, 35].
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Structural plan of (a) column bracing (b) shear wall bracing
The concrete buildings modeled in this study exhibit the following characteristics:
 Cross-section of a column: (25×25) cm.
 15 cm is the shear wall thickness.
 Cross-section of a beam: (25×45) cm.
 The solid slab is 20 centimeters thick.
 Story height is 3 meters.
 E = 32000Mpa, the concrete rigidity value.
 The calculations incorporate a 0.2 Poisson coefficient.
 2.5 T/m3 specific weight.
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3.4. Finite Element Model

The interaction between the soil and the structure can be represented by a simple model in which the structure is
modeled as a cantilever beam with equivalent stiffness to the shear-loaded walls or columns that contain masses mainly
corresponding to those of the floors. This model is a multi-degree-of-freedom system. To simulate the interaction with
the ground, springs can be used to represent the translation or rotation, and they are connected to a mobile base that
moves according to the imposed seismic motion [36].
Figure 11. Schematic of soil-structure interaction [36]

The finite element software Abaqus is a widely used tool for modeling soil-structure interaction, as highlighted in
recent studies [37, 38]. Abaqus offers several techniques for modeling soil-structure interaction, including the Coupled
Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) method [31], Discrete Element Method (DEM) [39], and Pile-soil interaction. The latter can
be modeled using techniques such as the Winkler foundation model, p-y curve model, and Extended Finite Element
Method (XFEM) [40]. The software can also simulate the dynamic behavior of soil-structure systems under seismic
loading using techniques such as frequency-domain analysis, time-history analysis, and hybrid methods [41].
To analyze the soil-structure interaction, a 3D finite element model of a 12-story building was developed using
Abaqus. To reduce the size of the problem, beam and columns were modeled using the 'B31' beam element, roof slabs
were modeled using the 'S4R' shell element, and the raft foundation was modeled using the 'C3D8R' solid element, with
all material and sectional properties attributed according to specifications. The model consisted of 202,140 elements and
218,215 nodes. The columns/beams and roof slabs were attached via tied connections, while the columns were attached
to the concrete foundation using kinematic coupling to determine the base shear force of the building structure due to
lateral seismic loads.
The analysis was performed using Abaqus dynamic implicit analysis with geometric nonlinearity (nlgeom=on). The
total simulation time was 40 seconds, adequately covering the earthquake strong motion zone. Due to the high non-
linearity of the system (soil and structure), the minimum step size was 4x10-05 seconds and the maximum time step was
0.01 seconds, which was also the time step of the applied time history. To ease convergence issues, 'line-search' was
used, and solution control parameters were enhanced without compromising solution quality. The solution was
performed in three steps: in the first static step, gravitational load was used, in the second static step, dead loads were
applied according to specified conditions, and in the third step, full transient analysis was performed against seismic
conditions. As the analysis was performed with base excitation, the seismic load was applied at the soil base in terms of
time-displacement obtained from the time-acceleration data with base correction. The displacement loads were used to
aid convergence of the solution and ensure that the system performed vibratory motion about the mean position instead
of drifting in any one direction. Figures 12 and 13 show some of the models created using Abaqus software.
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Abaqus 3D Modeling for building with column bracing (a) with SSI (b) with fixed base
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(a) (b)
Figure 13. Abaqus 3D Modeling for building with shear wall bracing (a) with SSI (b) with fixed base
3.5. Soil Modeling

In the current study, the Mohr-Coulomb model has been adopted as the constitutive model to simulate the nonlinear
behavior of the soil medium, which is an elastic-perfectly plastic model. The use of advanced soil plasticity models may
create complexity and convergence issues in implicit dynamic analysis with base excitation, as well as increase
simulation time. Therefore, the Mohr-Coulomb model is used to optimize analysis accuracy and cost. The boundary
conditions of the soil in dynamic problems are developed by using infinite elements ('CIN3D8') in Abaqus to avoid the
reflection of outward propagating waves back into the model and to allow necessary energy radiation. This is achieved
by defining a soil domain large enough so that waves reflected from the boundary take too much time to return to the
region of interest. However, this is practically not possible because the speed of waves is very high in most soils, and
consequently requires a large area. Therefore, infinite elements are used to impose the boundary conditions that produce
the necessary energy radiation.
In static problems, fixed boundary conditions can be used to represent the lateral boundary conditions of the soil
domain. However, this assumption is not adequate in dynamic problems because fixed boundary conditions may lead to
the reflection of outward propagating waves back into the model and do not allow necessary energy radiation, trapping
energy inside the model. The simplest solution to this problem is to define a domain large enough so that waves reflected
from the boundary do not have time to return to the region of interest. However, this is not a practical solution due to
the relatively high wave speeds of most soils. Therefore, it is desirable to have boundary conditions that allow the
necessary energy radiation. This can be achieved using infinite elements in ABAQUS ('CIN3D8') at the corner of the
soil area while the rest of the soil medium is developed using elements 'C3D8R,' as shown in Figure 14. The total height
of the soil medium is 15 m, while the concrete foundation of the building is 5 m, and the horizontal distance between
the soil lateral boundaries is more than 70 m. The interaction between the soil and concrete base is surface-to-surface
friction contact.
Infinite Element CIN8R

Solid Element C3D8R
Figure 14. Soil Modeling
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3.6. Damping of System

Damping is a dissipation of energy in a vibration system. In SSI analysis, the total damping of the system is sum of
1) structural damping and 2) soil foundation damping. Foundation damping includes combined effects of energy
dissipated from radiation damping and hysteretic action in soil medium (material damping). While the structural
damping introduced due to material nonlinearity (inelastic dissipation) and internal and external friction. Total damping
of SSI system is determined according to the following equation:
1
𝜂= 2 𝛽𝑖 + 𝛽𝑓 (1)
(𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑖 ⁄𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 )
where 𝛽𝑖 is Structural damping, 𝛽𝑓 is Foundation damping, 𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑖 is Fundamental time period of SSI system, and 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 :
Fundamental time period of fixed base system.
Damping is defined in ABAQUS in the form of Rayleigh damping coefficients. The damping matrix in Rayleigh
damping is a linear combination of mass-proportional (α) and stiffness-proportional (β) terms and it provides a
convenient abstraction to damp lower (mass-dependent) and higher (stiffness-dependent) frequency range behavior, as
shown in Figure 15. In Abaqus under linear perturbation analysis, natural frequencies of the system are determined and
considering the significant modes of vibration, 5% damping is introduced by determining the values of α and β.
0.1
alpha
0.09
beta
0.08
Damping Factor
0.07
Damping Factor
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frequncy (Radians/sec)
Figure 15. Structural damping curve
4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Lateral Displacement
The lateral displacement is a crucial parameter for structural calculation and stability verification, as shown in
Figures 16 and 17 for various types of soils with column bracing and shear wall bracing. Careful consideration of a
building's drift and lateral deformation during the design process is crucial to prevent excessive deformation, as
emphasized by a recent study that highlighted the importance of analyzing the displacement of the top stories to
understand the level of damage to buildings [4]. It is affected by many factors, including the type of soil and the type of
bracing used in the building. However, the interaction between the soil and structure is also a critical factor that affects
the overall lateral displacement of the building. It is observed that buildings with column bracing have greater
displacement than those with shear wall bracing. Displacements increase significantly depending on the soil, with S1
being the safest soil and S4 resulting in the greatest deformations. Considering soil-structure interaction, there is a 3.9%
increase for S1 and a 24.6% increase for S2 soils, while S3 and S4 soils exceed 50%. Column bracing gives satisfactory
results for S1 and S2 soils, but for S3 and S4, shear wall bracing is preferable. Only S1 is safe for column bracing when
considering soil-structure interaction, but with shear wall bracing, S2 becomes admissible.
Overall, the study shows that the soil-structure interaction has a significant impact on the behavior of buildings
during earthquakes, and the type of soil and bracing system used can greatly affect the safety of the structure.
Furthermore, a recent study focused on soil-structure interaction of adjacent buildings has shown that by considering
soil-structure interaction, there is an increase of 90 to 95% in the maximum lateral roof displacement values, which is
consistent with our findings [42]. It is essential to consider the inter-story drift ratio and lateral displacement in structural
design and stability verification, and to account for the effects of soil-structure interaction in seismic design. The findings
of this study can provide valuable insights for engineers and architects in Morocco and other seismic-prone regions,
helping them to design safer and more resilient structures.
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S1 S2 S3 S4 Fixed base
36
33
30
Structure Height (M) 27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Global Displacement (cm)
Figure 16. Plot of global displacement and structure height with various types of soils with column bracing
36
33
30
27
Structure Height (M)
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Global Displacement (cm)
Figure 17. Plot of global displacement and structure height with various types of soils with shear wall bracing.
Therefore, it is clear that the interaction between the soil and the structure, as well as the choice of bracing system,
are significant factors that must be considered in the design and construction of buildings. A recent study has shown that
bracing with shear walls reduces displacement, which is not contradictory to our findings [43]. Neglecting these factors
can lead to significant increases in lateral displacement, potentially compromising the stability and safety of the building.
4.2. Inter-story drift ratio
The inter-story drift ratio is a critical design criterion. A recent study has demonstrated the importance of considering
inter-story drift, as this research investigated the damages of structures [44]. The Moroccan Paraseismic Regulation RPS
2011 provides the following equation for calculating the inter-story drift ratio [29]:
Inter-story Drift = ((Di+1 – Di) / h) (2)
where h represents the story height, Di+1 denotes the displacement of the upper level, and Di denotes the displacement
of the lower level.
The inter-story drift ratios of buildings with column bracing and shear wall bracing in various types of soil in
Morocco were analyzed in Figures 18 and 19. The effect of soil-structure interaction was found to have a significant
impact on the increase in inter-story drift ratios, which was also supported by a recent study [45]. The study also revealed
that inter-story drift ratios increase with the type of soil, from soil S1 to soil S4, with the second story having the highest
inter-story drift ratio. For buildings with shear wall bracing in soils S1 and S2, the displacement limit set by the
Moroccan regulation was deemed safe, while soils S3 and S4 were found to be at risk. However, for buildings with
column bracing, only soil S1 was found to be safe, while buildings in soils S2, S3, and S4 were found to be unsafe.
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36
33
30

27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Inter-story Drift Ratio
Figure 18. Plot of Inter-story drift and structure height with various types of soils with column bracing
36
33
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Inter-story Drift Ratio
Figure 19. Plot of Inter-story drift and structure height with various types of soils with shear wall bracing
The findings suggest that the type of bracing also plays a crucial role in the inter-story drift ratios. Buildings with
shear wall bracing showed lower inter-story drift values compared to those with column bracing. Moreover, the results
indicate that the need for structural ductility increases as the soil type becomes softer
Therefore, it is recommended to use shear wall bracing for buildings located in seismically active regions with soft
soil, such as soils S3 and S4 in the north of Morocco. On the other hand, for buildings located in soils S1 and S2, either
column bracing or shear wall bracing can be used, as both types of bracing showed safe inter-story drift ratios, with
shear wall bracing being slightly more efficient.
4.3. Time Period

The fundamental natural period of a structure is a crucial parameter that represents the time (in seconds) taken by
the structure to complete one cycle of oscillation. Modal forms of buildings with column bracing are depicted in Figure
20, where it is evident that the time period decreases as the mode increases. However, it was found that the time period
increased when the effect of soil-structure interaction (SSI) was considered, and also when the bracing type was changed
from column bracing to shear wall bracing. These findings were also demonstrated in a recent study, where the
consideration of SSI effect resulted in a 15-25% increase in time period [42]. Consequently, it has become imperative
to incorporate structural ductility in the design to cater to the increased time period. The study conducted by Singh &
Mala on a G+9 building also confirms that time period increases due to soil flexibility caused by SSI impact [46].
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Figure 20. Modal forms of the building with SSI (column bracing)
Modal analysis was performed on both structures—columns and shear wall bracing—using the Abaqus Linear
Perturbation procedure. This analysis is helpful in understanding the dynamic response of the system and determining
the important modes of vibration by comparing them with the corresponding effective mass/mass participation factor.
The mass participation factors are given in Table 3. It is evident that the natural frequency of the structure with shear
walls is larger than that of the structure with columns due to the addition of walls, which makes it stiffer and results in
an increased natural frequency. The mass participation factors show that the first two modes of vibration are more
important, especially the first mode, due to its significant mass participation factor.
Table 3. The mass participation factors for both type of bracing
Mass participation factor %

Mode No.
Shear walls Columns
1 0.83 0.824
2 0.11 .102
3 0.03 3.38E-05
4 0.02 1.63E-02
5 0.01 9.22E-03
6 2.35E-14 5.61E-03
Furthermore, the impact of building bracing type on the time period has been shown in Figure 21. It can be observed
that for buildings with column bracing, the time period is relatively higher than for those with shear wall bracing. This
indicates that shear wall bracing is more effective in reducing the time period of the structure. This was demonstrated
in another recent study, which showed that the use of shear wall bracing leads to a reduction in fundamental time period
values by between 22.29% and 24.93% for the various levels of the models studied [43]. Hence, it is crucial to consider
the bracing type during the design phase to ensure that the structure can withstand seismic forces efficiently.
5
4.5 Colunms
4 Shear walls
3.5
Time Period (sec)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Mode
Figure 21. Time period (sec) indifferent modes with columns and shear walls bracing
1383
4.4. Mass Structural Comparison

To aid our study, we changed the load-bearing elements' dimensions so that the global displacements of the structures
could be compared to the RPS 2011 limit of displacement, which is equivalent to 0.4% of the entire height. This analysis
compares the various structures based on increased mass in order to ensure that the lateral displacements of all structures
remain within the seismic code's permitted range.
The graphs in Figures 22 to 25 provide the following observations:
 When constructed on rocky soil (type S1), buildings with column bracing show a mass increase of less than 20%
for 27-meter-high buildings, and up to 33.8% for 12-story buildings. Shear-wall braced buildings show a maximum
increase of 7%, even for 12-story buildings.
 For buildings constructed on S2-type soil, column-braced structures exhibit a percentage increase ranging from
30% for nine-story buildings to 97% for 12-story buildings. In contrast, shear wall bracing structures have a
maximum percentage increase of 12% for 12-story buildings.
 In the case of S3 type soil (stiff soil), there is a significant difference between column bracing and shear wall
structures for buildings above 9 stories. Buildings with column bracing show an increase ranging from 72% to
173% for 9- and 12-story buildings, respectively, compared to 11.5% and 55% for shear wall bracing structures.
Therefore, there is a difference of 97.9% between the two types of bracing at 12 levels.
 For buildings constructed on S4-type soil (soft soil), column bracing structures have a mass increase that exceeds
55% for buildings with six levels or more. On the other hand, shear walls show much smaller percentage increases,
resulting in a difference of 118% between the two types of bracing. Therefore, structures with shear wall bracing
are preferable for buildings with six levels or more in the presence of soft soil.
 For buildings built on a S4-type soil (soft soil), with column bracing we have a mass increase that exceeds 55%
from 6 level buildings, while shear walls have much smaller percentages, and we find a difference of 118%
between the two types of bracing. Therefore, it is preferable to choose buildings with shear wall bracing over
structures with six stories when there is soft soil present.
9899087.34
Columns Shear walls SOIL S1
8117664.02
7565086.73
7395794.42
6283213.32
6004367.28
5673815.05
5546845.82
3841543.53
3782543.36
3697897.21
3946756.9
1891271.68
1883167.26
1848948.61
1913495.8
Initial mass Verified Initial mass Verified Initial mass Verified Initial mass Verified
structure mass structure mass structure mass structure mass
3 Storey Building 6 Storey Building 9 Storey Building 12 Storey Building
Figure 22. Summary of mass before and after verification for all levels with soil S1
14592518.44
Columns Shear walls SOIL S2

7616390.24
7565086.73
7395794.42
8489927
6088248.02
5673815.05
5546845.82
4161686.09
3979858.95
3782543.36
3697897.21
1905643.52
1891271.68
1848948.61
1949803.6
1384
SOIL S3
18741980.94
Columns Shear walls
11764112.25
9557398.57
7565086.73
7395794.42
6341078.87
5673815.05
5546845.82
4624466.42
4028629.54
3782543.36
3697897.21
1991298.22
1932298.05
1891271.68
1848948.61
25660345.18
SOIL S4
Columns Shear walls
17304797.31
12888584.9
9186162.16
7565086.73
7395794.42
5752313.38
5673815.05
5546845.82
4321036.98
3782543.36
3697897.21
2098996.94
2025660.96
1891271.68
1848948.61
In summary, the results of the study show that the choice of bracing type for a building depends on the type of soil
it will be constructed on. For buildings constructed on rocky soil (S1), column bracing can be used without significantly
increasing the mass of the building, while shear-wall bracing may cause a larger increase in mass. On S2-type soil,
column bracing results in a greater mass increase, while shear-wall bracing is more effective for limiting mass increase.
For S3-type soil, column bracing results in a much larger mass increase than shear-wall bracing, particularly for
buildings with nine or more stories. Finally, on soft soil (S4), shear-wall bracing is the preferred choice for buildings
with six stories or more due to the significantly lower mass increase compared to column bracing. Overall, these findings
can assist engineers and architects in selecting the appropriate bracing strategy for buildings depending on the soil
conditions of the construction site, helping to optimize both safety and cost-effectiveness.
5. Conclusions
Any load-bearing structure, including shear walls and column bracing, can be used in earthquake-resistant buildings
if proper construction methods are employed. However, their reactions to an earthquake differ greatly. Seismic
regulations do not take into account soil-structure interaction or specify when it should be considered. They also do not
specify the type of bracing to use based on the structure's specifications, such as height and soil type. This allows us to
continue our research and select the most reliable bracing method for structures of various heights and soil types. We
looked at numerous models with two types of bracing (column and shear wall) using the four soil types specified by
Moroccan regulations, a height constraint of 36 meters, and a traditional architectural design. The findings of our study
are discussed below:
1385
 The lateral displacement showed that the case of soil type S1 does not differ in displacement value from the fixed
base, which proves that the fixed base is only valid with non-cohesive soil. Furthermore, we observed that in all
cases, we exceeded the code's limit value, which is amplified with the increase in the story of the structure and the
decrease in the stiffness of the ground. Taking into account the SSI effect, only S1 seems to be the most secure
one for structures with column bracing; however, if we use shear wall bracing, S2 will also be permitted.
 When considering the effects of SSI, the values of inter-story drift increase dramatically. We found that buildings
with shear wall bracing are more secure with both types of soil, S1 and S2. However, only the building in soil S1
was found to be safe when using column bracing. Due to the flexibility of the construction, it has also been shown
that the type of bracing and SSI increased the time period.
 After calculating structural masses, we assumed that all bracing types could be used for construction shorter than
18 meters in soils S1 and S2 (6 stories). Only buildings with five stories or less can be considered for column
bracing in soil S3. Higher constructions need shear walls, which are safer and preferable to the latter. Lastly, we
point out that column bracing is only suitable for buildings with three stories or less on S4 soil.
To sum up, the study found that fixed bases are only suitable for structures built on non-cohesive soil, and all cases
exceeded the code's limit value. SSI significantly increases inter-story drift values, and shear wall bracing is more secure
in both S1 and S2 soil types. Buildings with column bracing are safe only in S1 soil. The type of bracing and SSI also
increase the time period. All bracing types can be used for buildings shorter than 18 meters in S1 and S2 soils, while
buildings with five stories or less can only have column bracing in S3 soil. Column bracing is only suitable for buildings
with three stories or less in S4 soil.
This study has significantly contributed to the understanding of the impact of soil-structure interaction on the seismic
behavior of reinforced concrete buildings. The advanced numerical model for SSI developed and verified using
ABAQUS software has provided valuable insights into the choice of bracing for structures of various heights and soil
types. The findings of this study indicate that SSI has a significant impact on the seismic response of buildings and that
the seismic responses of soil-structure systems with column and shear wall bracing are quite different.
The study's contributions include developing an advanced numerical model for SSI, examining the impact of SSI on
the choice of bracing for reinforced concrete buildings, and providing guidance on the most reliable bracing method for
structures of various heights and soil types. The study's findings have important implications for seismic design and can
help improve the safety and reliability of buildings in earthquake-prone regions. The study also highlights the importance
of considering SSI in seismic design and the need for guidelines that describe the bracing systems to be used based on
the structure's height and type of soil. However, the study has some limitations, such as not considering the irregularity
of buildings and the influence of p-delta. Further research is needed to address these limitations and extend the study to
other seismic zones to provide a comprehensive guide for seismic design.
In summary, this study has demonstrated the importance of considering SSI in seismic design and has provided
valuable insights into the choice of bracing for structures of various heights and soil types. The study's findings have
important implications for seismic design and can help improve the safety and reliability of buildings in earthquake-
prone regions. By contributing new theoretical knowledge to the field, this study provides a foundation for further
research and the development of guidelines for seismic design.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, Y.R.; methodology, Y.R. and M.A.; software, Y.R. and A.E.M.; validation, K.B.; formal
analysis, Y.R.; investigation, Y.R. and K.B.; resources, Y.R., K.B., and M.A.; data curation, Y.R. and M.A.; writing—
original draft preparation, Y.R.; writing—review and editing, M.A., K.B., and A.E.M.; visualization, M.A. and K.B.;
supervision, K.B.; project administration, Y.R., and K.B.; funding acquisition, Y.R., K.B., and M.A. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding
The authors would like to thank Mohamed V University for their support and resources provided for this research
project. The authors also acknowledge the valuable feedback and guidance provided by the faculty and staff of the
university. Without their support, this research would not have been possible.
1386

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Behavior of Centrifuged GFRP Poles Under Lateral Deflection
Youssef A. Awad 1, 2 , Ahmed M. EL-Fiky 2 , Hosam M. Elhegazy 1, 3* , Mahmoud G.

Hasan 2, Ibrahim A. Yousef 2, Ahmed M. Ebid 1 , Mohamed A. Khalaf 2
1
Department of Structural Engineering and Construction Management, Future University in Egypt, Egypt.
2
Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11517, Egypt.
3
Postdoctoral Researcher, School of Construction Management Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.
Abstract
Centrifugal-manufactured GFRP pipes are widely used today as lighting and low-power transmission poles due to their
lightweight, high electrical insulation, low cost, and corrosion resistance. Despite these advantages, GFRP poles suffer
high deflection problems due to their low elastic and shear moduli values. In order to overcome this disadvantage, three
techniques were suggested to control the lateral deflection of the GFRP poles: an extended internal steel stub, external steel
angles, and internal steel bracing bars. The main objective of this study is to determine the optimum strengthening
technique to improve the serviceability of GFRP poles in terms of lateral deflection according to ASTM D4923. An
experimental research program containing five full-scale GFRP poles was carried out to determine the optimum
strengthening technique and the effect of connectors opening near the base and compare it to previous research. The results
indicated that flexural stiffness was increased by 44%, 66%, and 38% for the extended stub, steel angles, and bracing bars,
respectively. Besides that, the reduction in flexural stiffness due to connector opening was about 8%. The measured
deflections showed good matching with simplified mathematical calculations, and the division was about ±10%. The
external steel angle technique showed the best efficiency in Stiffness behavior.
Keywords: GFRP Poles; Deflection Control; Stiffness; Improving Serviceability.
1. Introduction
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) is a great substitute because it has fewer disadvantages, such as the quick
deterioration of wood, the heavy weight of reinforced concrete poles, the short lifetime of aluminum, and steel corrosion,
which makes treating these materials uneconomical. Electric poles and transmission networks are one type of essential
infrastructure. Compared to other materials like steel and aluminum, FRP offers various benefits that make it a suitable
material for transmission and distribution poles, towers, H-frames, and light poles [1]. The primary benefits of GFRP
over traditional steel for meteorological towers are their high strength-to-weight ratio and ability to resist corrosion.
Although FRP composites have been used in various applications for more than 50 years, other materials, including
steel, wood, and aluminum, have been used for far longer [2]. Transmission poles and towers made of Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) have been investigated for their durability in severe temperature and UV conditions. UV
rays and adverse temperature circumstances have an impact on the performance of GFRP material; as a result, the elastic
modulus increases, its strength decreases, and a little shift in Poisson's ratio takes place [3]. In addition to serving as
force-bearing components of towers, glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) poles may be utilized to construct
transmission towers and bridge structures and to support transmission lines in place of conventional steel arms [4]. In
European nations, glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) utility poles are becoming more prevalent. Therefore, in order
* Corresponding author: hossam.mostaffa@fue.edu.eg

1389
to ensure the integrity and safety of the poles, it is vital to check their structural characteristics carefully. In European
nations, glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) utility poles are becoming more prevalent. Therefore, to assure the poles'
integrity and safety, it is vital to carefully check their structural characteristics [5].
The price of composite poles is a significant barrier to their deployment internationally. The trash that will be created
by the intensive utilization of composite material in the future is another concern that must be avoided. Electrical failure
would create a more hazardous and violent situation [6]. In the last several significant earthquakes, light and utility poles
were damaged on elevated highway or railroad bridges. They were mostly caused by severe pole deformation, yielding-
related bending failure, pole buckling, and mast falling. To increase the safety, security, and aesthetics of highway users
and accompanying facilities, poles bearing masts for lighting, traffic signs, or transmission lines are crucial components
[7]. Among the many benefits of using FRP composite poles instead of wood poles is that they increase roadway safety
by decreasing fatalities caused by auto-pole collisions [8]. A variety of techniques are used to create FRP. Structural
supports are typically made using centrifugal, pultrusion, and filament winding processes. From a structural aspect, the
manufacturing process can have a big impact on the material's structural properties. Other factors that affect the
characteristics of the FRP laminate include the amount of fiber and the orientation of the glass fibers. To produce
structural supports, the four manufacturing processes of extrusion, rotational molding, centrifugal processing, and
filament winding are widely used [1, 9]. An analytical model was created by Desai et al. to look into the properties of
the FRP composite poles' bending and buckling. The CFRP pole's buckling load capability was roughly 175% higher
than the GFRP pole's [10].
The outcome of the Investigations into the FRP pole's fiber orientation under the critical load were conducted [11].
The critical load on FRP poles was significantly impacted by the fiber orientation. The critical ovalization load decreased
as the fiber angle increased [9]. To assess the performance and ultimate capacity of tapered filament-wound GFRP poles,
Polyzois et al. conducted cantilever bending tests to failure. Local buckling was the most common mode of failure in
the majority of the specimens because of the high radius-to-thickness ratio of the specimens [12]. Alshurafa and
Polyzois’s (2018) results confirmed that FRP towers will create more economically viable alternatives and sustainable
solutions to steel towers in the future [13]. Altanopoulos et al. (2021) concluded that it is possible to use the FEM with
confidence in the analysis and design of GFRP structures, such as utility line poles and wind turbine towers, without the
high cost associated with experimentation [14]. Nawar et al. (2022) figured that the flexibility of the GFRP poles was
directly proportional to their length, and the local buckling failure often occurred at the handle door [15]. In 2019,
Several non-linear finite element models were developed to determine the appropriate cable diameters and their
associated spacing levels that increased the tower stiffness and decreased the maximum tensile and compressive stresses,
which would meet both the manufacturing constraints and strength requirements [16].
In 2021, Mohamed demonstrates that by replacing carbon fiber with glass fiber on the FRP poles, a good
improvement has been achieved. The total load capacity of the FRP poles and their stiffness increased with increasing
the percentage of carbon fiber [17]. Beddu et al. (2018) figured that the creep study on GFRP girders showed an
increment of instantaneous deflection up to 40% after five months, confirming the potential of GFRP in structural
industries [18]. In 2018, bending strength calculations based on limit states theory exhibited a higher bending capacity
than the capacity obtained from full-scale tests. An experimental study reveals that the basic failure mode of GFRP poles
is local buckling in the vicinity of the inspection hole [19]. Donato (2020) findings showed that a mechanically safe and
functional (stiff) GFRP shaft results in significant weight savings (37–80%) compared to traditional steel shafts [20]. In
2020, Skender et al. concluded that the replacement flexural modulus is a matrix-dominated property highly influenced
by the fiber volume fraction [21]. The analysis of the literature showed that there is still a gap that has to be filled in
order to increase the structural toughness of poles and enhance their dynamic reaction when struck by moving vehicles.
In order to determine the effectiveness of tapered GFRP electric poles with a steel stub base up until the onset of failure,
experimental and numerical experiments were conducted. To test the utility of the GFRP pole, five full-scale cantilever
bending tests were carried out.
1.1. Objective of the Study
The main objective of this study is to determine the optimum strengthening technique to improve the serviceability
of GFRP poles in terms of lateral deflection according to ASTM D4923 [22]. Three alternative strengthening techniques
were experimentally investigated in this research: Strengthening using an extended internal steel stub, Strengthening
using external steel angles, and strengthening using internal steel bracing bars. There’s a gap in previous research areas
to understand how to control lateral deflection by strengthening the pole with different techniques, which is the main
objective of this work.
The research plan contains five full-scale experimental tests for identical GFRP poles and five coupons conducted
from the pole’s shaft to determine the mechanical properties of the material, as shown in Figure 1. The first pole was an
un-strengthened control specimen; the second one was also an un-strengthened specimen but with an opening near the
base; and each of the other three poles was strengthened using one of the three alternatives considered. All poles were
tested using the same procedure, by applying a gradually increased concentrated load at their free end, and both load
and deflection were recorded. The measured stiffness values were analyzed and compared to interpret the conclusions.
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Research Program
Phase I Phase II
Mechanical Properties Full-Scale Bending Tests
Tensile Test Pole Without Opening Hole
Coupons Pole With An Opening Hole
Pole With Steel Stub 1400 mm
Pole With External Angles 1400 mm
Pole With Internal Bracing 1400 mm
Figure 1. Research Methodology
2.1. Material Properties & Coupon Tests

It was required to get a few mechanical properties of the material from tests and manufacturers in order to move
forward with the calculational verification of the poles, as indicated in Table 1. In ASTM D638-14, the procedure and
requirements for the tensile tests are laid down. The tests were carried out in order to ascertain the tensile characteristics
of the orthotropic fiber-reinforced material, including its tensile strength. At least five test coupons were required. In
order to have the specimens' longitudinal axes run parallel to the pole's axis, the specimens were cut from the shafts of
the pole. The coupons had the dimensions listed in Figure 2 and Table 2, respectively.
Table 1. The mechanical properties of the E-glass fibers and Resin
Properties E-Glass Resin

3
Density (t/m ) 2.5 1
Poisson’s ratio 0.2 0.3
Tensile modulus (GPa) 40 3
Shear modulus (GPa) 8 1
Tensile strength (MPa) 400 100
% by volume 35 65
Figure 2. Coupon dimension in longitudinal direction
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Table 2. Coupon dimensions
Lo D Wo Wc T R L G W
165 mm 115 mm 19 mm 10 mm 6 mm 76 mm 57 mm 50 mm 13 mm
The specimen was loaded with tensile force along the main axis at a constant speed of 0.18 mm/s until failure, as
indicated in Figure 3. The tests were conducted in the range of up to 100 kN, with a minimum increment value of 200
N. As indicated in Table 3, the test specimen's measurement base's elongation and tensile force values were
automatically recorded.
Figure 3. Tensile Coupon Specimen test
Table 3. coupon results
Specimen no. Ultimate load (KN) ∆ (mm)

1 20.88 12.81
2 22.70 13.29
3 21.52 13.20
4 23.41 14.36
5 20.20 12.39
Average 21.74 13.21
2.2. Full-Scale Manufacture Method

The GFRP pole is made of glass fiber and polyester resin manufactured by Centrifugal Casting. The number and
orientation of fiber layers are significant factors in the design of the GFRP pole; thus, the number of fiber layers and
fiber orientation are chosen according to the design. Fiber layers are combined using polyester resin. The centrifugal
casting method contains six steps, as follows:
1- Glass fiber sheets are placed, according to design in terms of number of layers and orientations, on a flat surface.
Afterwards, aluminum pipe is wrapped using the aforementioned sheets (see Figure 4).
2- The wrapped pipe is placed inside the rotating device (mold) to start the centrifugal process by rotating the mold.
3- Vinyl polyester resin is injected from the two ends of the mold towards the inside. Some materials are added to
resin to improve its properties, such as UV resistance and the required color.
4- During the rotation process, GFRP sheets start to impregnate the resin. After a certain time, full impregnation
occurs, forming the GFRP pole. The pole is extracted from the rotating device. Afterword, pole ends of 2 to 5 cm
length are saw-cut due to insufficient resin impregnation.
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5- The maintenance hole is made in the pole by using a saw.

6- Finally, the steel base is glued to the bottom of the pole using epoxy and fixed with screws.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 4. Centrifugal casting method steps, a: pipe wrapping, b: wrapped pipe inside rotating device, c: resin injection, d:
extraction of pole, e: cutting of pole ends, f: making of maintenance hole
2.3. Tested Specimens

The five tested specimens were full-scale GFRP conic poles with constant thickness, manufactured by centrifugal
process. The provided manufacturer’s values for both elastic and shear moduli are 36000 and 1200 MPa, respectively.
All poles had the same dimensions, as follows:
 Pole length = 5900 mm;
 Base diameter = 184 mm;
 Free end diameter = 76 mm;
 GFRP thickness = 6 mm.
A detailed description of each specimen is listed in Table 4, while the strengthening techniques are presented in
Figure 5.
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Table 4. Specimens’ description
Pole code Description Do (mm) D1 (mm) Ds (mm) Lo (mm) LS (mm) LA (mm) Lb (mm) T (mm)
P Control Pole without Opening Hole 550 -- --
PO Control Pole with Opening Hole 550 -- --
PS1 Strengthened spacemen with extended internal steel stub 184 76 165 5900 1400 -- -- 6
PS2 Strengthened spacemen with four external steel angles 550 1400 --
PS3 Strengthened spacemen internal 4 steel bracing bars 550 -- 1400
Note: Do: base diameter, D1: Top diameter, Ds: Steel Stub diameter, Lo: Pole length, Ls: Steel Stub length, LA: Steel Angle length, Lb: Steel Bars length and t: Pole thickness.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Considered strengthening techniques, a) extended internal steel stub, b) external steel angles, c) internal steel bars
bracing
2.4. Standard Test Procedures and Allowable Limits

Two opposing fixed supports at 0.0 and 1.65 m from the first end were used to fix the pole, which was laid
horizontally on the ground. The pole's buried depth, which is typically computed as 10% of the pole's length plus 600
mm, was represented by the fixed portion of the pole (1.65 m). Two string potentiometers were attached to each of the
two supports to verify fixation by observing any movement. Utilizing a winch and steel rope, the pole was vertically
loaded 600 mm from the second end. Manual controls were used to manage the load in the testing apparatus, and
mechanical transducers were used to determine the deflection of the FRP pole [1, 23]. The pole manufacturer should
calculate the shaft length based on the precise embedment depth (if applicable) and luminaire mounting height. A 61%
tolerance must be maintained for the entire pole length. The pole's weight that will satisfy the user's installation's strength
requirements must be chosen by the pole maker. Once it has been determined, the weight must be at least 95% of the
stated weight. When tested, the pole must be able to bear at least 1.5 times the maximum bending moment brought on
by the wind. The maximum amount of pole-top deflection caused by wind action on the pole and any associated
accessories is 15% of the aboveground height [24, 25].
2.5. Testing Setup and Procedure

The poles were tested according to ASTM D4923. The pole is installed in the concrete base. It was adjusted
horizontally by the water balance. The crane was installed at the end pole (first point). The first height of the pole is
measured from the ground (Y0) before loading. At failure, height was determined (Y 1). Deflection was calculated by
subtracting Y0 from Y1 (Δ = Y1-Y0), as shown in Figure 6.
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Figure 6. Test Setup
All tested poles were fixed to the concrete block (1200 × 800 × 800 mm) by their steel stub base plate as shown in
Figure 7. All base plates were (400 × 400 × 10 mm) and fixed to the concrete block by 4 bolts 16mm in diameter.
Figure 7. Pole Fixation Method
The horizontally fixed pole was gradually loaded at a distance of 5650 mm from the base using a motorized winch
(Cap. = 1000 kN). The load is recorded with a load cell, while the deflection was measured manually by metric
measurements. Figure 8 shows the testing setup.
Figure 8. Testing setup (control sample P)
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2.6. Testing Results

The recorded loads and corresponding deflections for all tested poles are summarized in Table 5 and graphically
presented in Figure 9, while Figure 10 shows photographs of the tested poles.
Table 5. Test results
Load Settlement (mm)

(N) P PO PS1 PS2 PS3
1250 170 190 120 100 130
2500 340 360 240 200 250
3500 490 550 340 290 360
4500 640 690 440 390 460
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
Load (N)
2500
P
2000 PO
1500 PS1
1000 PS2
500 PS3
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Deflection (mm)
Figure 9. Load-Deflection curves for the tested poles
(a) PO
(b) PS1
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(c) PS2
(d) PS3
Figure 10. Photographs for the tested poles
Table 6 shows results from our study compared to those from Altanopoulos et al. [14]. Our results using the
centrifugal process match well with his results in Load but differ in deflection. The error is 48% for the stiffness result.
We note that Altanopoulos et al. (2021) used a pole manufactured using the filament winding process with different
Dimensions, Mechanical properties, and Fixation methods. The error can be attributed to that reason. We concluded that
the different manufacturing processes and properties will differ in results, and it is recommended to use them for further
studies to compare results.
Table 6. Comparison study at the same load level
Parameter Results from our study for pole (P) Altanopoulos et al. (2021) [14] Error%
Load (N) 4500 4050 10
Settlement (mm) 640 300 54
Stiffness (N/mm) 7.03 13.5 48
Flexural modulus (MPa) 36000 44840 20
Shear Modulus (MPa) 1200 4850 75
Wall thickness (mm) 6 3.5 42
Pole Length (m) 6 6 0
Manufacture Method Centrifugal Process Filament Winding -
3. Discussion
3.1. Main Findings
Analyzing the collected results in Table 5 and Figure 9 indicates the following:
 The stiffness of the PO pole is reduced to (6.53/7.12 = 92%) of the original value due to the near base opening;
 The stiffness of the PS1 pole is increased to (10.28/7.12 = 144%) of the original value due to the extended
internal steel stub;
 The stiffness of the PS2 pole is increased to (11.86/7.12 = 166%) of the original value due to the external steel
angles;
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 The stiffness of the PS3 pole is increased to (9.79/7.12 = 138%) of the original value due to the internal steel
bracing bars.
The theoretical stiffness of the GFRP poles could be calculated as shown in Equation 1 [26]:
1 ∆ 𝐿3 𝐿
= = + (1)
𝐾 𝑃 3𝐸.𝐼 𝐺.𝐴𝑟
where E is the elastic modulus of the GRFP (36000 MPa), G is the shear modulus of the GRFP (1200 MPa), Ar is the
reduced cross-section area of the pole (equals half the gross area for pipes), I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section
of the pole, and L is the distance from fixation to the load.
For un-strengthened poles (P) & (PO) the length (L= 5650 mm) and the pole outer diameter at the base are 184 mm:
 For the control pole (P), Ar = 1677 mm2 and I = 13.55E+6 mm4, hence, K = 7.9 N/mm;
 For the pole (Po), Ar = 1510 mm2 and I = 12.2E+6 mm4, hence, K = 7.2 N/mm.
For (PS1, PS2 & PS3), the strengthening is extended to 1400mm above the base, where the outer diameter is 158
mm, hence, A=1430 mm2, I = 8.5E+6 mm4, accordingly K= 11.5 N/mm.
3.2. Comparison with Other Studies

Comparing the calculated stiffness values with the measured ones showed good agreement; the calculated stiffness
values ranged between 97% and 117% of the measured ones, with an average value of 110%. This slight difference is
expected due to neglecting the effect of a tapered profile of the pole and the actual stiffness of the strengthening elements.
However, a 10% difference is acceptable for such simplified calculations. When comparing the Pole (PO) with previous
studies, it has the same opening hole, according to Mohamed [17]. The Stiffness differed by 52%, as shown in Table 7.
Table 7. A Comparison study at Failure load for Stiffness
Experimental Calculated Experimental Experimental Experimental

Parameter Stiffness for pole Mohamed [17] Stiffness for pole Stiffness for pole Stiffness for pole Stiffness for pole
(PO) (PO) (PS1) (PS2) (PS3)
Stiffness (N/mm) 6.53 3.10 7.2 10.28 11.86 9.79
Findings Experimental Finite Element Calculated Experimental Experimental Experimental
Pole Length (m) 6 10 6 6 6 6
3.3. Findings Explanation

 The stiffness of the PO pole was reduced, which is a disadvantage due to stress concentration around the opening
hole. The presence of opening holes in the GFRP poles reduces the flexural modulus and shear modulus;
 The stiffness of the PS1 pole was increased because of the enhancement in the fixation method of the pole, and
the pole's flexural and shear modulus increased due to the increase in steel dimensions inside the pole;
 The stiffness of the PS2 pole was increased, which disallowed the pole to deflect more due to stiffened angles;
 The stiffness of the PS3 pole was increased, which prevented the pole from becoming deflected more due to
increasing the steel dimensions inside the pole. That’s due to the GFRP pole's 25% length becoming more steel
behavior than fiber;
 A comparison between experimental and previous research stiffness shows a difference of 52% due to different
pole properties and geometrics, as shown in Table 7;
 The comparison shows a great improvement in stiffness results between poles PS1, PS2, and PS3 compared to
previous research due to different strengthening techniques, as shown in Table 7.
4. Conclusions
This study was concerned with determining the optimum strengthening technique to control the lateral deflection of
CFRP poles. Three techniques were considered: an internal extended steel stub, external steel angles, and internal steel
bracing bars. In addition, an experimental testing program including five full-scale poles was carried out to determine
the efficiency of each strengthening technique and the effect of connector openings near the pole base on its flexure
stiffness. The results of the study could be summarized as follows:
 All poles were gradually loaded up to 4500 N without any failure, showing perfect linear-elastic behavior;
 The connector hole near the base of the pole reduces its flexural stiffness by 8%;
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 The measured flexural stiffness of the strengthened poles was 144%, 166%, and 138% of the control pole for
the extended steel stub, external steel angles, and internal steel bracing bars, respectively;
 A comparison study has been presented between the experimental study and previous research, showing an
agreement in load by 10% and a difference in deflection due to different properties at the same load level;
 The simplified mathematical calculation matched the measured values, and the divisions were about ±10%;
 A comparison between experimental and calculated stiffnesses for pole (PO) has been done and shows an
agreement of 10%. Which has been compared to previous research showing a 52% difference in stiffness due to
different pole lengths. It also indicated a significant result in stiffness between different strengthening techniques
and previous research;
 Although the external steel angle technique showed the best efficiency (66%), it is external, so it may need
additional decorative cover to be acceptable;
 The extended steel stub is the easiest technique since all poles already have a short internal steel stub; besides
that, its efficiency is about 44%. However, the main disadvantage is the conflict with the connector opening near
the pole base;
 Despite the low efficiency of the internal steel bracing bars technique (38%), it doesn’t conflict with the opening
of the connector and doesn’t need any decorative cover. Besides that, its efficiency may be improved by using
larger-diameter bars. Accordingly, it may be a favorable alternative to strengthening the GFRP poles;
 This research work improves the stiffness results by using different strengthening techniques, which will lead
other researchers to use different techniques to improve their findings.
The following points are suggested for more research studies in the future:
 To study the strength characteristics of FRP poles under different types of loading and with different strengthening
techniques;
 To study more techniques used to reduce large deformations of GFRP poles;
 To compare the stiffness and strength characteristics of FRP poles manufactured by different manufacturing
techniques rather than centrifugal processes;
 A Comparison between experimental, calculated and modeled Stiffness at the same pole properties and geometric.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, A.M.E. and M.A.K.; investigation, H.M.E., M.G.H., and I.A.-L.; writing—original draft
preparation, Y.A.A. and A.M.E.-F.; writing—review and editing, A.M.E. and H.M.E.; visualization, M.G.H. and I.A.-
L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding
This study is sponsored by Future University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt.
5.4. Acknowledgments
The support from the Egyptian Company for Plastic Industry ELSEWEDY EGYPLAST is acknowledged. We also
greatly acknowledge the industry support and thank the technicians at the ELSEWEDY EGYPLAST Poles Factory for
their assistance in conducting relevant experiments.

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Estimation of Soil Moisture for Different Crops Using SAR

Polarimetric Data
K. Kanmani 1 , Vasanthi P. 1* , Packirisamy Pari 2, N. S. Shafeer Ahamed 1

1
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Infrastructure, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology,
Vandalur, Chennai, Tamilnadu, 600 048, India.
3
Associate Consultant, Darashaw & Company Private Limited, Tamilnadu, India.
Abstract
Soil moisture is an essential factor that influences agricultural productivity and hydrological processes. Soil moisture
estimation using field detection methods takes time and is challenging. However, using Remote Sensing (RS) and
Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, soil moisture parameters become easier to detect. In microwave remote
sensing, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data helps to retrieve soil moisture from more considerable depths because of its
high penetration capability and the illumination power of its light source. This study aims to process the SAR Sentinel-1A
data and estimate soil moisture using the Water Cloud Model (WCM). Many physical and empirical models have been
developed to determine soil moisture from microwave remote sensing platforms. However, the Water Cloud Model gives
more accurate results. In this study, the WCM model is used for mixed crop types. The experimental soil moisture was
determined from in-situ soil samples collected from various agricultural areas. The soil backscattering values
corresponding to the different soil sampling locations were derived from Sentinel SAR data. Using linear regression
analysis, the laboratory's soil moisture results and soil backscattering values were correlated to arrive at a model. The
model was validated using a secondary set of in-situ moisture content values taken during the same period. The R2 and
RMSE of the model were observed to be 0.825 and 0.0274, respectively, proving a strong correlation between the
experimental soil moisture and satellite-derived soil moisture for mixed crop field types. This paper explains the
methodology for arriving at a model for soil moisture estimation. This model helps to recommend suitable crop types in
large, complex areas based on predicted moisture content.
Keywords: Water Cloud Model (WCM); Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR); Soil Backscattering.
1. Introduction
Soil moisture is the most influential factor causing surface runoff fluctuations and soil infiltration capacity [1, 2].
Soil moisture varies based on location and crops [3]. The in-situ measurements available to measure soil moisture are
complex. However, with RS and GIS technology, we can estimate the soil moisture content for challenging areas such
as highly vegetated areas, dense forests, and grasslands [4]. Active remote sensors such as RADAR transmit signals to
the earth's surface by illuminating their own light source and receiving the signals that are reflected back to the sensor.
SAR is an imaging radar that has its own energy source. The successive radar pulses from SAR are transmitted to the
target, received back to the sensor as backscattered signals, and then recorded. The spatial resolution of this image
depends on pulse length and beam width.
* Corresponding author: vasanthi@crescent.education

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Radar backscattered energy depends on satellite sensor parameters and earth terrain parameters. Some sensor
parameters include frequency/wavelength, polarization, viewing geometry, spatial resolution, and speckle. The earth's
terrain parameters are the surface geometry, the roughness of the surface, and the dielectric constant. Among these
factors, polarization, surface roughness, and dielectric properties play a dominant role in retrieving soil moisture content
[5]. The polarization of the radar has a significant effect on the nature and magnitude of the backscattered signal. There
are four combinations of polarization, which include both transmit and receive polarizations. They are HH, VV, VH,
and HV. The letters H and V are designated as horizontal and vertical, respectively. HH and VV polarizations are like-
polarized, whereas HV and VH are cross-polarized. The strength of like-polarized signals is stronger than that of cross-
polarized signals.
The surface roughness of earth objects purely depends on the wavelength and incidence angle of RADAR [6]. The
texture of the earth’s surface is classified as smooth and rough. If the variations in the height of the objects (h) are
smaller than the radar wavelength () i.e., h < , then the surface is said to be smooth. When the variations in the height
are greater than the radar wavelength i.e., h > , then the surface is said to be a rough surface [7]. The smooth surfaces
appear darker in the radar image since very little energy is received back, and thus it is recorded by the radar antenna.
The rough surfaces appear lighter in the radar image since more energy is scattered back to the radar antenna.
The dielectric properties of the soil surface are influenced by the percentage of moisture content in the soil [8]. The
surface appears rougher and darker in the satellite image when the soil is moist or wet. The large difference in electric
properties results in a higher radar backscattered signal [9]. However, if the soil is dry, the surface appears smooth and
is lighter in color in the satellite image. Some transmitted energy penetrates the soil's subsurface, resulting in less
backscattered energy.
In this study, the soil moisture values are determined using the backscattered energy of SAR data, which depends on
polarization, surface roughness, and dielectric properties. The backscattered energy value of dual polarization (VV+VH)
mode is used in this study. Many models, such as physical, empirical, and semi-empirical models [10], are used to
determine soil moisture content. Many physical and empirical models are developed to simulate the data or parameters
from microwave remote sensing platforms. However, these models are used only for a particular crop type.
The four different crop fields, such as paddy fields, sesame plants, groundnuts, and jasmine flowering plants, were
selected to assess the soil moisture for different agricultural fields. The Water Cloud Model (WCM) is extensively used
for the above different heterogeneous crop fields to explore the model's capabilities. The main aim of this study is to
calculate the soil moisture content using the Water Cloud Model (WCM) for different heterogeneous agricultural fields
such as paddy fields, sesame plants, groundnuts, and jasmine flowering plants.
In this study, the complex effect of scattering between vegetation and soil is made simple by the WCM model, which
works for many vegetation layer types. The WCM model removes the scattering effect of vegetation layers to estimate
soil moisture content.
2. Literature Review
Srinivasa Rao et al. [11] used the Dubois model and Topp's model with only HH polarization to estimate soil
moisture. The backscattering coefficient values and dielectric constant from HH polarization were computed, and these
values were correlated and simulated for cross-polarized signatures like HV. These output results of soil moisture are
compared with field-observed data and then validated. This model provides accurate results in soil moisture monitoring
using RISAT data only in different polarizations, such as HH and HV (in medium and coarse resolutions).
Thanabalan et al. [12] used dual-polarimetric RISAT-1 to determine soil moisture. They used Topps and the
Modified Dubois Model (MDM) to assess soil moisture in Theni District. IRS LISS IV satellite data provided the land
use/land cover classifications for various land categories. Thus, the backscattering values were first derived, and then
the surface roughness values were measured as field measurements from the selected sample locations. These values
were correlated using a linear regression analysis.
Mirsoleimani et al. [13] used the Modified Dubois Model (MDM) and Calibrated Integral Equation Model (CIEM)
to estimate soil moisture and compare the results in their study area, Karaj Watershed, Iran. They have used the Sentinel-
1 C band in their study. The model (MDB and CIEM) variables include the angle of incidence and root mean square
height, which are retrieved from the satellite images. The known values of in-situ observations were used as inputs to
this model to correlate the backscattering values in the VV and VH polarizations. Then the correlated σ0 values from
Sentinel 1 SAR data were compared, and the results were validated using linear regression analysis.
Collingwood et al. [14] have used the ANN model for Melville Island, Nunavut's study area, to calculate soil
moisture. They have used RADARSAT-2 SAR satellite data. The variables used in this study were the surface roughness
values, the backscattered values of HH polarization, and the angle of incidence. The surface roughness variable was
very dynamic and temporal. This model was applied to lower incidence angles to reduce the surface roughness and
backscattered values in the study area.
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Artificial neural network (ANN) models can be applied to more unique physical soil constraints [15]. Like
conventional models, it is also used to retrieve soil moisture. But it gives better results than any other traditional model.
This model is suitable for only studying the spatial distribution pattern of soil [16, 17]. ANNs must input the prior
knowledge information into the model. Some statistical input data without any assumptions can be included in this
model for analysis. These models can be applied to newer areas, requiring few assumptions [18].
Nijaguna et al. [19] employed an improved version of the Water Cloud Model (WCM) with a deep learning-based
hybrid model to retrieve the soil moisture values. They have used the Deep Max Out Network (DMN) in addition to the
Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (Bi-GRU) schemes to attain higher accuracy in the results. This study suggested a
novel technique as a hybrid model for soil moisture retrieval in homogenous regions.
Dopper et al. [20] have presented the hybrid technique of using radiative transfer modeling and machine learning
with the help of hyperspectral images. They have applied this modeling technique to estimate soil moisture for
permanent grassland sites. This modeling technique requires less number of field measurements. Also, the model yields
good results for undisturbed and water-limited areas.
Lei et al. [21] have performed the vegetative canopy water content measurement to improve the Water Cloud Model
(WCM) in retrieving soil moisture. Their results clearly stated that a more specific vegetation water content is created
using the vertical canopy arrangement and biomass. Using Improved WCM (IWCM), the retrieval of soil moisture
values for various levels of forests, such as green wood, grasslands etc., was determined.
Yahia et al. [22] have proposed the inversion of the Water Cloud Model (WCM) to enhance the measurement of soil
moisture values. They have suggested using the Optical Trapezoidal Model (OTM) to compute vegetation canopy
indices. They have applied this novel technique to the Sidi Rached and Blackwell farms.
Luo et al. [23] have used the Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN) model to find the relationship between the
bands and the soil moisture measurement data. The optical and thermal infrared satellite data from different periods
were considered as input values, as were the field measurement data. They have applied this model to estimate the
surface moisture content of the soil in bare land and vegetated areas. The correlation coefficient between the in-situ
field-measured soil moisture and the estimated soil moisture was observed to be 0.9001, and the results give highly
accurate values.
Based on the findings from the literature review, it is evident that soil moisture models are used only for specific
agricultural fields or crop types like grasslands, wheat fields, or paddy fields. Hence, this study mainly estimates soil
moisture for different crop fields or mixed heterogeneous crops. This study used Sentinel 1A SAR and microwave
satellite data. Sentinel 1A has dual polarization (VV+VH) mode. Table 1 provides the specifications of the satellite data.
The Water Cloud Model (WCM) is utilized in this study to find the moisture content in the soil for mixed heterogonous
crop types. This model's main advantage is reducing the complex effect of scattering between vegetation and soil.
Table 1. Specifications of sentinel 1A SAR satellite data
Details of specification Sentinel-1 data

Data product used Ground Range Detected Level-1 Product
Orbit Descending
Polarization VV-VH
Imaging frequency C-band (5.4GHz)
Resolution 20 m (Full resolution)
Temporal Resolution 12 days
3. Study Area and Data Collection

The study area chosen is Maiyur and Sampathinallur villages, Maduranthakam Taluk, Kancheepuram district, Tamil
Nadu, India. This area has a hot and humid climate. The Palar River is the major river in this region, which is not
perennial. Generally, these villages have witnessed average rainfall and have more diversified agricultural crop fields.
The average temperature in this area ranges from 19.8 to 38.6 ºC.
The study area extends from 12°40'31.57"N, 79°56'13.43"E to 12°39'52.43"N, 79°56'33.27"E. The study area is
shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. The study area of Maiyur and Sampathinallur village
Fourteen soil samples were collected from the study area during February 2022 and March 2022 at four different
agricultural fields in Maiyur and Sampathinallur villages in Maduranthakam taluk, Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu,
India. Field 1 and Field 2 soil samples were collected from paddy fields and sesame plants, respectively, at Maiyur
village. Field 3 and Field 4 soil samples were collected from groundnut and jasmine flowering plants, respectively, at
Sampathinallur village. The eight in-situ soil samples were used for estimating the experimental soil moisture
measurement, and the remaining six ground samples were utilized for validating the model. The spatial location of in-
situ soil samples is depicted in Figure 2.
(a) Maiyur Village (b) Sampathinallur village
Figure 2. Field sample data Locations
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The soil samples were collected from Maiyur and Sampathinallur villages on the same date as the satellite passed
the study region. The Global Positioning System was used to determine the location of the soil samples [24]. Figure 3
shows the photos taken in the field while collecting the soil samples.
Figure 3. Soil sampling

The gravimetric soil moisture content of the field samples was determined. Volumetric soil moisture has been
determined from gravimetric soil moisture [25]. The following formula is used to compute both gravimetric and
volumetric soil moisture:
𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑑
Sg = (1)
𝑊𝑑
𝑊𝑠
ρb = (2)
𝑉
Sv = Sg × ρb (3)
where Sg is Gravimetric soil moisture in cm3/cm3, ρb is Bulk Density in gm/cm3, Sv is Volumetric Soil moisture in
cm3/cm3, Ws is Weight of wet sample in gm, Wd is Weight of dried sample in gm, and V is Volume of sample in cm3.
The gravimetric soil moisture values of the collected soil samples are tabulated in Table 2. The gravimetric moisture
content lies between 0.099 cm3/cm3 and 0.169 cm3/cm3. The observations show that the soil moisture content is very
low at the S13 and S14 site samples in Field4 compared to other field site samples.
Table 2. Experimental results of field sample data
Sl. No. Sample_ID Latitude Longitude Gravimetric soil moisture (cm3 cm-3)
1 F1_S1 12°39'56.44"N 79°56'34.07"E 0.127
2 F1_S2 12°39'56.42"N 79°56'33.53"E 0.147
3 F1_S3 12°39'55.39"N 79°56'33.36"E 0.133
4 F1_S4 12°39'55.21"N 79°56'33.84"E 0.132
5 F2_S5 12°39'54.22"N 79°56'33.73"E 0.157
6 F2_S6 12°39'54.35"N 79°56'33.10"E 0.169
7 F2_S7 12°39'52.61"N 79°56'32.72"E 0.146
8 F2_S8 12°39'52.43"N 79°56'33.27"E 0.136
9 F3_S9 12°40'30.25"N 79°56'13.41"E 0.146
10 F3_S10 12°40'29.74"N 79°56'13.40"E 0.141
11 F3_S11 12°40'29.80"N 79°56'15.24"E 0.131
12 F3_S12 12°40'30.26"N 79°56'15.22"E 0.143
13 F4_S13 12°40'30.47"N 79°56'14.38"E 0.116
14 F4_S14 12°40'31.57"N 79°56'13.43"E 0.099
The Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) software is used to process the sentinel SAR data in this study. In the
Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP), the Sentinel data is opened as an XML file with the band combinations B4, B3,
and B2. The sentinel 1A SAR data is pre-processed in the SNAP toolbox. The amplitude and intensity values of VV and
VH scenes could be viewed on the display. Generally, all the bands in the Sentinel data were of different sizes and
resolutions. The subset function is used to perform both spatial and spectral resampling. The resampling technique is
performed to make all the bands of the same size and resolution. Lee's adaptive filter does the speckle suppression in
SAR data. SRTM DEM data is used for terrain correction. Figure 4 displays the sentinel 1A SAR data used in this study.
The False Color Composite (FCC) of different polarizations of the satellite is viewed in the display.
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Figure 4. Sentinel 1A SAR data of study area
The backscattering values are retrieved from SAR data, representing the vegetation and underlying soil [26]. The
values of soil backscattering are extracted from the combined backscattered energy [27]. The methodology of this study
is shown in Figure 5.
Sentinel 1A SAR data
Radiometric Correction
Speckle Reduction by enhanced Lee

adaptive filter
Terrain Correction
False Color Composite of

different polarization
Backscattering values
Sampling Strategy
Water Cloud Model Ground Truthing
Soil Backscattering values In-situ Soil Moisture
Linear Regression Analysis
Soil Moisture Retrieval Model
Validation of Results
Figure 5. Methodology for Sentinel data processing and soil moisture retrieval
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Using WCM, the soil moisture values are then retrieved from the combined backscattering value. The relationship
between combined backscattering of vegetation & soil is given below [28].
𝜎 0 = 𝜎 0 𝑣𝑒𝑔 + 𝜏 2 𝜎 0 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (4)
𝜎 0 𝑣𝑒𝑔 = 𝐴 𝑚𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1 − 𝜏 2 ) (5)
𝜏 2 = 𝑒 (−2𝐵𝑚𝑣 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃) (6)
where 𝜎 0 is combined backscattering value, 𝜎 0 𝑣𝑒𝑔 is vegetation backscattering value, 𝜎 0 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 is soil backscattering
value, 𝑚𝑣 is vegetation water content, 𝜃 is local incidence angle that is extracted from the corrected SAR data, and 𝜏 2
is two-way vegetation transmissivity.
The vegetation moisture content (𝑚𝑣 ) is determined from the laboratory method and is employed in the WCM [29].
These values from the model represent the combined backscattering values. The linear regression analysis is then carried
out, which proposes a statistical model to determine the soil moisture parameter for the respective soil backscattering
values for heterogeneous crops. The in-situ soil moisture values and the soil backscattering values are correlated using
a linear regression model. The experimental soil moisture values were compared and analyzed with the satellite-derived
soil moisture values to validate the model using a secondary set of in-situ soil samples.

A regression analysis was performed between the soil backscattering values and in-situ soil moisture values. Table
3 shows the soil backscattering values from the sentinel SAR data. From the regression analysis, the correlation
coefficient value (R2) is found to be 0.825, as depicted in Figure 6. Thus, there is a good correlation between satellite-
derived soil backscattering and experimental soil moisture values [30].
Table 3. Experimental results and satellite-derived soil backscattering values of field sample data
Sl. No. Sample_ID Experimental soil moisture (cm3 cm-3) Soil backscattering values in dB
1 F1_S1 0.244 -13.421
2 F1_S3 0.254 -12.544
3 F2_S5 0.312 -14.269
4 F2_S7 0.292 -14.034
5 F3_S9 0.297 -13.924
6 F3_S11 0.266 -13.922
7 F3_S12 0.291 -14.470
8 F4_S14 0.167 -11.725
Figure 6. Regression Analysis between experimental soil moisture and soil backscattering values
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From the linear statistical regression analysis, the soil moisture for heterogeneous crops can be obtained from the
equation;
Soil Moisture = (-0.044 ∗ 𝜎 0 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙) - 0.333 (7)

The satellite-derived and the measured soil moisture values are compared and analyzed to validate the above
equation. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) value is determined to be 0.0274 [31]. Figure 7 compares the observed
field values and satellite-derived soil moisture.
Comparison between measured soil moisture and satellite soil moisture

0.800
Field measured soil moisture
Satellite derived soil moisture
Soil Moisture (cm3/cm3)
0.600 0.312
0.287
0.253 0.266 0.239
0.400
0.198
0.350
0.280 0.275 0.285
0.200 0.255 0.199
0.000
F1_S2 F1_S4 F2_S6 F2_S8 F3_S10 F4_S13
Sample_ID
Figure 7. Comparison between field and satellite-derived soil moisture
The R2 and RMSE of observed and derived values obtained from the model are 0.825 and 0.0274, respectively. The
deviation from the field and satellite-based soil moisture values is between 0.01 cm3/cm3 to 0.04 cm3/cm3. This model
was validated by comparing the soil moisture values obtained from the field and the model. The results prove that the
proposed model can be applied to different agricultural fields. Thus, the proposed model is also applicable for estimating
the soil moisture for various crop fields. This model can be used to reduce the oversupply of water for agricultural
purposes and to alleviate the water shortage in particular locations based on soil moisture.
The R2 value reported by various researchers was between 0.65 and 0.78, and the RMSE value ranged from 0.05 to
1. The backscattered values purely depend on the vegetation over the underlying soil and the surface roughness. Due to
the effects of the physical parameters that affect the backscattered signal, the results of their findings were low. The
results retrieved from Figure 7 are accurate when compared to other earlier studies.
6. Conclusion
This study estimates the soil moisture for different crop fields using Remote Sensing and GIS technology. Using
Setinel-1 SAR data, a semi-empirical WCM model has been used in this study to determine the soil moisture values
from SAR backscattering values [32]. The regression analysis shows that soil moisture has a robust correlation with the
satellite-derived soil backscattering values. The same model may be further applied for more mixed land cover. This
model is more suitable for heterogeneous crop regions. The results from this model can be used for irrigation
management practices so that a sufficient quantity of water may be irrigated for the crops in that region to attain
maximum crop productivity yield. These results will be more beneficial for using water resources in the area to increase
the crop productivity index.
The processing of the Sentinel-1 data and the assessment of soil moisture initially had several limitations. Soil
moisture estimation is more complex in highly vegetated areas when compared with dry, bare soil areas. The satellite
backscattered signals are more affected by surface roughness, dielectric constant, and vegetation cover over the
underlying soil [33]. The effect of these parameters results in more complexity in extracting the satellite backscattered
signals. The resulting backscattered energy is the combination of both soil and vegetation backscattering values. To
overcome these limitations, factors like vegetation moisture content and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) are used in this study. More factors like the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), Leaf Area Index
(LAI), Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), etc. can be used for further study to assess the soil moisture content for more
accurate results. In addition to Sentinel-1 SAR data, Sentinel-2 satellite data, which provides high spatial and temporal
resolution, can be explored to assess soil moisture estimation [34]. The various regression models will be used for
comparing the satellite-derived soil backscattering values and the experimental soil moisture.
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7. Declarations
Conceptualization, K.K.; methodology, K.K., V.P., and P.P.; software, K.K. and P.P.; validation, K.K., P.P., and
N.S.S.A.; formal analysis, K.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K. and V.P.; writing—review and editing, K.K.,
V.P., and N.S.S.A.; supervision, V.P.; project administration, V.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published

Data sharing is not applicable to this article.
7.3. Funding
I would like to place my special thanks to my research supervisor Dr. Vasanthi Padmanabhan, Professor, Department
of Civil Engineering, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology for her cooperation, guidance
and support throughout this research work.

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1411

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
The Effect of Recycled Material and Buton Granular Asphalt

(BGA) on Asphalt Concrete Mixture Performance
Novita Pradani 1* , Rita Irmawaty 1 , Muhammad W. Tjaronge 1, Irwan R. Rahim 1

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hasanuddin University, South Sulawesi 91711, Indonesia.
Abstract
Pavement recycling is an appropriate technology for constructing and restoring road pavement structures due to the limited
supply and high cost of pavement materials. This study aims to improve the recycled mix's performance by replacing the
fine aggregate in the recycled mix for road pavement with Buton Granular Asphalt (BGA). The percentage of recycled
material (Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement/RAP) in the mixture was limited to 20% and 30% by weight of the total mixture.
BGA was added by 3%, 6%, and 9% in each mixture with the RAP variation. Mixture performance was obtained through
Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) testing. The ITS test results showed that the ITS value of the mixture with RAP and BGA
increased by an average of 4.7–15% compared to the mixture without RAP and BGA. The Toughness Index (TI) value
increased by 3.5–19.8% with the addition of RAP. With the addition of 3% BGA, the TI value tends to increase and
subsequently decrease up to 9% BGA levels. The result indicated that adding 30% RAP and 3% BGA to the mixtures
improved pavement performance and could be a solution to increase the elasticity and fracture resistance of the mixture.
Keywords: Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP); Buton Granular Asphalt (BGA); Asphaltic Concrete Wearing Course (AC-WC); Hot
Mix Asphalt (HMA); Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS); Stress; Strain; Toughness.
1. Introduction
Recently, sustainable construction has been an important issue in construction engineering. Environmentally
friendly, safe, and efficient road construction has become the hope and concern for the road pavement industries around
the world [1, 2]. Sustainable construction has become important due to the increasingly limited availability of resources
in construction [3, 4], especially road construction [5]. On the other hand, the need for road materials is increasing every
year for the construction and maintenance of roads [6]. One alternative solution that fits the context of sustainable road
construction is pavement recycling [7, 8].
The residual scraping/peeling material from the old road pavement, composed of asphalt and aggregate, is used to
recycle road pavement; this material is commonly referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) [9]. The utilization
of RAP is part of green construction because it reduces the use of aggregate and asphalt and reduces energy use, which
contributes to lowering road construction costs [10, 11]. Researchers today aim to maximize the use of RAP to produce
a sustainable and highly durable pavement structure. Research on the conservation, reuse, and recycling of building
materials is conducted to maximize the mechanical qualities of recycled materials, notably road pavement materials.
The quality of this RAP material has undoubtedly declined throughout its service life, as evidenced by changes in
gradation [12–15], asphalt aging, and mix fatigue [16]. For this reason, modifications are needed so that it can be reused
as a material for constructing new road pavements [17]. Mixtures that use recycled asphalt can be a good alternative for
* Corresponding author: pradanin19d@student.unhas.ac.id

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road construction, especially if rejuvenating materials are used to reduce production temperatures and improve the
performance of the mixture [18]. According to the Asphalt Institute (1993), the use of RAP in hot mix asphalt is around
10%–35% for metered production units, while for drum-type production units, the practical quantity is around 10%–
50% [19]. According to Valdes et al., a recycled combination should contain 10% and 50% recycled material, with a
40% RAP mixture within the permissible range. A 60% RAP mixture exceeds the specified restrictions [20]. In hot mix
asphalt, the permissible percentage of RAP is below 30% for the wearing course [21].
Recent studies have established that RAP addition in the hot mixture can also provide satisfactory results in
mechanical properties [15, 16, 22]. Bethary et al. studied the influence of adding RAP and slag to the AC-Binder Course
mixture. The tests occurred with RAP amounts of 10%, 20%, and 30% of the total mixture weight. The study found that
Marshall stability values tend to increase with the addition of RAP. The optimum performance of the mixture is seen in
the 30% RAP content [16]. Teherkani et al. investigated the impact of adding waste oil as a rejuvenator on certain
engineering properties of asphalt concrete containing RAP. The percentages of RAP utilized are 25%, 50%, and 75%,
based on the total weight. The ITS value of asphalt mixtures increased as the percentage of RAP increased [23].
On the other hand, Indonesia is one of the world's largest natural asphalt-producing countries. Indonesia has natural
asphalt known as Asbuton (Buton natural asphalt) because the location of the Asbuton deposit is on the island of Buton,
Southeast Sulawesi. A naturally occurring hydrocarbon substance is asbuton. Bitumen content in asbuton ranges from
10 to 40%; the remaining proportion is mineral [24]. With a capacity of over 600 million tons, the Asbuton deposit is
considerable. The Asbuton deposit is thought to contain 24 million barrels of bitumen [25–27]. Apart from the
availability of many Asbuton in Indonesia, other advantages of Buton granules include a high asphalt content and a
constant moisture content below 2%.
Numerous research results indicate that the use of Buton asphalt (Asbuton) or Buton Granular Asphalt (BGA) as a
partial substitution material for oil asphalt, besides being able to utilize Indonesia's natural wealth, is also able to increase
the value of stability and can improve the performance of asphalt mixtures [28–30]. Mabui et al. discovered that indirect
tensile strength values in asphalt mixtures containing Buton asphalt and plastic waste show an increase in Indirect tensile
strength values up to 2% of plastic waste [31]. Mahyuddin et al. obtained the same results that the tensile strength value
in the AC-WC mixture showed an increase with the addition of BGA up to 7.5% [32].
There has been enormous research conducted on the mechanical performance of the RAP and BGA mixtures
independently. However, neither research combines using both RAP and BGA in hot asphalt mixtures, and the stress-
strain concept approach needs to provide an explicit explanation of tensile strength, tensile modulus, and toughness
index. Considering the positive outcomes and experiences of using Hot mix Asphalt with RAP or BGA inclusion, this
technology could apply to developing nations such as Indonesia. In this regard, the combination of RAP and Indonesian
natural asphalt is expected to reduce the use of new materials in the AC-WC hot mix asphalt, contribute to sustainable
construction, and provide better mixture performance.
In addition to the previously mentioned aspects, the objective of this research is to figure out the effect of adding
recycled material (RAP) and Buton Granular Asphalt (BGA) on the performance of the asphalt concrete wearing course
(AC-WC). One indicator of the susceptibility of asphalt mixtures is their tensile strength. As a pavement layer that
directly receives traffic loads, it is necessary to know its performance, especially its mechanical strength. The
performance of asphalt mixtures that will be studied in this research focuses on the stress-strain relationship, indirect
tensile strength (ITS), the tensile modulus of elasticity (Et), and toughness index (TI).
2. Material and Research Method

2.1. Material
The materials used in this study are:
(1) Fresh Aggregate in the form of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and dust taken from the Bili-Bili River, Gowa
Regency, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia;
(2) Bitumen with a penetration of 60/70;
(3) Recycled material (RAP) comes from road pavement strips that were damaged by the earthquake in Balaroa
Village, Palu City, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia;
(4) Asbuton/Buton Granular Asphalt (BGA) type 50/30 comes from Lawele, Southeast Sulawesi Province,
Indonesia. The location of RAP and BGA is shown in Figure 1, and the visual description of RAP and BGA
materials is shown in Figure 2.
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Balaroa Palu Liquifaction
Lawele
a c
Figure 1. Location area of RAP dan BGA on satellite map (b) RAP material location (c) BGA material location
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Research material (a) RAP material (b) BGA material
2.2. Research Method

The details of the research method can be seen on the flowchart in Figure 3. It is essential to test the properties of
each component of the used material to determine its suitability for the AC-WC mixture. The initial tests carried out
were asphalt extraction and recovery based on the ASTM method (Figure 4) on recycled materials (RAP) and Buton
granules (BGA) to know the bitumen content of recycled materials and Buton granules [33, 34]. This information will
be used in the mixed-design process. Furthermore, separate tests were carried out between bitumen and mineral
extraction results to determine the physical properties of each. This material characteristic test was carried out on RAP,
BGA, Fresh Aggregate and Fresh Bitumen. Then a mix design was carried out with variations in recycled material
content (20% and 30%) based on the calculation results of the approximate bitumen content for each variation in the
content of Buton granules used (3%, 6%, and 9%).
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Extraction test (b) Bitumen recovery test
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Material characteristic testing
RAP BGA Fresh Fresh bitumen

Aggregate
Mix Design
Determining the optimum

bitumen content (OBC)
Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS)

Testing
Stress-strain Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity Toughness index

analysis analysis in tension analysis analysis
Conclusions
Figure 4. Research methodology
After the mix design process, samples in the form of briquettes were made to obtain the Optimum Bitumen Content
for each variation of the mixture (Figure 5). Samples were prepared based on SNI 06-2489-1991 with different bitumen
contents based on calculating the effective bitumen content. Samples were made using a binder in the form of bitumen
with a percentage of 5%, 5.5%, 6%, 6.5%, and 7% by mass of the mixture to achieve the optimal bitumen content (OBC)
value for each RAP percentage and BGA percentage. The test carried out to obtain the optimum bitumen content was
the Marshall test based on SNI 06-2489-1991. Then ITS samples were made for each variation of the mix using the
optimum bitumen content (OBC) that had been obtained. Furthermore, Figure 6 shows an indirect tensile strength test
based on ASTM D 6931-12. The ITS test results were used to analyze the research parameters, which included the
stress-strain value, indirect tensile strength, elastic tensile modulus, and toughness index of the mixture. Research
parameters were determined to analyze the mechanical performance of the mixture. Stress-strain value and indirect
tensile strength are related to mixture elasticity; elastic tensile modulus represents mixture modulus elasticity; and
toughness index is related to mixture resistance to cracking and failure.
Figure 5. Samples making process
1415
Load Cell
LVDT Data Logger

LVDT
Sample
Figure 6. Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) test
The indirect tensile test was conducted by increasing static force along the sample's diameter at 50 mm per minute.
Load cells were utilized to gauge the load placed on the sample. Two linear variable differential transformers (LVDT)
positioned vertically on the sample were used to monitor displacement. Computer-connected data loggers continuously
monitor and record loads and displacements [35]. Equation 1 is used to determine the tensile strength value, where the
ITS value is a function of P, the Vertical load applied (N), d, the Sample diameter (mm), and t, the Sample thickness
(mm).
2𝑃(1000)
ITS = (1)
𝜋𝑑𝑡
The Toughness Index (TI) is a parameter that describes the characteristics of toughness, which, as determined by the
stress-strain curve, is the mixture's capacity to absorb energy and deformation without collapsing in the post-ultimate
stress region [36]. The ITS test results have been used in numerous studies [36–40] to calculate the toughness index
(TI). TI is determined using Equation 2. The strain value calculated is the peak stress that occurs to the strain when the
peak stress decreases to 80%. The post-ultimate stress behavior that leads to final failure can be described using TI
values. TI represents the amount of stress-strain energy required to cause material failure.
𝐴𝜀−𝐴𝑝
TI = (2)
𝜀− 𝜀𝑝
where TI is toughness index, Aε is zones up to strain ε under the stress-strain curve, Ap is zones up to strain εp under
the stress-strain curve, εp is compatible horizontal strain with the peak stress, and ε is horizontal strain precisely where
it ought to be.
No post-ultimate stress load and fragile material are represented if the TI value is 0. In contrast, the TI value for an
elastic, perfectly plastic material with no load-carrying capacity loss after peak load is 1. As seen in Figure 7, a typical
stress-strain diagram provides the basis for determining TI values.
Figure 7. Correlation of ITS and strain values
Figure 7 also shows that the relationship between the indirect tensile strength (ITS) and strain forms a straight line
up to 50% of the peak indirect tensile strength, indicating the material's elastic region. From this elastic area, the tensile
modulus of elasticity (Etensile) value can then be determined, which is the ratio between stress and strain in the elastic
curve area [41].
1416

3.1. Material Characteristics
RAP and BGA extraction results are shown in Figures 8 and 9. Table 1 displays the properties of RAP, BGA, Fresh
Aggregate, and Fresh Bitumen. Based on the results of the material characteristics test, fresh aggregate and fresh bitumen
appeared to meet all material characteristics criteria based on the Indonesian Ministry of Public Works and Public
Housing, Revision Specifications 2 of 2018 [42]. Different things could be seen from the RAP Bitumen penetration
value that did not meet the bitumen specifications of 60/70 penetration, so adding to the rejuvenation material was
necessary. The rejuvenator used in this research was "Reclamite" at 22% of the RAP weight.
Table 1. Results of Material Characteristics Test
Requirements Test Result

Test Test Method RAP BGA Fresh Fresh
Min Max
Aggregate Bitumen Aggregate Bitumen Aggregate Bitumen
ASTM D2172/
Bitumen Content (%) -- -- -- 5.20% -- 23,04% -- --
D2172M – 11
Aggregate Impact Value (%) SNI 03-1996-1990 -- 30% 6,90% -- -- --
Abrasion (%) SNI 2417-2008 -- 40% -- -- -- -- 24.9 --
Coarse Aggregate
Bulk Specific Gravity 2.5 -- 2.67 -- -- -- 2.57 --

SNI 03-1969-1990
Apparent Specific Gravity 2.5 -- 2.74 -- -- -- 2.68 --
Fine Aggregate
Bulk Specific Gravity 2.5 -- 2.63 -- 2.508 -- 2.52 --

SNI 03-1970-1990
Apparent Specific Gravity 2.5 -- 2.7 -- 2.587 -- 2.66 --
Filler
Specific Gravity SNI 03-1970-1990 2.5 -- 2.63 -- -- -- 2.7 --
Coarse Aggregate Absorption (%) SNI 03-1969-1990 1.03 -- -- -- 1.5 --

-- 3
Fine Aggregate SNI 03-1970-1990 0.94 -- 2.6 -- 2.2 --
Penetration, 25°C (0.1 mm) SNI 06-2456-1991 60 79 -- 12.6 -- 56.3 -- 66.5
Softening Point, oC SNI 06-2434-1991 48 -- -- 72 -- 53 -- 49
Bitumen Specific Gravity SNI 06-2441-1991 1 -- -- 1.07 -- 1.08 -- 1.03
After Extraction
Before Extraction
Figure 8. RAP before and after extraction
1417
Before Extraction After Extraction
Figure 9. BGA before and after extraction
3.2. Mix Design

RAP material can be reused in a mixture of road pavement after going through the stages of improvement of its
physical properties, considering that RAP material has experienced a decrease in performance from the previous due to
the load received during the service period. Improvements have been made on RAP aggregates was gradation
improvement by adding new aggregates so that the mixed gradation can meet the required AC-WC gradation range. In
this research, two compositions between new aggregates and RAP aggregates were used, namely composition A (20%
RAP + 80% new aggregate material) and composition B (30% RAP + 70% new aggregate material), and one
composition without RAP material, namely composition C (new aggregate and BGA). In each composition (A, B, and
C), the addition of BGA material was 0%, 3%, 6%, and 9%. The same gradation was used for the three compositions,
as shown in Figure 10.
100
90
80
Passing Percentage (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Sieve Size (mm)
Target Gradation RAP Gradation Lower Limit Upper Limit BGA Gradation
Figure 10. Mixture gradation
3.3. Stress-Strain
Indirect tensile strength testing (ITS) generates the asphalt mixture's stress and strain values. ITS testing was
performed on three samples at each variation in the percentage of BGA. The correlation between stress and strain in the
optimum binder content conditions is shown in Figures 11 to 13.
1418
1.5
1.0 0% BGA-I
Stress (MPa) 0% BGA-II
0% BGA-III
3% BGA-I
3% BGA- II
3% BGA-III
0.5 6% BGA-I
6% BGA-II
6% BGA-III
9% BGA-I
9% BGA-II
0.0 9% BGA-III
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02

Strain
Figure 11. Comparison of the stress - strain in the mixture without RAP material
1.5
0% BGA-I
1.0
Stress (MPa)
0% BGA-II
0% BGA-III
3% BGA-I
3% BGA- II
3% BGA-III
0.5 6% BGA-I
6% BGA-II
6% BGA-III
9% BGA-I
9% BGA-II
9% BGA-III
0.0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Strain
Figure 12. Comparison of the stress - strain in the mixture with 20% RAP material
1.5
0% BGA-I
Stress (MPa)
1.0 0% BGA-II
0% BGA-III
3% BGA-I
3% BGA- II
3% BGA-III
6% BGA-I
0.5
6% BGA-II
6% BGA-III
9% BGA-I
9% BGA-II
9% BGA-III
0.0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Strain
Figure 13. Comparison of the stress - strain in the mixture with 30% RAP material
Figure 11 represents the stress-strain relationship in the mixture without RAP. In Figure 11, the higher the percentage
of BGA, the more stress that occurred would also tend to increase; a steeper curve indicated this compared to the mixture
without BGA. According to the results in Figure 11, the percentage of 9% BGA generated the highest stress value
1419
compared to other mixtures. The increase in the stress value of the mixture containing BGA of 3%, 6%, and 9% found
a straight line up to 3.2%, 5.3%, and 7.5%, respectively, compared to the stress in the conventional mixture. This
phenomenon was due to the high BGA content, which would contribute to increasing the mixture stiffness because of
the increasing number of fine materials in the mixture. As a result, the mixture's capability improved in receiving the
load given, which was correlated with the minor strain that occurred.
The same phenomenon was also seen in the mixture with 20% RAP (Figure 12) and 30% RAP (Figure 13). The
higher the percentage of BGA and RAP, the more stress that occurs, which also tends to increase. In addition, it was
also seen that the lowest stress and the most prominent strain were given by a mixture without BGA, indicated by a
gentler curve than a mixture with BGA. Compared to other mixtures, the percentage of 9% BGA results in the highest
stress value, as shown in Figure 12. The increase in stress value of the 20% RAP mixture with the addition of 3%, 6%,
and 9% BGA was 6.1%, 11.2%, and 11.3%, respectively, compared to the stress in the mixture without BGA. Figure 13
shows the same result for a mixture containing 30% RAP, and it is clear that adding BGA increased the stress value
from 5.4% to 11.4% compared to the mixture without BGA. It occurred because the high BGA and RAP content affected
the increasing amount of fine material in the mixture and increased the stiffness. As a result, the strain was minor,
increasing the mixture's ability to receive the given load. The results obtained are in agreement with other studies
outcomes [23, 32].
3.4. Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS)

The value of indirect tensile strength (ITS) at the optimum bitumen content with variations of RAP and BGA material
is shown in Table 2 and Figure 14. Indirect tensile strength was obtained at the maximum stress and strain that occurred
during the maximum stress from the indirect tensile strength test, then calculated based on Equation 1.
Table 2. Mixture performance based on indirect tensile test result
ITS εUltimate εFracture Etensile Toughness

RAP BGA
(MPa) mm/mm mm/mm (MPa) Index
0% 0.938 0.0101 0.0103 931 0.5522
3% 0.968 0.0083 0.0091 1173 0.7049
0%
6% 0.988 0.0071 0.0078 1396 0.7046
9% 1.008 0.0066 0.0074 1521 0.5368
0% 0.982 0.0088 0.0121 1121 0.6613
3% 1.043 0.0057 0.0072 1818 0.7693
20%
6% 1.086 0.0062 0.0064 1744 0.7296
9% 1.102 0.0062 0.0063 1789 0.6158
0% 1.051 0.0081 0.0095 1306 0.6736
3% 1.106 0.0054 0.0076 2068 0.8238
30%
6% 1.111 0.0060 0.0075 1864 0.7593
9% 1.159 0.0061 0.0069 1888 0.6889
1.50
0% RAP 20% RAP 30% RAP
1.00
ITS (MPa)
0.50
0.00
0% 3% 6% 9%
BGA Percentage
Figure 14. Comparison of indirect tensile strength (ITS) to the percentage of BGA
1420
According to Figure 14 and Table 2, ITS generally increased with the addition of BGA and RAP materials. The
increase in the ITS compared to the mixture without BGA was 2.5% for the AC-WC conventional mixture, 4.1% for the
AC-WC mixture containing 20% RAP, and 3.4% for the mixture containing 30% RAP. Based on these results, the AC-
WC mixture of 20% RAP gave the highest percentage of ITS increases of 4.1%.
However, the highest ITS was produced in a mixture with 30% RAP, which was 12%–15% greater than the mixture
without RAP, while the 20% RAP mixture was only 4.7%–9.9% greater than the mixture without RAP. It happened
because the mixture containing RAP produced a mixture that had high interlocking. After all, the void in the RAP
aggregate mineral had been filled by RAP bitumen, which had a low penetration value and produced more stable
aggregate granules with increased indirect tensile strength. In addition, the high proportion of BGA contributes to a
stiffer mixture due to the abundance of fine minerals in the mixture. Similar to previous research, the addition of RAP
to hot asphalt mixtures will improve the properties and performance of the mixture [23, 43]. Mahyuddin et al. discovered
that using asbuton in the porous asphalt mixture increases ITS [32]. However, these previous studies only used RAP
and BGA in separate mixtures, not in one mixture.
The condition after the indirect tensile strength test, as seen in Figure 15, illustrates the crack and failure pattern of
the samples. The crack mechanism in all samples is the same, namely in the vertical direction of the sample's loading.
Cracks occur primarily between the aggregate and the asphalt, with only a few cracks within the aggregate. It is
influenced by the bitumen's adhesion and cohesion properties. The physical properties of RAP and BGA bitumen are
very influential in the pattern of cracks that occur in mixtures with RAP and BGA. Figure 16 shows that the crack
patterns in each sample are nearly identical. The failure pattern will be even more pronounced with the addition of RAP.
RAP bitumen with low penetration means it has lost the maltene element in the bitumen. So that if the RAP bitumen
fills the voids in the mineral aggregate, it will produce solid aggregate. However, RAP bitumen, which has lost its
maltene element, will not cover the aggregate properly because its adhesion has decreased. The values of ITS and stress,
which increase with the addition of RAP, further confirm this, indicating a stiffer mixture.
Due to the high content of fine minerals in BGA, which can potentially increase the mix's stiffness, adding BGA to
recycled mixes typically yields the same results. It affects the mixture's flexibility when subjected to loads, which is
reflected in the crack pattern that develops.
20% RAP + 0% BGA 20% RAP + 3% BGA 20% RAP + 6% BGA 20% RAP + 9% BGA
Figure 15. Sample condition after indirect tensile strength test
1421
1
0.8
Toughness Index
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0% 3% 6% 9%
BGA Percentage
Figure 16. Comparison of the toughness index (TI) value to the percentage of BGA
3.5. Tensile Modulus (Etensile)

The tensile modulus (Etensile) illustrates the stiffness level of the mixture, which is a function of the optimum tensile
stress and strain that occur at the elastic region of the stress-strain curve, as seen in Figure 7. Based on Figure 17, the
tensile modulus increases by adding the percentage of BGA to 3% BGA, and then the E tensile tends to decrease. The
Etensile value in the mixture with 20% RAP was 17.6%–55.2% greater than the mixture without RAP. While the 30%
RAP mixture had an Etensile of 24.1% to 76.3% greater than the mixture without RAP.
2500
2000
Etensile (MPa)
1500
1000
500
0
0% 3% 6% 9%
BGA Percentage
Figure 17. Comparison of tensile modulus elasticity (Etensile) to the percentage of BGA
The mixture of 30% RAP with 3% BGA appeared to have a greater E tensile than other mixtures, namely 2068 MPa.
This phenomenon occurred because the mixture had a smaller strain value than other variations, as seen in Table 2. The
small value of the strain was caused by the addition of BGA up to 3%, which had been able to fill the void in the mixture
and produce high interlocking and bonding strength to produce a mixture that tends to have high elasticity. The high
elasticity value reduces the potential for deformation. Conversely, adding more than 3% BGA caused no more voids in
the mixture to accommodate the addition of BGA, so the bond between grains weakens and reduces the value of mixture
elasticity.
1422
3.6. Toughness Index (TI)

The Toughness index (TI) in Figure 16 illustrates the capacity of the residual bond to sustain the tensile force until
the collapse in the tensile stress after the peak. The TI value was calculated using equation (2), where the TI of the
mixture with the RAP addition tends to be greater than the conventional mixture. The TI values of 20% RAP mixtures
with 3%, 6%, and 9% BGA were found to be 19.1%, 3.5%, and 19.8% higher than the TI values of the conventional
mixture, respectively. In the 30% RAP mixtures, adding 3%, 6%, and 9% BGA increased by 16.9%, 7.7%, and 28.4%,
greater than the mixture without RAP and BGA, respectively.
The findings showed that the strength of the mixture containing RAP provided better resistance to the collapse than
the mixture without RAP under tensile stress after the peak. This characteristic could be associated with aging, increased
stiffness, and an increased asphaltene element in bitumen RAP. In connection with the percentage of BGA, the TI value
tends to increase up to 3% BGA levels and subsequently decrease up to 9% BGA levels. This tendency was similar to
the Tensile Modulus Elasticity (Etensile) trend. These results show that the mixture with 30% RAP +3% BGA
demonstrates the highest elasticity, while the conventional mixture shows the lowest. It showed that adding 3% BGA
could increase the mixture's fracture resistance. A significant mechanical performance enhancement occurred in the
mixture containing 30% RAP + 3% BGA. Therefore, it is the suggested amount to be used.
4. Conclusion
The result of this study proves that the inclusion of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and Buton granular asphalt
(BGA) has a satisfactory effect on improving the mechanical performance of the asphaltic concrete wearing course (AC-
WC) mixture. Adding RAP and BGA to the AC-WC mixture has increased ITS, Etensile and TI values compared to the
conventional mixture. The ITS value of the recycled AC-WC mixture increased by 4.7%–15% compared to the
conventional mixture. At the same time, the Etensile and TI values increased by 17.6%–76.3% and 3.5%–28.4%, greater
than the conventional mixture. The increase in mechanical performance is likely due to the high interlocking and bonding
strength from adding RAP and BGA. The relatively high content of fine minerals in BGA and solid minerals in RAP
contributes to producing a high-stiffness mixture. As a result, the recycled AC-WC mixture becomes stiffer but retains
adequate ductile properties. As a consequence of this, the mixture is capable of resisting loads without showing
significant cracking.
Based on the elastic area and stiffness aspects, the research results showed that RAP and BGA could synergize well
in a percentage of 30% RAP and 3% BGA to increase the elasticity of the mixture. This proportion provides optimal
performance in the AC-WC mixture with an Etensile value of 2068 MPa and a TI value of 0.8238. As an outcome, RAP
and BGA materials positively contribute to the performance of asphaltic concrete wearing course mixes and encourage
sustainable construction.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, N.P. and M.W.T.; methodology, R.I. and I.R.R.; software, N.P.; validation, R.I., M.W.T., and
I.R.R.; formal analysis, N.P.; investigation, N.P.; resources, N.P.; data curation, N.P.; writing—original draft
preparation, N.P.; writing—review and editing, N.P.; visualization, N.P.; supervision, R.I., M.W.T., and I.R.R.; project
administration, N.P.; funding acquisition, N.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.

5.3. Funding
The authors received financial support from Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP), Ministry of Finance
of Republic of Indonesia, for publication of this article.
The first author would like to express greatest gratitude to Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP),
Ministry of Finance of Republic of Indonesia, for providing financial support for doctoral study at Hasanuddin
University, Indonesia.

1423
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Production Economical Reinforced Concrete Slabs using

Eco-Friendly Material
Mustafa S. Shubber 1 , Thaer J. Mohammed 2 , Khalid M. Breesem 3*

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, Kufa, Najaf, Iraq.
2
Department of Civil Techniques, Institute of Technology/Baghdad, Middle Technical University, Baghdad, Iraq.
3
Al-Mussaib Technical Institute, Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, 51009 Babylon, Iraq.
Abstract
Concrete is a material that is strong in compression but weak in tension. To overcome this issue, reinforcement must be
used to improve the tensile strength of the concrete. However, it is acknowledged that steel has its drawbacks, such as the
fact that it has a high cost and corrosion potential, and the rebar is heavy, non-renewable, and non-environmentally
friendly. Thus, this experimental study investigates the potential product of economical reinforced concrete slabs using
eco-friendly materials. Firstly, to enhance the concrete properties, a compressive, tensile, and flexural test, also a
concrete with the addition of polypropylene fiber outlasted the control mix design in terms of strength and durability.
The results included the control mix (CM), F1 0.25%, F2 0.50%, F3 0.75%, and F4 1%. The specimen with the highest
compression and tensile strength was 24.28 MPa and 3.15 MPa, respectively, for the F1 specimen with 0.25% short
fibers. Secondly, the bending test was carried out on ten slabs to check the structural behavior of these slabs reinforced
with reed rods as the eco-friendly material. The good results of the bearing capacity of a partially reinforced concrete
slab with a reed have been obtained at 23.8 kN. Meanwhile, to obtain better results, this research has enhanced the
behavior of the concrete slab by improving the concrete's properties by adding polypropylene synthetic microfiber to the
mixed concrete. In addition, giant reeds treated with epoxy increase the bonding strength with concrete, improve tensile
strength properties, and reduce the absorption of reeds. Therefore, the bearing capacity results of the reed-reinforced
concrete slab became the best, which were 35.83 kN. Thus, reinforcement of one-way slabs by reed partially with
appropriate diameters could be substituted to obtain good performance in the reconstruction of low-cost buildings. As a
result, economical reinforced concrete slabs have been produced using eco-friendly materials.
Keywords: Treated Reed; Epoxy: Polypropylene Fiber; Concrete; Slab; Central Line Loading.
1. Introduction
Reeds were used thousands of years ago as reinforcement for bonding materials such as plaster, mud, and asphalt,
for example, in the Temple of Ur before 4000 BC in Iraq. Later, there has been an increasing scientific trend towards
exploiting plant fibers for structural purposes [1, 2]. Therefore, the sustainability of materials is a global target [3].
There is much research on using bamboo, hemp fibers, and others to reinforce concrete, but studies on reeds are
scarce. Concrete is one of the most significant building materials in many engineering constructions. Concrete cracks
in the tension zone because, characteristically, it is a material that is strong in compression but weak in tension.
Concrete and steel are combined to create reinforced concrete, where the steel reinforcement increases the tensile
strength that the concrete lacks [4]. The reinforcement of the concrete slab by steel bars was more beneficial in
* Corresponding author: inm.khld@atu.edu.iq

© 2023 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms
and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1427
improving the slab capacity, and steel stiffeners decreased the crack width of the slab [5]. The reinforcement ratio
affected the responses of slabs and failure modes by impeding crack extension [6]. However, steel has drawbacks,
such as its high cost and corrosion potential [7]. Also, rebar is heavy, non-renewable, and non-environmentally
friendly. Much work is being done to find a sustainable alternative material for steel [8]. Therefore, it is necessary to
use a sustainable, renewable, and environmentally friendly material as an alternative to rebar [9]. Much interest in
concrete reinforced with renewable materials such as bamboo led to its use in re-construction. Thus, bamboo is a
viable alternative to steel-reinforced concrete elements [10, 11].
The flexural strength of the one-way slabs using bamboo bars as the reinforcing materials decreased slightly, but
with the advantage of weight reduction compared with concrete slabs reinforced with steel bars [12]. Bamboo is
becoming a promising alternative material for concrete reinforcement [13]. However, the maximum bearing capacity
value remains constant with the increase in bamboo reinforcement percentage in the slabs because the bonding
between the bamboo and the concrete has failed [14]. Also, the rebar-bamboo reinforcement was found to have
reduced the ductility of the panels [15]. Because it was available in immense quantities, the reed was used to produce
reinforced concrete in buildings at a low cost [16]. The findings by Ismail and Jaeel supported the idea that employing
reed ash offers a long-term solution to the pollution issues brought on by the buildup of this product, where changed
characteristics were added to the concrete [17]. The research by Madurwar et al. investigated the possible use of
agricultural waste [18].
As a component of alternative sustainable building materials, agro-waste, as an environmentally friendly building
material, offers a solution that saves energy and natural resources [19]. The production of alternative materials for
bricks, cement, aggregates, steel, aluminum, wood, cladding, and partitioning materials is exponentially needed to
fulfill the world's rising housing demand [20]. Scientific proof of the efficiency of giant reed fibers in the production
of green building materials, such as bricks or laying mortars, was provided through the findings of Badagliacco et al.
to understand the flexural behavior of new eco-compatible natural fiber-reinforced mortars for masonry application
[21]. A study has been carried out through the experimental work of Shon et al. The test findings showed that adding
CRF to the mortar mixture lowered its unit weight and increased its absorption capacity. Compressive and flexural
strengths were increased when common reed fiber and steel fiber were used together, even though utilizing CRF in the
mortar mixture did not improve these properties compared to the reference mixture [22]. According to Caponetto et
al.'s findings, blocks formed of the lime-reed combination perform well mechanically in terms of thermo-physical
behavior when compared to blocks made of more common construction materials, such as hollow clay or hemp, that
are of the same thickness [23], while Amran et al. stated that the use of polypropylene fibers for various constructions,
including load-bearing, enclosing, road, and hydraulic, demonstrated significant results [24].
Moreover, the enhancement of mechanical properties is greatly aided by the use of natural fibers [25]. Reeds were
used in this paper to reinforce the slabs after their properties and bonding strength were improved with concrete as
they were coated with epoxy. Polypropylene was also used to improve the behavior and properties of concrete
mixtures and reduce cracks. It presents new findings about the behavior of reed-reinforced concrete in bending and an
attempt to use reeds in the construction sector, especially in low-cost housing, as it is a cheap construction material
and is available in considerable quantities in Iraq.
1.1. Significance of Study

Concrete is a material that is strong in compression but weak in tension. With this in mind, reinforcement must be
used to improve the tensile strength of the concrete. This experimental study investigated the potential effect of
unconventional bars for reinforcing concrete one-way slabs as an alternative to traditional reinforcing steel bars.
Reinforcing steel is an unavailable, unsustainable material that is exposed to rust and is also very expensive. There is a
tendency to use natural materials such as reeds in reinforced concrete instead of steel to reduce costs and limit
environmental impacts. On the other hand, natural reeds are light and have a fast growth cycle. As a result, giant reed
rods treated with epoxy as well as polypropylene as eco-friendly materials are considered structural materials subject
to minimal loadings, such as the kitchen ceiling and isolation or partition walls that can be used in constructing low-
cost buildings.
2. Experimental Program
The experimental program of concrete properties was carried out in two parts, that is, in a fresh and a hardened
state. According to BS 1881:102, the slump test was performed using a slump cone after the concrete mix had been
prepared. To ascertain the properties of the hardened concrete, a conventional cube, a cylinder, and beam molds were
used to cast concrete after the slump test. After 24 hours of casting, the concrete was removed from the molds and
submerged in water to cure until the testing date. The compressive strength test based on BS EN 12390-3:2009, the
flexural strength test based on BS EN 12390-5:2009, and the splitting tensile strength test were performed in the
second stage of the investigations, as shown in Figure 1.
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Short fibers were

added 0%, 0.25, 0.5
Casting ten one way One way slabs
Concrete properties 0.75 and 1% by Results
slabs testing
weight of cement in
mixed concrete
• Fresh and a hardened state. • Compressive test • Plain concrete • Experimental results of the • Production reinforced concrete
According to BS 1881:102 • Tensile test Steel reinforced concrete slabs maximin loadings and failure slabs eco-friendly
• Flexture tesr Reed reinforced concrete slabs mode of slabs
• Choose the best fibers ratio Reed concrete slabs with fibers
Figure 1. Flowchart of the research methodology
The Portland cement produced in the Kubaisah plant, which conforms to Iraqi specifications Q.P./5, was used.
Sand and Gravel of 10 mm were used with a gradation and a percentage of salts that also conformed to the Iraqi
specification. The mixing ratio used was (1 cement:2 sand:4 gravel) with water to cement ratio of 0.48. The additional
Polypropylene fiber of 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1% by weight of cement has physical characteristics as
presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Polypropylene fiber’s physical characteristics
Details Description
Length 5-12 mm
Tensile strength 500–600 MPa
Elastic modulus 3000–3500 MPa
density 0.90 g/cm
The concrete slabs subjected to testing were classified into several groups, as follows. The first group consists of a
concrete slab without reinforcing steel (S-P), a slab reinforced with steel bars with a diameter of 8 mm (S8-150), and a
slab reinforced with 10 mm reinforcing bars every 150 mm (S10-150), which is the control group. In contrast, the
second group consisted of concrete slabs containing a type of reed reinforcement in different proportions. In particular,
they were slabs (R8-250 and R10-250) consisting of a reed-reinforced concrete slab with a diameter of 8 mm and 10
mm at every 250 mm c/c. The slabs (R8-150 and R10-150) consist of a reed-reinforced concrete slab with a diameter
of 8 mm and 10 mm at 150 mm c/c. In the last group, the slabs (SR8-150 and SR10-150) consist of partially reed-
reinforced concrete of approximately 33% reed and 66% steel with a diameter of 8 mm and 10 mm at 150 mm c/c (see
Figure 2).
Figure 2. (a) Treatment of reed (b) Reed-reinforced concrete (c) Photo of Polypropylene
Beside the two parts, the slabs were cast with dimensions of 800 mm by 350 mm and a thickness of 80 mm. The
reinforced concrete slabs were made of steel or reeds with a 20 mm concrete cover after pouring the concrete slabs
inside a laboratory at a temperature of about 25 degrees Celsius. Molds were opened, and concrete slabs were covered
with a wet cloth for treatment (see Figure 3). The slabs were tested after 28 days.
The experimental slabs were tested under the influence of central-line bending. A 200 kN capacity of a hydraulic
machine was used to test the slab until there was an obvious failure under the static load. The long slab is 800 mm, and
the distance between the two supports is 700 mm, with the central point’s load at a distance of 350 mm at the support.
The slabs were placed on two steel supports, and the loads were applied by the central loading line, as shown in Figure
4. The loading rate was 20 newtons per second. The results of the initial cracks and final failure were documented
visually on slabs and recorded.
1429
Figure 3. Treatment reed- reinforced concrete slabs by wet cloth
Figure 4. The experimental slabs under the influence of central-line bending
3. The Experimental Results

The present paper sheds light on the production of the slabs reinforced with giant reed rods treated with epoxy as
well as polypropylene as eco-friendly materials under the central line load. The tests have been run on the concrete
properties, a compressive, tensile, and flexural test before and after adding the polypropylene and compared with the
control mix design to examine the strength and durability. Then, economical production of reinforced concrete slabs is
done using eco-friendly materials.
3.1. Slump
The slump test findings are displayed in Figure 5. The mixture stiffened as more short fibers were added to it. The
workability of concrete diminished as short fibers were added. Low workability results were obtained for short fibers
with the amount of 1%.
70
Control mix
60
Short Fibers
Slump Value (mm)
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
1% 6
0.00% 0.25% 0.50% 0.75%
Percentage of fiber
Figure 5. Slump test findings
1430
3.2. Compressive Strength

The average compressive strength of fiber concrete (FC) at 7 days is shown in Table 2. The results included the
control mix (CM), F1 0.25%, F2 0.50%, F3 0.75%, and F4 1%. Three specimens of each concrete mix were tested, but
only the average findings are presented here. The compressive strength obtained from the concrete control mix was
21.46 MPa. Yet, the FC with 0.25% fibers has an average strength of 22% higher than the CM specimens. The fibers'
ability to bridge cracks may cause this improved strength. The compressive strength steadily declines with the
increased fiber content of the remaining specimens.
Table 2. Compressive strength of specimens
Mix Design Compressive strength (MPa)

0.00% F Control mix (CM) 21.47
0.25% F (F1) 24.28
0.50% F (F2) 22.88
0.75% F (F3) 22.32
1.0% F (F4) 20.16
3.3. Splitting Tensile Strength

The results of the splitting tensile strength are displayed in Figure 6. The figure shows that concrete specimens
with fibers added produced better outcomes than the control concrete. The specimen with the highest tensile strength,
3.15 MPa, is an F1 specimen with 0.25% short fibers. Because of the low workability of concrete, the tensile strength
of models decreased as the amount of fiber increased.
3.20
3.15
3.10
Tensile strength (Mpa)
3.05
3.00
2.95
2.90
2.85
2.80
2.75
2.70
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Percentage of fiber
Figure 6. Splitting tensile strength test results
3.4. Flexural Strength

In a flexural test, the concrete with fiber outlasted the control mix design in terms of its durability. At every
amount of replacement, every concrete specimen outperforms the CM specimens in flexural strength. The best
outcome was attained in specimens with 1% fibers. Yet, as the fiber content rises, the flexural strength falls. For
concrete with fiber, with more added fibers, this decrease is more pronounced, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Flexural strength test results
Mix Design Flexural Strength (MPa)

0.00% F Control mix 2.95
0.25% F by weight of cement 3.00
1% F by weight of cement 3.01
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3.5. One-Way Slabs Testing

One-way slabs were tested under central-point loading until failure. A universal machine with a capacity of 200 kN
was used for the testing samples. The reed reinforcement has been used in these slabs’ replacement as rebar. The test
results show that the maximum load of the slabs increased with the decrease in the reed percentage. Table 4
summarizes the experimental results for the maximum loadings and all slab failure types. The initial cracks appeared
at the range of loading between 5.6-22.1 kN and occurred at a range of 5.91–44.62 kN of maximum loading. The
initial cracks of the slabs appeared in the lower face at the maximum tension stress, i.e., the middle slab, where there is
the maximum moment. The first crack resulted from bending the S-0 slab at a load of 5.6 kN. Meanwhile, for slabs
R8–250 and R10–250, the percentage of first cracking increased by 28.6% and 15.2%, respectively, with respect to the
control slab. Meanwhile, the slabs R8–150 and R10–150 have first cracks of 6.2 and 5.4 kN, respectively, with
differences that are unnoticeable compared to the control slab. For the slab with an 8 mm diameter rebar at a distance
of 150 mm (slab S8-150), the cracking load (17.7) kN increased about 2.85 times as the slab (R10-150) with reeds rod
served as the reinforcement. Furthermore, in the slab with a 10 mm diameter steel reinforcement at a distance of 150
mm (slab S10-150), the first cracking load (22.1) kN increased about 4.1 times for the slab (R10-150) with reeds rod
that adopted the same method of reinforcement. Finally, for the slabs (SR8-150 and SR 10-150) consisting of partially
reed-reinforced concrete, the first cracking load (17.4, 16.7) kN increased about 2.8 and 3.1 times compared with the
same slabs that have reed rod as the reinforcement (slabs R8-150 and R10-150), respectively.
Table 4. Experimental results of the maximin loadings and failure mode of slabs
Slabs Maximin loadings Time Failure
Code (KN) % mode
S-P 6.3 - Flexure
S8-150 40.04 6.4 Shear
S10-150 44.62 7.1 Shear
R8-150 6.97 1.11 Flexure
R10-150 5.91 0.94 Flexure
R8-250 9.11 1.45 Flexure
R10-250 7.45 1.18 Flexure
SR8-150 23.8 3.78 Flexure-shear
SR10-150 22.74 3.61 Flexure-shear
SR8-150 with fiber 35.83 5.69 Flexure-shear
In general, to understand the effect of the reed reinforcement at maximum load, the comparisons were divided as
follows:
Firstly, the reinforced concrete slabs were compared to those with reed bars. The maximum load of the slab with
steel bars of 8 mm diameter at a distance of 150 mm (S8-150 slab) was 40.04 kN, i.e., the amount of increase was
about 5.74 times that for the same slab with the reed bar as the reinforcement (R10-150 slab). Moreover, for the slab
with the steel reinforcement with a diameter of 10 mm at a distance of 150 mm (S10-150 slab), the load was 44.62 kN,
i.e., 7.55 times more than the slab reinforced by the reed rod with the same reinforcement method (R10-150 slab).
Secondly, the concrete slab reinforced with reed bars was compared with the unreinforced concrete slab, where it
was found that the reinforcement with reeds with a diameter of 8 mm at a distance of 150 and 250 mm (slabs R8-150
and R8-250) had a maximum load of 6.97 and 9.11 kN, i.e., the amount of increase was about 1.11 and 1.45 times,
respectively. As for the 10 mm diameter reinforced slab at a distance of 150 and 250 mm (slabs R10-150 and R10-
250), it was 5.91 and 7.45 kN, which were 0.94 and 1.18 times, respectively, more than the unreinforced slab (plain
concrete slab S-P).
Thirdly, slabs (SR8-150 and SR 10-150) consist of partially reed-reinforced concrete, which is approximately 33%
reed and 66% steel, with a diameter of 8 mm and 10 mm at 150 mm c/c. The maximum loads of slabs (SR8-150 and
SR 10-150) were (23.8 and 22.74 kN) increased by 3.4 and 3.85 times compared to the same panels with the reed bar
only (Slabs R8-150 and R10-150), respectively. Meanwhile, these slabs (SR8-150 and SR 10-150) had lower
percentages (59.4% and 50.9%) than the panels (Slabs S8-150 and S10-150) reinforced by steel bars only,
respectively. That said, the reed demonstrated a slight improvement in the bearing strength of the slab and an unclear
effect on the type of failure as the diameter of the reed increased (see Figure 7). It indicates that the smaller the
diameter of the reed, the greater its effectiveness in the concrete due to a decrease in the gaps, which are considered
weak areas. Therefore, the flexural response of a slab improved with increasing reinforcement.
1432
50 8
45
7
40
6
Maximin loading (kN)
35
5
30
Increase ratio
25 4
20
3
15
2
10
1
5
0 0
S8-150 S10-150 R8-150 R10-150 R8-250 R10-250 SR8-150 SR10-150 SR8-150
with fiber
Slabs code
Figure 7. Flexure strength results of reed-reinforced concrete slabs
As a result of the above, it is possible to improve the behavior of the concrete slab by improving the properties of
the concrete by adding polypropylene to the mixture; thus, the bearing capacity of the reed-reinforced concrete slab
became 35.83 kN with less than 10.5% only compared to the traditional reinforced concrete slabs. It was found in this
research that the best results for the concrete slab's behavior emerged from adding 25% polypropylene by weight of
cement to the mix of concrete. Thus, one-way concrete slabs with giant reed treated by epoxy obtained good
performance due to the improved bonding strength with concrete, increased tensile strength, and reduced absorption of
reed. As a result, it produced economical reinforced concrete slabs with the use of the eco-friendly material.
The crack patterns of the slab and damage types were determined. Regarding the crack patterns, it was noted that
the one-way slab plain and reed concrete slabs had a clear crack line (flexural crack). Thus, the cracks on the bottom
surface of the slabs were identified. By displaying the crack patterns of slabs in Figure 8, it was found that the crack
pattern is the flexural crack at the center of the reed-concrete slabs under load. However, the crack pattern of the reed-
steel concrete slabs becomes a flexural-shear crack. Meanwhile, the reed-steel concrete slabs with polypropylene also
failed a flexural-shear crack (see Figure 9). Finally, as established in this paper, shear failure was found in the
reinforced concrete slabs because the thickness of the concrete layer was thin with a suitable steel reinforcement ratio
in the bending zone (see Figure 10). Also, the use of polypropylene improved the behavior and properties of the
concrete mixtures by making bridges and preventing cracks. The meaning of the type of failure varies with the
increase in flexural strength in the tensile zone of the slab, which obviously depends on the type and strength of the
reinforcement.
Figure 8. The crack patterns of plain and reed concrete slabs (flexural crack)
1433
Figure 9. The crack patterns of reed-steel concrete slabs without or with polypropylene (flexural-shear crack)
S8-150 S10-150
Figure 10. The crack patterns of reinforced concrete slabs (shear failure)
4. Conclusion
As a result of the above, the concrete properties that show an enhancement in the compressive, tensile, and flexural
tests of concrete with the addition of polypropylene outlasted the control mix in terms of its strength and durability.
Thus, the concrete specimen with 0.25% short fibers by weight of cement demonstrates the highest compressive and
tensile strengths of 24.28 MPa and 3.15 MPa, respectively. Also, good performance of one-way concrete slabs has
been obtained with giant reed treated due to the improved bonding strength with concrete, increased tensile strength,
and reduced absorption of reed. Due to this, the giant reeds treated with epoxy demonstrated an improvement in the
bearing strength of the reinforced concrete slab. The test results also show that the maximum load of the reed-concrete
slabs increased with the small diameter of the reed rod. As for the type of failure, the crack patterns of plain and reed
concrete slabs had flexural cracks. Meanwhile, the crack pattern of reed-steel concrete slabs becomes a flexural-shear
crack. The shear failure was in traditional reinforced concrete slabs, evident through the display of the crack pattern.
The bearing capacity of the reed-reinforced concrete slab with polypropylene was 35.83 kN. It could be substituted by
reinforcing slabs with treated giant reeds with epoxy in reconstruction. Treated Reeds by having them coated with
epoxy were used to reinforce the slabs to improve their properties and bonding strength with concrete. The use of
polypropylene aims to improve the behavior and properties of the concrete mixtures by making bridges and preventing
cracks. Finally, treated reed-concrete slabs were produced with good specifications by improving the concrete's
properties using polypropylene. As a result, economical reinforced concrete slabs have been produced. Therefore, this
paper contributes to new knowledge as the improved performance of concrete slabs has been achieved using eco-
friendly materials. The prospects for future research lie in using reed fiber as a replacement for gravel in roofing slabs.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.S.S., T.J.M., and K.M.B.; methodology, M.S.S., T.J.M., and K.M.B.; validation, M.S.S.;
formal analysis, M.S.S. and K.M.B..; resources, K.M.B.; data curation, T.J.M.; writing—original draft preparation,
T.J.M., and K.M.B.; writing—review and editing, T.J.M. and K.M.B.; visualization, M.S.S., T.J.M., and K.M.B.;
supervision, T.J.M., and K.M.B.; project administration, M.S.S., T.J.M., and K.M.B.; funding acquisition, M.S.S.,
T.J.M., and K.M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
1434

5.3. Funding

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[16] Raouf, Z. A., & Mahdi, M. N. (2005). Flexural Behavior of Reed Reinforced Concrete. Journal of Engineering, 11(1), 1-7.
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material? physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of mortar mixture containing common reed fiber. Sustainability
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1436

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Performance of Isolated Footing with Several Corrosion Levels

under Axial Loading
Ahmed Youssef 1* , Mahmoud Hegazy 1, 2 , Hatem Mostafa 1

1
Department of Structure Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, 12613, Egypt.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Aviation and Engineering Technology, Giza, Egypt.
Received 03 January 2023; Revised 25 April 2023; Accepted 07 May 2023; Published 01 June 2023
Abstract
This research aims to illustrate the corrosion process and its effect on the deterioration of reinforced concrete (RC) isolated
footings using a small-scale model (1/8) and present the results of a prototype-scale study using a numerical model with
different concrete depths and corrosion levels under axial load. The experimental program consisted of testing five small-
scale (1/8) model RC isolated footings under axial loading after subjecting them to accelerated corrosion tests with a
constant current. The main variable in the small-scale sample test was the corrosion level. This study presents an
experimental approach, using the constant current method and the finite element method (FEM) with the ABAQUS
package, to examine its effect on the axial load behavior under different corrosion ratios, which were 0%, 4.21%, 9.11%,
24.56%, and 30.67%. On the prototype scale, the variables were the corrosion level and the RC depths of 300 mm, 400
mm, and 500 mm. The results indicated that the average deviation in ultimate load between the experimental and FEM
outcomes for the small-scale was below 5.6%, while the average deflection deviation was 6.8%. Also, the study found that
an increase in the depth of the RC footing and corrosion ratio led to a more pronounced impact of the cracking pattern in
the concrete and corroded bars, as well as a greater difference in the failure load. The experimental results suggest that the
proposed numerical model is accurate and effective. These findings have important implications for the evaluation of
isolated footings affected by corrosion damage using FEM, and can help inform decisions related to their design and
maintenance. The failure loads of non-corroded footings with different depths were compared with the ECP-203 provisions
of the 2018 Egyptian Code, and how corrosion ratios can be simulated by numerical models. The percentage variation
between the design loads by code and the numerical loads by ABAQUS for controlled footings with thicknesses of 300,
400, and 500 mm was found to be 73%, 80%, and 78%, respectively. Using the derived relationship, the equivalent
corrosion ratio percentages were 23.8%, 20.2%, and 32%, respectively.
Keywords: Acceleration Corrosion-Constant Current; Axial Loading; Isolated Footing; Finite Element Modeling; Small Scale Modeling.
1. Introduction
The durability of RC buildings that are exposed to chloride can be significantly reduced due to the corrosion of steel
bars [1–3]. The load-bearing capacity of steel bars is diminished, and the bond between concrete and corroded steel is
weakened when the cross-sectional area of steel bars decreases as a result of corrosion. Consequently, the confinement
offered by transverse reinforcement is diminished, and the steel's mechanical properties are altered [4]. Many RC
elements, such as footings, are situated in salt-prone and coastal areas; however, the behavior of RC footings under axial
loading with varying corrosion levels has not been as thoroughly researched as other RC components like columns,
slabs, and beams. This study was to investigate the performance of the isolated footing exposed to different degrees of
corrosion.
* Corresponding author: ahmedyoussef@cu.edu.eg

1437
There have been numerous studies on corrosion in various RC elements. Zaghian et al. (2023) [5] discovered that
reinforcing steel corrosion is the main cause of concrete degradation in North American infrastructure, with piers being
particularly susceptible. Using de-icing salts in coastal regions exacerbates this vulnerability. Corrosion increases
nonlinearity and affects the failure of slender, eccentrically loaded columns. The study employed a comprehensive
model of corrosion damage and a step-by-step corrosion scenario to investigate how the capacity, stiffness, and ductility
of bridge columns are impacted by corrosion under the influence of off-center loads. To ensure accuracy, the model was
verified by comparing it to data from prior experiments. Also, El-Joukhadar et al. (2023) [6] established standards for
evaluating the impact of corrosion damage on column seismic resistance. Current guidelines do not consider bar
corrosion, which affects mechanical properties and seismic performance. The suggested changes to the nonlinear
assessment involve adjusting reduction factors for stress-strain characteristics, stiffness, strength, and deformation
capacity. These factors will be calibrated using a database of corroded columns obtained from experiments. Advanced
finite element analysis considers the mass loss effect on material properties. It may be complicated to incorporate
corrosion effects into evaluations, but it is necessary for accurate results.
Wang et al. (2023) [7] Experiments were carried out by utilizing accelerated corrosion techniques and conducting
tests that generated shearing forces between surfaces. The aim of the investigations was to explain how corrosion affects
the strength of the connection between steel foundations and the soil in their vicinity. According to the findings, there
was a positive correlation between the level of corrosion and both interfacial cohesiveness and the friction coefficient.
Finite element simulations further emphasized the importance of considering changes in the interfacial shearing property
caused by corrosion. A similar study to Wang et al. (2022) [8] indicates that steel foundations in ocean engineering are
at risk of corrosion, which could be a safety hazard. Despite the significance of the surface roughness properties of
corroded steel foundations in submarine soil, which can impact soil-structure interaction and bearing capacity, there has
been insufficient research conducted on this topic. To address gaps in previous research, the study also developed a
stochastic model to simulate the surface properties of corroded steel. These results and models can be beneficial for
analyzing the interaction between soil and steel foundations and the bearing capacity of engineering structures in the
ocean while taking corrosion into account.
Li et al. (2023) [9] found that corrosion of reinforcing bars in RC members can significantly affect their seismic
performance and collapse mechanism. The researcher carried out tests on four specimens with varying rates of corrosion
to examine the cyclic loading effect on RC shear walls exposed to corrosion. RC shear walls experienced an adverse
impact on their seismic performance, particularly in cases where corrosion was severe. The researchers suggested both
analytical and finite element models incorporate the effects of corrosion on the shear strength and deterioration of shear
walls. Meanwhile, Han et al. (2023) [10] used capacitance-based rebar corrosion detection, numerical simulations, and
acceleration tests to study the corrosion effect on RC structures. By placing capacitance sensors in different electrode
positions, the authors established a formula for non-uniform corrosion and evaluated RC sample compactness. On the
other hand, Zheng et al. (2022) [11] examined chloride effects on the induced corrosion of reinforcement bars on the
seismic performance of squat RC walls. They subjected eight specimens to accelerated corrosion and pseudo-static tests
and found that the specimens' bearing, deformation, and energy dissipation capacities decreased as the corrosion levels
increased. The authors also developed a new equation for the corroded squat wall skeleton curve's distinctive point
characteristics.
Zhao et al. (2021) [12] Cyclic load experiments have been tested on four scaled Samples of bridge piers exposed to
varying amounts of accelerated corrosion process in the anticipated splash and tidal zones. They observed a reduction
in ductility, load-bearing capacity, and cumulative energy consumption as corrosion levels increased. Finally, Hu et al.
(2021) [13] indicate that the impact of stochastic pitting on the functionality of ship hull plates was explored by
employing a numerical simulation technique and a Python script. Their approach was validated by conducting a pitting
test and subsequently utilized to evaluate the impact of different stochastic pitting patterns on the ultimate strength of
stiffened plates, and the tensile characteristics of unstiffened plates.
Altoubat et al. (2016) [14] investigated steel corrosion in RC columns. They conducted axial loading experiments
on six small-scale, corroded RC columns at various levels. Kasetni et al. (2016) [15] presented a FEM that simulates the
nonlinear performance of a corroded RC fiber beam-column member. Mohammed et al. (2020) [16] discussed the
behavior of corroded RC elements using numerical analysis. Khalid (2018) [17] conducted a numerical analysis using
the axial ABAQUS-3D model to simulate deteriorated columns and found that the FEM findings were compatible with
the experimental outcomes. Fang et al. (2021) [18] studied the flexural behavior of corroded RC slabs.
This study illustrates the performance of corroded (RC) footings under the axial loading experimental program and
numerical models. Corrosion levels were tested at ratios of 0%, 4.21%, 9.11%, 24.56%, and 30.67%, measured by the
loss of steel bar area. The effect of corrosion on the bond strength between rusted steel and concrete was demonstrated
by utilizing the concrete-damaged plasticity model (CDP) and the ABAQUS package, with an expansion model being
employed.
1438
In addition to the experimental results, this research shows numerical models for prototype-scale RC footings with
varying depths of concrete (300 mm, 400 mm, and 500 mm) and different levels of corrosion. It’s used to illustrate the
effect of concrete depth on axial load performance under different corrosion levels. Based on the results, the study
proposes that load-bearing capacity decreases with increasing corrosion levels and suggests that isolated corrosion
cracks in the footing may occur.
2. Experimental Program Properties

2.1. Specimen Dimensions
This study used five small-scale 1/8-isolated reinforced concrete (RC) specimens, as shown in Figure 1, with
dimensions of 250×250 mm, a thickness of 40 mm, and 5 mm as a concrete cover. The column was made from a 40 x
40-mm steel tube with a thickness of 2 mm and a height of 140 mm filled with RC concrete, scaled down from a
prototype-scale footing with dimensions of 2000×2000 mm, 300 mm thickness, and a 300×300 mm column. According
to the Egyptian Code [19], the smallest allowable depth for an RC footing is determined by the largest value between
300 mm or a dimension that is less than the column dimension, which corresponds to the most vulnerable scenario. The
specimens had a compressive strength fcu of 40 N/mm2 and 7 bars with a diameter of 2 mm in each direction. The yield
strength fy and tensile strength fu of the steel bars used in the small-scale specimens were 850 N/mm2 and 978 N/mm2,
respectively. The corrosion level ratio was the main variable, and the specimens had corrosion ratios of 0%, 4.21%,
9.11%, 24.56%, and 30.67%. The specimens were labeled as Sp x, where x represents the rebar corrosion loss ratio%,
and Sp 4.21 represents a reinforced concrete footing with a corrosion bar loss ratio of 4.21%.
Figure 1. Dimension of test small-scale specimen (unit: mm)
2.2. Material Properties

A cement mortar consisting of cement and sand was used, with a proportion of cement: water: sand = 1:0.42:1.25 by
weight. The compressive properties of the concrete were assessed by conducting tests on three standard
cubes (measuring 70×70×70 mm) after 28 days, which indicated a compressive strength of 40 N/mm2. Figure 2 depicts
the wooden model, a steel bar, and a sample of footing after casting. Table 1 displays the physical characteristics of the
2 mm diameter steel bar, and the relationship between stress and strain is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. The wooden model, steel bar, and a sample of footing after casting
Table 1. The mechanical characteristics of the reinforcement steel bars
Bar diameter Weight Length Calculated Yield proof Ultimate proof Yield-proof Ultimate proof Elongation
(mm) (gm) (mm) area (mm2) load (kN) load (kN) stress (N/mm2) stress (N/mm2) (%)
2 7.9 275 3.14 2.571 3.071 850 978 1.46
1439
1000
800
stress[N/mm2]
600
400
200
Stress
0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035
strain
Figure 3. The relationship between stress and strain for the used steel
Properties of the sandy soil: As shown in Figure 4, a circular steel tank (560 mm in diameter and 280 mm in height)
was filled with medium-density sand to simulate real soil. The sand was compacted in three equal layers of 280/3 mm
thickness with a steel block weight of 3.650 kg.
Figure 4. Tested soil tank
The soil was tested in a soil laboratory (Sieve analysis and shear box test) to determine its properties and found as:
 Fineness modulus was 3.55;  Coefficient Of Curvature Cc = 0.85;
 Dry density (Ϫ dry = 14.6 kN/m3);  Friction Angle (Ø) = 35.0o;
 Uniformity Coefficient Cu = 3.28;
Figures 5 to 7 show the sieve analysis chart, the relation between shear strength and shear distance, and the relation
between shear strength and normal stress, respectively.
Figure 5. Sieve analysis chart of the used sand soil
1440
3.3
3
2.7
Shear Strength (kg/cm2)

2.4
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shear Displacement (mm)
Figure 6. The relationship between shear strength and shear distance of the used sand soil
3
2.7
2.4
Shear Strength (kg/cm2)
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Normal Stress (kg/cm2)
Figure 7. Shear strength and normal stress relationship of the used sand soil
2.3. The Corrosion Processes

To assess the extent of corrosion in small-scale models, a constant current approach was employed as an accelerated
corrosion method. The samples were submerged in a 5% NaCl solution, and a constant current of known value was
supplied by the anode (the reinforcing mesh of each specimen) and the cathode (a steel plate immersed in the tank) [20].
The mass losses in the steel bar were used to estimate the degree of corrosion using Faraday's law [21]. This approach
provides a reliable indication of the expected corrosion level and enables an assessment of the potential long-term effects
on the structure.
1 𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑇 = (3446.429 × × [ℎ𝑟. ] (1)
3600 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟
where (T) is the time when corrosion occurs by an hour [hr.], (Icorr) is current by Ampere [A], and (Mloss) is the losses in
the mass by gram [gm].
By representing the actual corrosion level (𝑋) as the variation between the initial weight and the final weight relative
to the weight before corrosion,
(MI−MF)
𝑋= ×100 % (2)
MI
where MI is initial weight of steel bar and MF is Final weight of steel bar.
The calculated Mloss ratios of rusted bars corresponding to the corrosion levels are shown in Table 2. They were
calculated by weighing the steel bars after the loading test and breaking the models, and cleaning the outer surface of
the steel bars from rust. Figure 8 shows the power supply used in this process.
1439
Table 2. Characteristics of the specimens
Specimen MI (gm) Icorr (A) T (hr) MF (gm) Corrosion loss ratio X (%)
Sp 0 201.02 - - 201.02 0
Sp 4.21 201.49 0.1 192.69 193 4.21
Sp 9.11 198.05 0.1 378.79 180 9.11
Sp 24.56 201.49 0.1 578.05 152 24.56
Sp 30.67 200.50 0.1 766.96 139 30.67
Figure 8. Power supply
2.4. Test Setup

To simulate real soil conditions, all footing specimens were situated in the center of a circular steel tank filled with
medium-density sand, as shown in Figure 9. The samples were exposed to a concentrated force using a vertical load cell
to measure the load applied. In order to track any deformation or bending of the column under load, two displacement
gauges were used to measure the vertical displacement from the column head and the footing top surface at the edge of
the center axis of the footing. By comparing the displacement measurements at different points, the researchers could
study how the load was distributed across the system and how the footing influenced the overall structural behavior. The
vertical displacement measurement at the top of the column provided valuable information on the behavior and capacity
of the column and its ability to bear the load without breaking or undergoing excessive deformation.
Figure 9. Loading frame
3. Numerical Simulation
The evaluation of corrosion damage was carried out in this study using the ABAQUS software [22], employing the
concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model. The uniaxial stress approach was used to define the concrete's properties, and
the parameters and their effect under compound stress are demonstrated in Table 3. The mechanical characteristics of
concrete, steel bar, and sand were defined and presented in Table 4.
Table 3. The concrete damage plasticity (CDP) models parameter [23]
Parameter Dilation angle Eccentricity angle fb /fc K Viscosity parameter
Value 40 0.1 1.16 0.667 0
1440
Table 4. Properties of concrete, steel bar, and sand
Material properties Modulus of elasticity [N/mm2] Poisson’s ratio

Concrete 33345.76 0.2
Steel bar 2100000 0.3
Corrosion bars @ 4.21%-9.11 % 120000 [24] 0.45 (assumed)
Corrosion bars @ 24.56 % 60000 0.45 (assumed)
Corrosion bars @ 30.67 % 50000 0.45 (assumed)
Medium dense sand 15 0.35
ABAQUS software was employed to simulate the non-linear behavior of concrete under the influence of corrosion
in reinforced steel bars. Specific elements such as the "solid element," representing the concrete, and the "wire element,"
representing the steel reinforcing bars. To describe the non-linear behavior of concrete affected by corrosion in
reinforced steel bars, the "damaged plasticity concrete (CDP)" model was employed, while the "plastic/isotropic" model
was used to model the reinforcement steel. The study examined the impact of corrosion on three factors: a decrease in
the bond strength between steel reinforcement and concrete, a decrease in the cross-sectional area of reinforcing bars,
and a modification in steel characteristics during the corrosion process. The "embedded region" constraint in ABAQUS
is used for simulating the slippage between concrete and the steel bars, assuming strain compatibility or a full connection
between the two materials. Nevertheless, this technique may not accurately replicate the significant reduction in the
connection between the steel reinforcement and concrete. Therefore, a new approach for simulating this interaction
should be developed. Corrosion causes concrete cracking when the corroded steel volume increases relative to the initial
volume of the steel bars, leading to increased pressure and potential surface spreading. The cross-section of the
reinforcing steel decreased due to corrosion, with a corrosion expansion coefficient (v) of 3 selected for this study [22].
As shown in Figure 10, the load was represented as a vertical displacement line from the top surface of the column.
Figure 10. The displacement line applied to the column
4. Experimental and Numerical Results and Discussion of Small-Scale Model

4.1. Corrosion and Cracking Pattern Distribution
Experimental and numerical results in Figures 11 and 12 were used to analyze and compare crack distribution due
to failure loads and after the corrosion process. The control specimen, Sp 0, showed a flexure crack in the middle of the
footing in each direction at the bottom due to its tensile strength. However, the first crack in corroded specimens, Sp
4.21, Sp 9.11, Sp 24.56, and Sp 30.67, appeared due to flexure load and then gradually increased diagonally, leading to
punching failure. Through a comparison of the crack distribution between the control and corroded specimens, the study
identified the corrosion impact on the strength of footings. These results can offer important insights for the design and
maintenance of RC structures that are vulnerable to corrosion.
1441
(a) Sp 0
(b) Sp 4.21
(c) Sp 9.11
(d) Sp 24.56
1442
(e) Sp 30.67
Figure 11. Distribution of corrosion-induced crack: a) Sp 0; b) Sp 4.21; c) Sp 9.11; d) Sp 24.56; e) Sp 30.67
(a) Sp 4.21 (b) Sp 9.11
(c) Sp 24.56 (d) Sp 30.67
Figure 12. Distribution of corrosion due to the accelerated corrosion process. a) Sp 4.21, b) Sp 9.11, c) Sp 24.56, d) Sp 30.67
4.2. Load – Deflection Curve

Various small concrete footing models with various degrees of corrosion were examined under axial loading. The
load-displacement graphs showed that the non-corroded control model (Sp 0) exhibited higher stiffness and capacity to
withstand loads compared to the corroded models. Specifically, the control model failed at the highest load of 42.6 kN.
In contrast, the corroded models failed at lower loads of 35.4 kN, 34.3 kN, 26.9 kN, and 22.9 kN for Sp 4.21, Sp 9.11,
Sp 24.56, and Sp 30.67, respectively. Overall, the results demonstrated that corrosion reduced the load-bearing capacity
and stiffness of the concrete footings (Figure 13).
1443
45 Sp 0 Experimental
Sp 4.21 Experimental
40
35 Sp 24.56 Experimental
Load (kN) 30
25
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Displacement (mm)
Figure 13. Experimental Envelope curve of the specimens
In Figure 14, the relationship between the load bearing capacity and displacement of the corroded footing subjected
to axial load is depicted, along with the corresponding numerical results. The findings reveal a significant deterioration
in both stiffness and failure load of the corroded footing when compared to the control footing. Specifically, the control
footing (Sp 0) had a failure load of 40.2 kN, while the footings (Sp 4.21, Sp 9.11, Sp 24.56, and Sp 30.67) had failure
loads of 33.6 kN, 32.9 kN, 28.6 kN, and 24.7 kN, respectively.
Sp 0 Numerical
45 Sp 4.21 Numerical
Sp 9.11 Numerical
40
Sp 24.56 Numerical
30
Load [(kN)
25
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Displacement (mm)
Figure 14. Numerical Envelope curve of the specimens
Figures 15 and 16 illustrate the correlation between failure load and displacement for corroded footings that are
subjected to axial compression, using both experimental and numerical data. Although there is a slight difference at the
beginning of the load-displacement curve, the behavior is mostly the same. The curves indicate that corroded footings
have lower failure loads at larger displacements compared to non-corroded ones. While corrosion degradation reduces
the strength capacity of the footings, the overall load-displacement relationship remains largely the same, with the curves
diverging at higher deformations. Table 5 provides data on failure loads, displacements, and numerical-to-experimental
result ratios, indicating a considerable degree of concurrence between the experimental data and the finite element
model. The average difference in ultimate load and deflection at failure between the experimental and finite element
model values for small-scale specimens was less than 5.6% and 6.8%, respectively. In conclusion, the analysis by
FEM was able to accurately predict the strength and deformation response of corroded footings, with differences of less
than 6% compared to experimental data. The model is reliable and can be used to further investigate the behavior of
corroded concrete structures. Additionally, Figure 17 shows the correlation between the percentage of corrosion and the
decrease in load capacity relative to non-corroded footings in a different way.
1444
45
Sp 0 Experimental
40
Sp 0 Numerical
35
Load (kN)
Sp 24.56 Numerical
10
5
Sp 30.67 Numerical
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Displacement (mm)
Figure 15. Experimental and Numerical Envelope curve of the specimens
45
40
35
Axial load (kN])
30
25
20
15
10
5
Sp 0 Sp 4.21 Sp 9.11 Sp 24.56 Sp 30.67
0
1 2 3 4 5
Experimental 42.6 35.4 34.3 26.9 22.9
Numerical 40.2 33.6 32.9 28.6 24.7
Corrosion ratio (%)
Figure 16. Comparison of load capacity
Table 5. Experimental and Numerical results
Experimental result Numerical result (Num/Exp.) Ratio

Displacement Load Axial load Displacement Load Axial load capacity
Disp. Load
(mm) (kN) capacity ratio (%) (mm) (kN) ratio (%)
Sp 0 7.86 42.6 100 7.38 40.2 100 0.93 0.94
Sp 4.21 7.67 35.4 83 7.22 33.6 83.5 0.94 0.95
Sp 9.11 6.61 34.3 80.5 6.76 32.9 81.8 1.02 0.96
Sp 24.56 6.64 26.9 63 6.73 28.6 71 1.01 1.06
Sp 30.67 7.25 22.9 53.7 5.95 24.7 61.4 0.82 1.07
1445
120
Normalized axial load capacity ratio (%)

100
80
60
40 y = -1.0357x + 93.801
Numerical Ratio
R² = 0.8984
20 y = -1.32x + 94.241
Experimental Ratio
R² = 0.9463
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Corrosion Ratio (%)
Figure 17. Corrosion ratio (%) and axial load capacity (%)
5. Numerical Results and Discussion of Prototype-Scale Model

The numerical simulation results for corrosion explain the degradation of axial loading performance in reinforced
concrete (RC) isolated footings on a prototype scale, with varying corrosion levels and concrete depths. The samples
were of varying thicknesses, measuring 300 mm, 400 mm, and 500 mm, all with dimensions of 2000×2000 mm.
Additionally, they had a clear cover thickness of 50 mm. The column involved using a steel tube that had dimensions of
300×300 mm, a 1000 mm height, and a thickness of 2 mm. The tube was then filled with reinforced concrete that had a
compressive strength of 40 MPa. Thirteen steel bars with a diameter of 12 mm were utilized as longitudinal reinforcing
steel in each direction. Tensile tests were carried out on the steel reinforcement, revealing a yield strength fy of 500 MPa
for the 12 mm-diameter bars.
5.1. Load – Deflection Curve of Prototype Scale 2000×2000×300 mm

Figures 18 and 19 display the curves that represent how the axial load and displacement are related for various
prototype-scale models with an RC depth of 300 mm. The results of numerical analysis for prototype-scale corroded
footings subjected to axial load indicate a significant decrease in both stiffness and ultimate loading bearing capacity
compared to the control footing. Table 6 provides the values for failure load, displacement, and the ratio between the
numerical and experimental results. The reduction ratio for the corroded footings relative to the control footing was
95.74%, 92.48%, 71.2%, and 65.1% for Sp4.21, Sp 9.11, Sp 24.56, and Sp 30.67, respectively.
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
Sp 0
Sp 4.21
400
Sp 9.11
200 Sp 24.56
Sp 30.67
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Displacement (mm)
Figure 18. Numerical Envelope curve of the prototype-scale specimens; t=300 mm
1446
1400
1198
1200 1147
1108
1000
Axial load (kN)
853
780
800
600
400
200
0
Sp1 0 Sp 24.21 Sp 39.11 Sp 424.56 Sp 530.67
Corrosion ratio (%)
Figure 19. Comparison of load capacity; t=300 mm
Table 6. Numerical result for prototype scale footing 2000×2000×300 mm
Prototype scale footing 2000×2000×300 mm

Load (kN) Displacement (mm) Axial load capacity ratio (%)
Sp 0 1198 46.02 100
Sp 4.21 1147 43.65 95.74
Sp 9.11 1108 43.74 92.48
Sp 24.56 853 39.02 71.2
Sp 30.67 780 35.87 65.1
Figure 20 Illustrate the correlation between the percentage of corrosion and the decrease in the load bearing
capacity as a ratio compared to the standard specimen.
𝑦 = −1.1766𝑥 + 101.04 (3)
where y is Normalized axial load capacity % and X is Corrosion ratio %.
120
Normalized axial load capacity (%)
100
y = -1.1766x + 101.04
R² = 0.9931
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Corrosion ratio (%)
Figure 20. Corrosion ratio (%) and axial load capacity (%); t=300 mm
1447
5.2. Load–Deflection Curve of Large-Scale 2000×2000×400 mm

Figures 21 and 22 show the curves of the axial load-displacement responses of all specimens with a depth = 400
mm. The relationship between axial load capacity and displacement for prototype scale footings subjected to axial load
is presented. The control footing shows a significant deterioration in both failure loads and stiffness. Table 7 displays
the failure load, displacement, and ratio of numerical and experimental results. The reduction ratio for corroded footing
concerning control footing was 94.6%, 92.6%, 74.8%, and 69.9% for Sp 4.21, Sp 9.11, Sp 24.56, and Sp 30.67,
respectively.
1600
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
Sp 0
600
Sp 4.21
400 Sp 9.11
200 Sp 24.56
Sp 30.67
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Displacement (mm)
Figure 21. Numerical Envelope curve of the prototype-scale specimens; t=400 mm
1600
1472
1392 1363
1400
1200 1101
1030
Axial load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5
Corrosion ratio (%)
Table 7. Numerical result for large-scale footing 2000×2000×400mm

Sp 0 1472 50.7 100
Sp 4.21 1392 45.3 94.6
Sp 9.11 1363 48.7 92.6
Sp 24.56 1101 55.7 74.8
Sp 30.67 1030 52.4 69.9
1448
Figure 23 indicate the relation between the reduction in load bearing capacity as a ratio from the control specimen
and corrosion ratio %.
𝑦 = −0.9891𝑥 + 99.946 (4)
where y is normalized axial load capacity % and X is corrosion ratio %.
120
100
y = -0.9891x + 99.946
R² = 0.9926
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Corrosion ratio (%)
5.3. Load – Deflection Curve of Prototype Scale 2000×2000×500 mm

The results indicate a significant degradation in stiffness and loading capacity compared to the control footing as
shown in Figures 24 and 25. Table 8 illustrate the failure load, displacement, and the ratio between the numerical results
for each specimen. The reduction in failure load compared to the control footing was 91.5%, 88.5%, 83.6%, and 79.2%
for Sp 4.21, Sp 9.11, Sp 24.56, and Sp 30.67, respectively.
2000
1800
1600
1400
Load (kN)
1200
1000
800 Sp 0
600 Sp 4.21
Sp 9.11
400
Sp 24.56
200 Sp 30.67
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Displacement (mm)
Figure 24. Numerical Envelope curve of the prototype scale specimens; t=500 mm
1449
2000 1895
1822
1800 1678
1584
1600 1500
Axial load (kN) 1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5
Corrosion ratio (%)
Table 8. Numerical result for large-scale footing 2000×2000×500 mm
Sp 0 1895 38.5 100
Sp 4.21 1822 27.3 96.1
Sp 9.11 1678 25.3 88.5
Sp 24.56 1584 23.7 83.6
Sp 30.67 1500 22.4 79.2
Figure 26 represent the relation between corrosion ratio % and the reduction in load bearing capacity as a ratio from
the control specimen.
𝑦 = −0.6278𝑥 + 98.093 (5)
120
100
80
y = -0.6278x + 98.093
60 R² = 0.9339
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Corrosion Ratio (%)
1450
5.4. Numerical Result for Large-Scale Footing with Different Depths

Table 9 illustrates the values of failure load, displacement, and the ratio between the numerical and experimental
results for the prototype-scale samples. In Figure 27, the relation between the corrosion ratio (%) and axial load capacity
is shown for all the prototype-scale footings with different concrete depths. It is noted that the results of the reduction
in ultimate load for different corrosion ratios are similar when comparing the different concrete depths.
Table 9. Numerical result for prototype scale footing with different depths
Displacement (mm) Load (kN) Axial load capacity (%)

Sp 0 46.02 1198 100
Sp 4.21 43.65 1147 95.74
Numerical results
2000×2000×300 mm Sp 9.11 43.74 1108 92.48
Scale (1)
Sp 24.56 39.02 853 71.2
Sp 30.67 35.87 780 65.1
Sp 0 50.7 1472 100

Sp 4.21 45.3 1392 94.6
Numerical results
Prototype-scale Sp 9.11 48.7 1363 92.6
2000×2000×400 mm
Sp 24.56 55.7 1101 74.8
Sp 30.67 52.4 1030 69.9
Sp 0 38.5 1895 100

Sp 4.21 27.3 1822 96.1
Numerical results
Sp 9.11 25.3 1678 88.5
2000×2000×500 mm
Sp 24.56 23.7 1584 83.6
Sp 30.67 22.4 1500 79.2
2000
1600
Axial load (kN)
1200
800
400
Sp 0 Sp 4.21 Sp 9.11 Sp 24.56 Sp 30.67

0
1 2 3 4 5
t=300 1198 1147 1108 853 780
t=400 1472 1392 1363 1101 1030
t=500 1895 1822 1678 1584 1500
Corrosion ratio (%)
Figure 27. Represent the relation between corrosion ratio % and axial load capacity for all the prototype-scale footing with
different (RC) depths
Figures 28 and 29 represent the correlation between the corrosion ratio percentage and the reduction in axial load
capacity as a ratio from the control specimen for small and prototype-scale footings, respectively.
𝑦 = −0.6278𝑥 + 98.093 (6)
1451
120

100
80
60
40
Experimental small scale Numerical small scale

20 Numerical prototype scale t=300 Numerical prototype scale t=400
Numerical prototype scale t=500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Corrosion ratio (%)
Figure 28. Corrosion ratio % and axial load capacity % for small-and-prototype-scale footing
120
100
80
60
y = -1.0297x + 97.421
R² = 0.9819
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Corrosion ratio (%)
Figure 29. Axial load capacity % and Corrosion ratio % and for small-and-prototype-scale footing as the average ratio
With increasing corrosion ratios, the normalized axial load capacity of reinforced concrete footings decreases for
both small and prototype-scale footings. The negative slope of the equation (-1.0297) shows that the reduction in the
capacity load is more significant for higher corrosion ratios. The y-intercept of 97.421 represents the normalized axial
load capacity when the corrosion ratio is 0%. Overall, this analysis indicates that corrosion has a substantial impact on
the axial load capacity of reinforced concrete footings, with higher corrosion ratios resulting in greater reductions in
load-bearing capacity.
6. Code Specification for Calculating the Ultimate Load of Isolating Footing

Concerning the ECP 203, Egyptian code [19] for calculating the ultimate load for isolated footing. The ultimate load
is the smallest value from the ultimate flexure load and the punching load to ensure that the footing is safe in flexure
failure and punching failure.
 Calculating the flexure ultimate load capacity
T=C (7)
1452
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑢
As × = 0.67 × ×b×a (8)
ɤ𝑠 ɤ𝑐
Get a=…
600
Cb = ( 𝑓𝑦 )×d (9)
600+
ɤ𝑠
ab =0.8 × Cb (10)
Get ab=…
a ˂ ab (11)
𝑎 𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑎
Mu = C× (d- )= (0.67 × × b × a) × (d- ) (12)
2 ɤ𝑐 2
(𝐴𝑟−𝑎𝑐)^2
Mu = qsu × (13)
8
𝑃𝑢
qsu= 𝐴𝑟×𝐵𝑟 (14)
get (pu ) = …..

where T is tension force in steel bar, C is compression force in stress block, Fy is yield stress, Fcu is compression stress
of concrete, Cb is compression distance in balance state, d is concrete depth, Mu is ultimate moment resistance, qsu is
ultimate punching strength, ɤ𝑐 is reduction factor for concrete is 1.5, ɤ𝑠 is reduction factor for steel is 1.15, 𝐴𝑟 ∗ 𝐵𝑟 is
punching area.
 Calculating the punching ultimate load capacity

𝑃𝑢 1.4×PD.L+ 1.6×PL.L
qsu= = (15)
𝐴𝑟×𝐵𝑟 𝐴𝑟×𝐵𝑟
(bo) = 2× (a×b) = 2(ac + d) + 2(bc + d) (16)
Qup = Pu - qsu (a×b) (17)

Qup
qup = ≤ qcup (18)
𝑏𝑜∗𝑑
since punching shear qup should be less than concrete strength qcup by the ECP203, the developed shear is given by the
least of the following three values:
𝐹𝑐𝑢
qcup = 0.316 √ ≤ 1.6 N/mm2 (19)
ɤ𝑐
𝑎 𝐹𝑐𝑢
qcup = 0.316 (0.50 + ) √ (20)
𝑏 ɤ𝑐
𝛼𝑑 𝐹𝑐𝑢
qcup = 0.8 (0.20 + )√ (21)
𝑏𝑜 ɤ𝑐
where α is a factor for corner, exterior, internal footing equal to 2,3,4, respectively and bo is the perimeter for punching
shear.
The failure loads of non-corroded footing with different depths were compared with the ECP203 (Egyptian Code,
2018) provision and how corrosion ratios can be calculated by numerical models. It was found that the variation between
the design loads and numerical loads for controlled footing with thicknesses of 300, 400, and 500 mm was (73%, 80%,
and 78%), respectively. It’s induced that the equivalent corrosion ratios% by using the deduced relation were (23.8%,
20.2%, and 32%), respectively, as shown in Table 10.
Table 10. Comparison between the design load and numerical load
Pu (ECP203) code
Pu (kN) (Design. Load /Numerical load) Equivalent
Numerical Pu (kN) Pu (kN) Pu (kN) ratio (%) corrosion ratio (%)
Flexure load Punching Load Design load
T=300 1198 875.54 1404.87 875.54 73 % 23.8%
T=400 1472 1176.28 2488.88 1176.28 80 % 20.2%
T=500 1895 1477.17 4266.67 1477.17 78 % 32%
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7. Conclusions
In conclusion, the study has shown that:
 The steel expansion model that accounts for corrosion is a dependable technique for simulating the corrosion
damage in isolated reinforced concrete footings;
 The stiffness of the finite element model used to predict the elastic behavior of the reinforced concrete isolated
footing was larger than that of the experimental footing;
 At a same depth, the decrease in ultimate load amplifies as the level of corrosion becomes more severe;
 The mean alteration of ultimate load, as determined by both experimentation and finite element modeling, was
discovered to be below 5.6% for small-scale testing, while the average variance in deflection was 6.8%;
 The cracking pattern showed that cracks began as flexure cracks and progressed to punching as the corrosion rate
increased;
 There were some differences in the appearance of cracks in the samples subjected to high levels of corrosion due
to the uniform representation of rust in the rebar in the ABAQUS software;
 The variation between the design loads by code and the numerical loads by ABAQUS for controlled footings
with thicknesses of 300, 400, and 500 mm was found to be 73, 80, and 78%, respectively;
 By using the deduced relationship, the equivalent corrosion ratio percentages were 23.8, 20.2, and 32%,
respectively.
The conclusion of the study suggests that the findings can have significant implications for building codes and
standards, as they can be used to update the assessment and mitigation provisions for the effects of corrosion on
reinforced concrete isolated footings. This will help ensure the long-term safety and reliability of structures. The results
of the study can also contribute to the development of more resilient and sustainable infrastructure by enhancing our
comprehension of how corrosion impacts the performance of RC isolated footings.
However, it's important to note that while the steel expansion model for corroded steel is a valuable method for
modeling the behavior of corroded reinforced concrete footings, it has its limitations. As a result, it should be used in
combination with other procedures and approaches to assure the results' correctness and dependability.
8. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.H., A.Y., and H.M.; methodology, M.H., A.Y., and H.M.; software, M.H.; validation, M.H.,
and A.Y.; formal analysis, M.H.; investigation, M.H.; resources, M.H., A.Y., and H.M.; data curation, A.Y., and H.M.;
writing—original draft preparation, M.H.; writing—review and editing, M.H.; visualization, A.Y., and H.M.;
supervision, A.Y., and H.M.; project administration, M.H.; funding acquisition, M.H., A.Y., and H.M. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

8.3. Funding

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1455

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Assessment of Fly Ash-Rice Straw Ash-Laterite Soil Based

Geopolymer Mortar Durability
Parea R. Rangan 1* , M. Tumpu 2 , Mansyur 3 , D. S. Mabui 1

1
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Christian Indonesia, Toraja, Indonesia.
2
Magister of Disaster Management Study Program, The Graduate School Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia.
3
Civil Engineering Department, SembilanBelas November University, Kolaka, Indonesia.
4
Civil Engineering Department, Yapis University, Jayapura, Indonesia.
Abstract
Geopolymer is an inorganic form of alumina-silica that is synthesized through materials containing lots of silica (Si) and
alumina (Al) originating from nature or from industrial by-products. The geopolymer binder is a two-component inorganic
system consisting of solid components that have sufficient amounts of SiO2 and Al2O3 to form compounds such as fly ash,
rice straw ash, pozzolan, laterite soil, slag, etc. This study aims to analyze the compressive strength, chemical compositions,
and geopolymerization process of geopolymers produced from fly ash, rice straw ash, and lateritic soil bound with an
alkaline activator, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), with a concentration of 12 M. The durability of the geopolymer mortar was
determined by soaking for 3, 7, and 28 days using water curing and sulphate curing (Sodium Sulphate, Na2SO4, and Sulfuric
Acid, H2SO4). The results showed that sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can release silica and alumina in the amorphous phase
and can be used as a binder for geopolymer mortar made from straw ash, fly ash, and laterite soil without using oven heat,
according to compressive strength, chemical compositions, and the geopolymerization process. The results of this study
can be used to support the use of waste materials (fly ash and laterite soil) and local materials (straw ash) as geopolymer
mortar-forming materials. Furthermore, it can aid in the development of eco-friendly (environmentally friendly) national
infrastructure by eliminating the need for oven heat to initiate the polymerization reaction. However, this research can also
be developed to increase the compressive strength of geopolymer mortar, which resembles that of conventional concrete
in general.
Keywords: Fly Ash; Rice Straw Ash; Laterite Soil; Geopolymer; Durability.
1. Introduction
Mortar and concrete have long been used both in structural and non-structural buildings [1, 2]. In general, sand and
cement are the two main ingredients in the mortar that is frequently used for building construction. As time and
technology progressed, so did mortar materials. In addition to employing sand as aggregate and cement as an aggregate
binder, they started to use geopolymer as an alternative to cement as an aggregate binder [3–6]. One type of material
used to produce geopolymer is fly ash and rice straw ash. Fly ash is one of the by-products of coal combustion in a steam
power plant (PLTU) [7–9]. The use of geopolymer fly ash and rice straw ash as material binders has also been developed
in order to provide environmentally friendly products, bearing in mind that the cement factory, in addition to producing
cement, also produces quite large carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere [10, 11]. Fly ash is rich in silica and
* Corresponding author: parearrangan@ukitoraja.ac.id

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alumina. The content of silica and alumina in fly ash can react with alkaline liquids to produce binders. Sodium silicate
(Na2SiO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are used as alkaline activators [12, 13].
Sodium silicate functions to accelerate the polymerization reaction, while sodium hydroxide functions to react with
the Al and Si elements contained in fly ash so as to produce strong polymer bonds. In addition to the activators of sodium
silicate and sodium hydroxide, the strength of the fly ash geopolymer bond is also influenced by the concentration and
ratio of the alkaline activator used [14, 15]. Other alternatives that can be used as geopolymer materials other than fly
ash, which comes from by-products or is waste from a product, include silica fume, slag, rice-husk ash, rice-straw ash,
and others [16]. These materials have been tried in several studies that have been carried out both in mortar and in
concrete. Rice straw ash is a waste from agricultural products containing silica, which can be used as a partial substitute
for cement in concrete mixes. In addition to the types of geopolymer materials that have been developed, mortar and
concrete aggregate types have also been developed [17]. Mortar aggregate material, which usually uses sand, has begun
to be developed using other materials, namely material from laterite soil, in place of sand material. Trying to replace the
use of cement and sand in mortar with other alternative materials, namely by using geopolymer fly ash, rice straw ash,
and laterite soil.
This is possible due to the availability of quite a lot of laterite soil in Indonesia, especially in Kalimantan and Papua.
Laterite soil is a group of highly weathered soils in tropical or sub-tropical areas [18]. Formed from the results of the
hydration concentration of iron and aluminum oxides, which contain relatively high clay minerals [19, 20]. This laterite
soil, along with geopolymer fly ash and rice straw ash, is being tried to be used as a mortar material and binder and is
expected to be developed to become one of the existing mortar materials.
An aggressive environment is one that contains aggressive compounds such as acids, sulfates, chlorides, etc. that
can damage concrete. This aggressive environment is usually found in areas such as swamps, rivers, or soil contaminated
with waste or aggressive chemicals, or in atmospheric environments such as exposure to clouds containing acids [21].
One of the compounds in an aggressive environment that can damage mortar and concrete materials is a compound
containing sulfate ions. Mortar and concrete that have been exposed to sulfate environments will experience a decrease
in quality and a reduction in volume. Almost all types of sulfates found in aggressive environments will damage the
binder in mortar and concrete [22].
In several research studies using geopolymer fly ash as a binding material to replace cement, it seems that it always
requires a curing oven temperature to be able to develop and increase the strength of mortar or concrete. Of course, this
is a difficult thing to implement in the field. This study examines the compressive strength, chemical compositions, and
geopolymerization process of geopolymers made from fly ash, rice straw ash, and lateritic soil bonded with sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) at a concentration of 12 M, an alkaline activator. Using water curing and sulphate curing (Sodium
Sulphate, Na2SO4, and Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4), the geopolymer mortar's durability was assessed by soaking for 3, 7,
and 28 days.
Previous research has used mortar geopolymer fly ash from sand and oil ash. While laterite soil has been used in the
form of laterite gravel with cement as a binder for pavement and soil stability, laterite soil has also been used in the form
of laterite gravel with cement as a binder for pavement and soil stability. Whereas in this study, the novelty lies in the
use of laterite soil as a mortar material and the use of geopolymer fly ash and rice straw ash as binder materials.
Geopolymer is produced without using oven heat for the geopolymerization reaction to take place. Of course, this
research can also support the development of national infrastructure based on environmentally friendly practices.
2. Previous Empirical Research Studies

Geopolymer concrete was studied by Matalkah et al. in 2016 [23] using a binder composition of hot straw ash, coal
fly ash, metakaolin, and gypsum at a weight ratio of 0.50: 0.25: 0.05. A thorough experimental study was conducted
using Portland cement as the control material and straw-ash-based concrete as the experimental subject. In comparison
to conventional Portland cement concrete, the experimental results demonstrate that non-wood ash-based geopolymer
concrete materials can offer the requisite mechanical characteristics, moisture equality, durability, and fire resistance
with the proper binder formulation.
According to Detphan & Chindaprasirt (2009) [24], materials such as fly ash (FA) and rice husk ash (RHA) were
used to create geopolymer. There were differences in the burning temperature of rice husk, the fineness of RHA, and
the proportion of FA to RHA. The mass ratios of RHA and FA in geopolymer mortar were 0/100, 20/80, 40/60, and
60/40, respectively. Heat, sodium silicate, and sodium hydroxide are used to activate the geopolymer. With a sodium
silicate/NaOH mass ratio of 4.0, the sample was heated in the oven for an hour before being baked for 48 hours at 60ºC.
The result was a mortar with a moderately high FA-RHA content. According to Rosello et al. (2017) [25], there are
various management issues with waste biomass from rice straw, including field burning, which results in severe air
pollution, and natural organic decomposition, which produces methane emissions. This trash may be repurposed in the
production of geopolymers after being converted into ash. The RSA: hydrated lime paste's results showed that the
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pozzolanic reactivity of the ash was significant (82% hydrated lime fixation for 7 days and 87% for 28 days), and they
cemented the CSH gel created after 7 and 28 days at room temperature. After 28 days of curing, the compressive
strengths of Portland cement mortar with 10% and 25% substitution by RSA produced 107% and 98%, respectively, of
the strengths of the control mortar. The pozzolanicity of the cement made with RSA-mixed is confirmed by the Frattini
test. In terms of the possibility of reusing ash as a raw material for creating geopolymers, the results of this reactivity
are highly encouraging.
Using sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate, Kim et al. (2014) [26] carried out an experimental inquiry to create
geopolymer concrete based on alkaline husk ash (RHA) activated waste. The influence on the geopolymer mortar's
compressive strength, NaOH content, curing process, and ideal mix proportions was examined. The findings indicate
that increasing the oven time and alkaline activator concentration can boost compressive strength. Studies on resistance
were conducted using sulfate and acidic media such as H2SO4, HCl, Na2SO4, and MgSO4. RHA has a lot of potential as
a substitute for regular Portland cement concrete because investigations using fluorescence optical microscopy and X-
ray diffraction (XRD) have shown the generation of new peaks and improved polymerization processes, which are
responsible for strength development.
Al-Akhras et al. (2007) [27] studied the impact of wheat straw ash (WSA) on concrete performance in response to
thermal cycling. The concrete specimens' compressive strength, electrical resistivity, and fracture visibility were
measured and analyzed. The findings demonstrated that numerous cracks dispersed over the specimen's surface caused
the heat cycle of WSA concrete. In addition, the performance of WSA concrete in response to thermal cycling improved
with increasing WSA content. WSA concrete was found to be more resistant to the effects of thermal cycling than plain
concrete. Tough aggregate-containing WSA shows greater resistance to thermal cycling.
It appears that the ability to grow and increase the strength of concrete always requires a strong oven temperature,
according to various research investigations using fly ash geopolymer as a binding agent to substitute cement. Therefore,
oven heat is needed to make geopolymer concrete or mortar made from straw ash, laterite soil, and fly ash. This should
be able to supply the heat required for each application of fly ash geopolymer to increase concrete strength to normal
levels.
3. Materials and Method

Rice straw ash, fly ash, and laterite soil were the materials employed in this investigation. In order to ascertain the
physical qualities and chemical characteristics of these materials in the form of the dominating chemicals contained
therein, testing of physical characteristics and chemical characteristics using XRF was conducted. An experimental
laboratory procedure was used for this study. The Indonesian province of South Sulawesi provides the laterite soil, straw
ash, and fly ash needed to make geopolymer mortar, as well as the alkaline activator sodium hydroxide (NaOH). After
the treatment (durability), which involved soaking in water, Na 2SO4, and H2SO4, the compressive strength assessment
and chemical composition tests (XRD) were conducted.
3.1. Rice Straw Ash

After the seeds have been removed, straw is agricultural waste in the shape of dried leaves, stalks, and plant leaves.
Burning rice straw, one of the main agricultural wastes in Indonesia, produces rice straw ash. In Gowa Regency, South
Sulawesi Province, rice cutting waste is converted into rice straw ash by burning it at a temperature of 500ºC. The
physical characteristics of the rice straw ash employed in this study are depicted in Figure 1. The laboratory tests on rice
straw ash are shown in Table 1 together with the results of those tests, and the laboratory tests on the chemical
characteristics of rice straw ash are shown in Table 2.
Figure 1. Physical appearance of rice straw ash
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Table 1. Physical characteristics of rice straw ash
No. Type of examination Method of examination Result of examination

1 Specific gravity SNI 03-1964-2008 2.36
2 Fine Aggregate water absorption SNI 1970:2008 172.78%
3 Sieve analysis SNI 03-1968-1990 > 50 % pass sieve no. 200
Table 2. Chemical characteristics of rice straw ash (XRF test)
No. Oxide Content Result of examination Malasyi et al. )2014( [28]

1 Fe2O3 2.31% 0.2%
2 Al2O3 - 1.78%
3 SiO2 70.80% 65.92%
4 K2O 15.89% -
5 CaO 5.34% 2.4%
6 P2O5 3.61%
7 MgO - 3.11%
8 SO4 - 0.69%
According to the results of the examination, the specific gravity was 2.36. The percentage value of straw ash water
absorption was 172.78% based on the findings of the fine aggregate water absorption test. As can be observed, straw
ash is a bigger substance that can pass through filter no. 200 at 50%. As can be observed, silica compounds (SiO 2),
which make up 70.80% of straw ash, are the main component. Other significant components include K2O, which makes
up 15.89%; CaO, which makes up 5.34%; P 2O5, which makes up 3.61%; Fe2O3, which makes up 2.31%, and Cl, which
makes up 1.45%. It is envisaged that the silica in the straw ash will be able to solidify into crystals in the geopolymer
mortar by joining with other substances.
3.2. Fly Ash

Fly ash is used as a solid substance in this investigation. One industrial by-product called fly ash is the leftovers from
the coal-burning process in steam power plants. Fly ash is classified as a "pozzolon" material, which is a siliceous or
aluminous material with little to no cementious ingredient, like Portland cement, in it. At specific temperatures, fly ash
material may chemically react with alkaline liquids to produce substances with cement-like characteristics. The physical
characteristics of the fly ash employed in this study are shown in Figure 2. The physical and chemical properties of the
fly ash created by the laboratory XRF test are displayed in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Fly ash was obtained from the
PLTU's trash in South Sulawesi Province's Jeneponto Regency, Punagayya Village, and Bangkala District.
Figure 2. Physical appearance of fly ash
Table 3. Physical characteristics of fly ash
Type of examination Method of examination Result of examination

Specific gravity SNI 03-1964-2008 2.65
Fine Aggregate water absorption SNI 1970:2008 26.42%
Sieve analysis SNI 03-1968-1990 > 50 % pass sieve no. 50
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Table 4. Chemical characteristics of fly ash (XRF test)
ASTM C 618-03, 2003 [29]

No. Oxide Content Result of examination
Class N Class F Class C
1 Fe2O3 19.96%
2 Al2O3 19.16% Min. 70% Min. 70% Min. 50%
3 SiO2 34.63%
4 MnO 0.25% - - -
5 TiO2 1.26% 2.4% - -
6 K2O 1.33% - - -
7 CaO 12.74% 3.11% - -
8 SrO 0.13% - - -
9 Cr2O3 0.07% - - -
10 MgO 8.1% - - -
11 SO3 1.80% Max. 4.0% Max. 5.0% Max. 5.0%
12 CoO 0.05% - - -
13 BaO 0.21% - - -
14 Pr6O11 0.05% - - -
15 Nd2O3 0.07% - - -
16 Moisture - Max. 3.0% Max. 3.0% Max. 3.0%
17 Loss of Ignition (LOI) - Max. 10.0% Max. 6.0% Max. 6.0%
According to the inspection of the fly ash's specific gravity, it was 2.88, which was higher than the specific gravities
of straw ash and laterite soil. According to ACI Committee 226, fly ash has fine grains that pass sieves No. 200 (>90%)
and No. 325 (45 microns) (27%). Fly ash is divided into three groups by ASTM C 618-03 [29]: class N, class F, and
class C. Fly ash in the class N and class F categories must include a minimum of 70% SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3
compounds, whereas the content in the class C category must range from 50% to 70%.
As a result, compared to the class C category, where the CaO concentration is greater than 10%, fly ash in the class
N and F categories has a considerably lower CaO content [29]. Meanwhile, fewer than 20% of fly ash with a class F
category contains the CaO element, according to Temuujin et al. (2009) [30]. The fly ash utilized in this work is type F
(low calcium fly ash) according to ASTM C618-03, 2003 [29] and Temuujin et al. (2009) [30].
3.3. Laterite Soil

Red soil, sometimes referred to as laterite soil, is a red to brown soil that develops in a moist, chilly environment
with standing water. Red soil, in particular, is beneficial for building foundations because it rapidly absorbs water, has
a deep soil profile, a moderate amount of organic matter, a neutral to acidic pH, and contains a lot of iron and aluminum.
The Latosol soil type includes laterite soil. In the humid equatorial and tropical regions, latosol soils are created. Latosol
is relatively low in plasticity (stickiness) and very brittle due to the mineral presence of silicate clay (clay), which allows
water to easily penetrate this soil. Actually, latosols are only found in warm, humid climates, which makes them ideal
for the equatorial region's temperature. Because all of these soil layers have lost their plant nutrients due to extreme heat,
latosol soil types rapidly lose their fertility. Latosol soils, on the other hand, are ideal for the expansion of vast tropical
rain forests. The tropical wet-dry climate regime is intimately related to areas of dense forest.
In Gowa Regency, South Sulawesi Province, laterite soil was collected from the area surrounding the Hasanuddin
University Faculty of Engineering campus. The findings of assessing the physical and chemical features of lateritic soils
obtained from laboratory XRF testing are shown in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. The physical characteristics of the
laterite soil are shown in Figure 3.
Table 5. Physical characteristics of laterite soil
No. Type of examination Method of examination Result of examination

1 Specific gravity ASTM D-162 2.65
2 Plastic limit (PL) ASTM D-424 33.90%
3 Liquid limit (LL) ASTM D-423-66 65.46%
4 Plastic index ASTM D-427 31.57%
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Table 6. Chemical characteristics of laterite soil (XRF test)
No. Oxide Content Result of examination Todingrara et al. (2017) [31]

1 Fe2O3 12.49% 5.61%
2 Al2O3 49.38% 17.49%
3 SiO2 34.81% 73.74%
4 MnO 0.10% -
5 TiO2 1.39% 1.82%
6 K2O 0.35% 0.14%
7 Mgo - 0.70%
8 CaO 0.85% 3.11%
9 P2O5 0.44% 0.69%
10 V2O5 0.06% -
11 SO3 - 0.10%
12 ZrO2 0.05% 0.82%
13 Cl - 0.05%
14 SrO 0.03% -
15 Cr2O3 0.02% -
16 CuO 0.02% -
17 ZnO 0.011% -
Figure 3. Physical appearance of laterite soil
Results of assessing lateritic soil's physical qualities According to the findings of the sieve analysis test, soil can be
categorized into groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 if more than 76.03% of it passes through a No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm).
Liquid limit (LL) = 46.10%; if > 41%, the area is classified as belonging to group A-5. It belongs to groups A-5 (PI
10%) and A-7 (PI > 11%) and has a plasticity index (PI) of 21.79%. Both categories A-7-5 (PL > 30%) and A-7-5 (PL
> 30%) can be used to categorize these soils. The area belongs to group A-7-5 because the plastic limit (PL) is greater
than 30%, at 30.29%. The lateritic soils employed in this study are classified as clays with high plasticity and are in
group A-7-5.
The results of the XRF test were used to determine the chemical properties of the laterite soil. As can be seen, SiO 2
(55.51%), Fe2O3 (25.93%), Al2O3 (15.01%), TiO2 (1.38%), K2O (2.31%), and Cl (1.29%) made up the majority of the
laterite soil used in this study.
3.4. Liquid Alkaline Activator

Caustic metallic bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), commonly referred to as caustic soda or sodium
hydroxide. When basic sodium oxide is dissolved in water, sodium hydroxide is created. When sodium hydroxide is
dissolved in water, a potent alkaline solution is created. NaOH is utilized in many different industrial sectors, primarily
as a base in the manufacture of textiles, drinking water, soaps, and detergents, as well as wood pulp and paper. In
chemical labs, sodium hydroxide is the most widely used basic. The white solid form of pure sodium hydroxide can be
found as pellets, flakes, granules, or as a 50% saturated solution. It is a wet liquid that ingests carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere on its own. It is particularly soluble in water and, when dissolved, releases heat. Additionally, ethanol and
1461
methanol can dissolve it. On paper and textiles, sodium hydroxide solutions will leave yellow stains. The elements Al
and Si present in fly ash are reacted by sodium hydroxide in geopolymers, enabling them to form robust polymer bonds
and bind well. Figure 4 shows the physical appearance of the sodium hydroxide (NaOH) used in this study. A sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solution with a concentration of 12 Molar was used as the liquid alkalin activator.
Figure 4. Physical appearance of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
3.5. XRF Analysis

Semi-quantitative assessments of the samples are an alternative to the empirical tests used to assess geopolymer
mixes. The XRD (X-Ray Diffraction) test is in dispute. To detect elements, compounds, phases, and crystal structures
that are generated qualitatively, XRD testing is used. Atoms organized to create crystal formations and micro- or phase
structures can essentially be analyzed using experimental methods based on diffraction. The fired wave will strike the
substance in the diffraction experiment and be detected by the detector. The detector determines the wavelength and
power of the waves that are reflected or emitted from the substance. Waves emitted by atoms of various sorts and places
can interfere with one another. In crystals and complex structures, the diffraction pattern created by the geometry
represented by the wave direction can be utilized to identify the unit cell [32, 33]. XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) test results
for rice straw ash, fly ash, and laterite soil's chemical composition.
3.6. Mixtures Design

Lateritic soil, Rice Straw Ash, Fly Ash, and sodium hydroxide activator are all components of the Lateritic Soil-Rice
Straw Ash-Fly Ash geopolymer. The Fly Ash content in this study was set at 41.60% of the total mix. Fly Ash ratios
were 41.66: 16.66: 41.66 in Lateritic soil:Rice Straw Ash. The composition of the mortar geopolymer design was
determined by the early mixed experiments. Table 7 shows the components of the mortar mixture design.
Table 7. Geopolymer mortar mixtures (1 m3)
Water (kg) NaOH (kg) Rice straw ash (kg) Fly Ash (kg) Laterite Soil (kg)
655.71 7548.95 7548.95 18872.37 18872.37
3.7. Mixing Procedure

The goal of this study was to identify the mechanical and chemical properties of using fly ash, rice straw ash, and
laterite soil in geopolymer mortar using silinder mold with a size of 5×10 cm. The following is the mixing procedure
employed in this study:
1. Making a mix design silinder mold with a size of 5×10 cm.
2. Making alkaline activators.
3. Test samples made from laterite soil, fly ash, and rice straw ash were mixed under dry conditions for 1 minute
(slow speed).
4. Enter the activator solution (Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH) and water; mix for 2 minutes.
5. Stir manually for 1 minute, and after that, mix the laterite soil, fly ash, rice straw ash, activator solution, and water
for 2 minutes at high speed for 10 minutes. So the total mixing time is 14 minutes.
Figure 5, shows the flowchart of the research methodology through which the objectives of this study were achieved.
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Figure 5. Research flowchart
3.8. Consistency Flow

The goal of flow consistency testing is to establish the ideal water content for producing mortar that is simple to
work with. The workability of a mortar mixture is highly correlated with the amount of water utilized. Traceability, or
workability, refers to how easily a combination can be manipulated. According to SNI 03-6825-2002 [34], the mortar
traceability test was conducted using a melting table and melting ring. The mortar was fed into a melting ring that was
set on a melting table and had dimensions of 100 mm on the bottom, 70 mm on top, and 50 mm on the height (300 mm
in diameter and 20 mm in thickness). The mortar mix becomes thinner as the spread value increases. The formula
indicated in Equation 1 is used to calculate the consistency of the mix flow.
𝐷𝑖
𝐾= × 100 % (1)
𝐷0
where K is consistency of mix flow (%), Di is diameter of mortar after lifting tronconique (cm), and D0 is diameter in
tronconique (cm).
3.9. Compaction and Curing Method

This study's design utilized a silinder mold with a mortar geopolymer that was 5 × 10 cm in size. All specimens
underwent treatment (curing), which entails room cooling. After being removed from the silinder mold, the specimen
can be treated in one of two ways. The first is an air treatment, in which the test object is kept in the specimen's storage
area at room temperature. A typical test object is a test specimen that is handled at room temperature. For 24 hours, the
second treatment is cooled to room temperature. The test sample should be taken out of the mold and submerged in
sulfate salt (Na2SO4), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), fresh water, sulfuric brine, and sulfuric acid water until it reaches the test
1463
time depicted in Figure 6. Sulfuric acid and salt were both soaked in water that had a 2% by weight concentration of
sulfuric acid. The specimens that were immersed in sulfate had the highest molarity concentrations. Compressive
strength tests are performed on the specimen at ages 3, 7, and 28 days after it has been submerged in water with Na2SO4
and H2SO4 solutions for curing. The test component underwent treatment up until compressive strength testing was
done.
Figure 6. Curing in water, Na2SO4 and H2SO4 solutions
3.10. Compressive Strength Test

According to SNI 03-6825-2002 [34] and SNI 1974-2011 [35], the specimen is loaded between two loading rods
with a continuous monotone load at a consistent pace to produce compressive stress on the specimen. In the compressive
strength test, the test item, which is shaped like a cylinder, is in a standing or upright posture when loaded. The test
object will eventually collapse or be destroyed due to the compressive stress that it is being subjected to. In the
geopolymer cylindrical concrete compressive strength test, which employs the LVDT as a measuring instrument for
horizontal displacement due to the applied load, Figure 7 depicts the location of the test object.
Figure 7. Test of compressive strength

4.1. Flowability
The outcomes of flow tests on geopolymer mortar mixtures with molarity concentrations of 12 M are depicted in
Figure 8 and demonstrate how geopolymer mortar behaves under fresh conditions. Fresh geopolymer mortar had the
same flow at each molarity concentration, or 112.50 mm, and had a specific gravity of 1901.3 kg/m 3 at that time. The
geopolymer mortar combination has the ability to bond laterite soil, allowing new geopolymer mortar to flow and
disseminate evenly without clumping or building up in the center of the circle. Saleh et al. [36] investigated the use of
rice husk ash as a cementitious material in geopolymer mortar and found that using more replacement agricultural waste
resulted in a smaller flow diameter. Additionally, according to Chen et al. [37], the effect of increased SiO 2/Al2O3 and
CaO could shorten the setting time. Each geopolymer mortar component that accelerated setting time in our experiment
has demonstrated it.
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Figure 8. Flowability of fresh mortar geopolymer
A criterion that can only be utilized as a guideline for the flow value in this study's diameter is the specific gravity
aligned for each geopolymer material employed in it, specifically rice straw ash, fly ash, and laterite soil. Additionally,
the geopolymer material's specific gravity ranges from 2.36 to 2.65. But additional investigation is needed into the
flowability of geopolymer effect indicators based on the physical and chemical characteristics of the bonds created
during the geopolymerization process or the geopolymerization itself.
4.2. Compressive Stress

With a concentration of 12 M curing water, sulfuric salt (Na 2SO4), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), the compressive
strength test results of straw ash geopolymer mortar at ages 3, 7, and 28 are summarized in Table 8. As can be seen,
stress values were 1.287 N/mm2, 1.475 N/mm2, and 3.209 N/mm2 for curing water aged 3, 7, and 28 days, respectively.
Na2SO4 immersion curing of sulfate salts was 1.444, 1.538, and 2.214 N/mm 2, respectively. In the immersion curing of
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), they were, in order, 1.346 N/mm2, 1.354 N/mm2, and 1.785 N/mm2. Comparatively to specimens
treated in water, the compressive strength of the specimens immersed in sulfuric acid and sulfuric salt decreased. When
specimens were exposed to sulfuric acid for curing, the compressive strength decreased by 25.11%, 27.10%, and 84.64%
at the ages of 3, 7, and 28 days, compared to 16.62%, 11.89%, and 48.87% for specimens exposed to sulfate-salt for
curing. The compressive strength of geopolymer mortar is depicted in Figure 9.
Table 8. Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar water, Na2SO4 and H2SO4 curing
Curing Age (Days) Compressive stress (N/mm2)

3 1.287
Water 7 1.475
28 3.209
3 1.444
Sulfuric Salt (Na2SO4) 7 1.538
28 2.214
3 1.346
Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) 7 1.354
28 1.785
3.5
Water Curing Sulfuric Salt Curing Sulfuric Acid Curing
3 3.209
Compressive Stress (N/mm2)
2.5
2 2.214
1.5 1.785
1.444 1.4755 1.5386
1.287 1.346 1.354
1
0.5
0
3 Days 7 Days 28 Days
Age (Days)
Figure 9. Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar water, Na2SO4 and H2SO4 curing
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It is clear that the specimen that underwent water curing had a higher compressive strength value than the specimens
that underwent sulfuric salt and sulfuric acid curing. This is because, in contrast to the sulfuric salt and sulfuric acid-
cured specimens, the polymerization reaction on the specimen that has been water-cured occurs flawlessly. The blend
of the geopolymer components (rice straw ash, fly ash, and lateritic soil) as a result of the ideal polymerization reaction
impacts the test object's hardness and density. The reaction of sulfate ions with the geopolymer mortar binder, which
lowers the bonding strength between the binder (alkaline activator) and geopolymer materials, results in the decrease in
compressive strength produced by salt and sulfuric acid immersion (rice straw ash, fly ash, and laterite soil).
Concrete can undergo extensive microstructural reconfiguration as a result of exposure to mild sulfate solutions.
Sulfate ions enter the material by a variety of processes, including the dissolution of calcium hydroxide and C-S-H
decalcification as well as the precipitation of sulfate-bearing phases like ettringite and eventually gypsum. This will be
significant since the chemical composition discovered through testing with the XRD equipment will ultimately influence
the geopolymerization process. This is what results in the production of the geopolymer in this study without the usage
of oven heat.
4.3. Chemical Compositions, Geopolymerization Process and Physical Appearance of the Test Object
Figure 10 depicts the correlation between the phase angle and the intensity of the geopolymer mortar test object's
XRD data after air curing with a NaOH concentration of 12 M. Fe3O4, which is 31.88%, CaCO3, which is 16.16%, MgO,
which is 10.83%, Fe2O3, which is 11.53%, SiO2, which is 10.13%, CaO, which is 5.07%, KOH, which is 4.37%, and
P2O5, which is 5.07%, are the major components in the geopolymer mortar test specimens, as can be seen. According to
the results of the compressive strength test, the test object's strength is supported by the presence of crystallization that
can be seen under a microscope in both the XRD and SEM test results. This is due to the fact that crystallization has a
significant impact on the test object's hardness.
870 12 M
820
Intensity (a.u)
770
720 5
3
5
670 2 3 3
6 6
8 2
620 1 4 2 2
3 7 3 6 1 3
570
520
470
420
370
320
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
2 (deg)
1200 No Formula 12 M
1100 1 SiO2 10.13 6M
Intensity (a.u)
1000
2 CaCO3 16.16
900
800 2 3 Fe3O4 31.88 6
3 3 3 2
700 1
8
5
3
45 2
CaO 6 5.07 4
3 1
3 7
600
5 Fe2O3 11.53
500
400 6 MgO 10.83
300
15 20 25 30 7 35 KOH40 4.37
45 50 55 60 65
8 2P
2O5(deg)5.07
Figure 10. Correlation between phase angle and intensity of the geopolymer mortar water curing
Based on the findings of the compressive strength test of the geopolymer mortar test object, the presence of
microscopic crystallization also supports the object's strength. This is because crystallization significantly affects
hardness. Silica oxide compounds have a significant impact on a material's degree of crystallinity. Calcium silicate
cement is created when fine pozzolanic elements such as straw ash interact. Fly ash's primary component, silica, interacts
with straw ash to produce a gel known as [Ca(Si) 3]. When straw ash, water, and fly ash are combined, the fly ash's
pozzolanic characteristics cause a reaction that results in hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H). Geopolymer mortar
undergoes crystallization with regular atomic structures. The materials that make up the geopolymer mortar, namely
straw ash, fly ash, and laterite soil activated with NaOH, are able to blend well, harden, and have good density.
Under sulfate immersion circumstances, the geopolymer mortar's chemical properties (Na2SO4 and H2SO4) were
tested using XRD to determine the chemical composition's properties (X-Ray Diffraction). Figure 10 depicts the
correlation between the 2θ angle and the intensity of a geopolymer mortar specimen submerged in sulfuric acid and
sulfate salt (H2SO4 and Na2SO4). Under sulfate immersion circumstances, the geopolymer mortar's chemical properties
1466
(Na2SO4 and H2SO4) were tested using XRD to determine the chemical composition's properties (X-Ray Diffraction).
Figure 11 depicts the correlation between the angle and the intensity of a geopolymer mortar specimen submerged in
sulfuric acid and sulfate salt (Na2SO4) (H2SO4).
12 M
No Formula
Na2SO4 H2SO4
1 SiO2 8.92 9.02
2 CaCO3 21.05 23.41
3 Fe3O4 27.53 23.64
4 CaO 5.44 4.70
5 Fe2O3 8.36 10.00
6 MgO 16.59 15.83
7 KOH 4.46 4.70
8 P2O5 3.83 4.39
Figure 11. Correlation between phase angle and intensity of the geopolymer mortar Na2SO4 and H2SO4 curing
Figures 12 to 14, respectively shows the physical appearance of the water curing test object, curing sulfuric acid and
sulfate salt (H2SO4 and Na2SO4). The physical appearance shows the initial damage that occurred to the test object before
the compressive strength test was carried out, especially on the specimen that was immersed in sulfuric acid and sulfate
salt (H2SO4 and Na2SO4).
Figure 12. Physical appearance of specimen curing water
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22 Januari 2019
volume fly ash abu jerami tanah laterit air NaOH molaritas
960 400 gr 160 gr 400 gr 333,33 gr 160 gr 12
Figure 13. Physical appearance of specimen curing sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
curing udara curing air
Umur 5 hari Umur 5 hari
Figure 14. Physical appearance of specimen curing sulfate salt (Na2SO4)
Likewise, 21.05% and 23.41%, Ket: respectively, of CaCO3 molecules. The chemical SiO2, which is in charge of the
polymerization reaction in geopolymers, is present
- Volume 960 inselinder
gr, jadi 2 sampel concentrations
5x10 of 8.92% and 9.02%, respectively, with intensities
- kondisi mortar cepat mengeras saat dimasukkan dalam mold
of 270 a. u. and 570 a. u. But the concentration
- didiamkan selama 24 jam dalam mold, kemudian setelah umur 24 jamwith
and intensity that increased thesampel
dalam mold addition of sulfuric salts to sulfuric
acid revealed distinct silica components, including
dikeluarkan crystalline
dan langsung diberi perlakuan silica in the specimens exposed to the sulfate salts and
- 1 sampel curing air, 1 sampel curing udara
amorphous silica in the specimens exposed to sulfuric acid. This is caused by the presence of rice straw ash in this mortar
mixture, which contributes to the heat; hence, without the curing of the oven temperature, the fly ash geopolymer mortar
Catatan:
with this laterite soil material can still provide strength. This result also indicated that compressive strength increased
without oven curing similar because - Tidak
thedioxide
oven content of rice straw ash, laterite soil, and fly ash (SiO2) was able to bind
- Menggunakan Fly Ash yang pertama (pengambilan fly ash pertama di jeneponto) lolos
well and produce amorphous silica. saringan 200
- Abu jerami yang digunakan adalah abu jerami yang dibakar dengan suhu 500 – 550 derajat
Because they are sulfate pollutants brought
celcius on50 by chemical reactions in cement or concrete, sulfate salts are harmful.
lolos saringan
- Menggunakan tanah laterit lolos saringan 8
These salts, sodium and magnesium sulfates, are common in soils with an alkaline pH. These salts are more harmful
- Menggunakan NaOH
than gypsum's (calcium sulfate) drawbacks because
- Curing Suhu Ruang theyC ) are not only more soluble but also produce more sulfate in
( 29 – 30 derajat
- Berhasil
groundwater and interact with cement minerals, completely ruining the cement paste [2, 3, 26, 31, 35]. Sulfate salts from
different bases can also destroy hardened cement. In order to harden cement, the sulfate salt combines with calcium
hydroxide to produce calcium sulfate and with hydrated calcium aluminate to produce further insoluble calcium
sulfoaluminate salts.
5. Conclusion
Fly ash reacts with straw ash, laterite soil, and alkaline solutions to generate alumina -silica binders in fly ash-
based geopolymer binders without the need for cement. The aggregate is then joined together by the geopolymer
binder to create mortar or concrete. According to various existing studies, geopolymer concrete or mortar needs to
be baked for 24 hours at temperatures between 35 and 80°C to equal the strength of conventional existing concrete.
This study was able to demonstrate that alkaline sodium hydroxide (NaOH)-bound fly ash, rice straw ash, and laterite
soil geopolymers can solidify without the use of oven heat. This suggests that a proper polymerizatio n reaction can
occur. The creation of a sustainable breakthrough in geopolymer concrete and mortar technology that makes use of
waste materials (straw ash), PLTU waste (fly ash), and laterite soil, all of which are plentiful in Indonesia. The results
of this study can be used to support the use of waste materials (fly ash and laterite soil) and local materials (straw
ash) as geopolymer mortar-forming materials. In addition, it can also support the development of eco -friendly
(environmentally friendly)-based national infrastructure without the use of oven heat for the polymerization reaction
to take place. However, this research can also be developed to increase the compressive strength of geopolymer
mortar, which resembles that of conventional concrete in general.
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6. Declarations
Conceptualization, P.R.R., M.T., and M.; methodology, M.T., M., and D.S.M.; validation, D.S.M., M., and M.T.;
formal analysis, P.R.R., M.T., D.S.M., and M.; investigation, P.R.R., D.S.M., and M.; resources, P.R.R., M.T., D.S.M.,
and M.; writing—original draft preparation, P.R.R., and M.T.; writing—review and editing, M., and M.T.; project
administration, D.S.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data sharing is not applicable to this article.
6.3. Funding
We would like to express our gratitude to University of Christian Indonesia, Toraja, Indonesia through research
institutes and community service for their support during field work and eco material and concrete laboratory civil
engineering department, faculty of engineering, Hasanuddin University.

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Assessment of E-Waste Management and Potential for Laptop

Reuse and Recycling
Giao Thanh Nguyen 1* , Trinh Thi Kieu Lam 1, Nhien Thi Hong Huynh 1
1
College of Environment and Natural Resources, Can Tho University, Can Tho City 900000, Vietnam.
Abstract
Reusing and recycling laptops has many positive benefits, both environmentally and economically. Therefore, this study
was conducted with the objectives of assessing (1) the current state of ownership, (2) the current state of use and disposal,
and (3) quantifying the potential reuse and recycling of laptops for students at Can Tho University, Vietnam. Based on
data collected by document review and face-to-face interviews with students, with a usage rate of 1 laptop per student, it
is estimated that the whole of Can Tho University has 42,918 laptops in use. The actual use lifespan of the laptop is 5.28
years, lower than the expected lifespan of 6.8 years. The results of the correlation analysis show that the actual usage life
does not have any correlation with the consumption behavior of students. In addition, the study estimates that 96.67% of
laptops will be disposed of before 2031. In which, the potential for direct reuse is 2.33%, reuse with support is 88.33%,
and recycling is 9.33%. The results show that universities have great potential to implement safe e-waste collection and
treatment activities.
Keywords: Notebook; Quantification of Potential; Circular Economy; Can Tho University; E-Waste Management.
1. Introduction
Nowadays, information and communication technology devices have been widely applied in most socio-economic
fields. In particular, in the context of the complicated development of the COVID-19 pandemic, it has forced learning
and working activities to change from face-to-face to online. This conversion has contributed to the rapid increase in
demand for technology devices, notably laptops. The proof is that the Greek school system were distributed 8,400
computers in 2020 [1]. According to statistics, about 340 million PCs will have been shipped worldwide in 2021 [2].
For laptops alone, about 216 million units were shipped in 2022 [3].
With a strong increase in usage demand and a shortening of the average life expectancy of only 3-6 years [4, 5], a
large amount of laptop waste is forecast to arise in the near future. This poses a great challenge to the management of
this type of waste. Because discarded electronic devices in general and laptop waste in particular are types of hazardous
waste. If not handled properly, the heavy metals (cadmium, mercury, chromium, zinc, lead, etc.) in this waste can
accumulate in soil and groundwater [6-8]. More seriously, they can cause changes in lung function, thyroid, neurological,
endocrine disorders, and they can even cause cancer [7, 9]. In contrast, the recovery of materials found in laptop waste
such as plastic, glass, base metals (aluminum, steel, copper, zinc, etc.), precious metals (platinum, gold, silver, etc.), and
some rare earth elements will help reduce resource exploitation in nature [1, 10–12]. On that basis, many countries
around the world have prioritized the application of reuse and recycling methods to prolong the use life of equipment,
take advantage of valuable raw materials, and reduce environmental pollution [6, 13–19].
* Corresponding author: ntgiao@ctu.edu.vn

1471
In Vietnam, the collection and treatment of e-waste in general have not been implemented effectively. In addition,
only a few related studies have been carried out to estimate the generation of household e-waste in households such as
mobile phones, personal computers, televisions, refrigerators, etc. [20–22]. The results of these studies show that laptops
are not commonly used in households. Meanwhile, many other studies have recorded a very high percentage of students
using laptops at universities, averaging 0.95-0.97 laptops/student [23, 24]. Students are considered to represent a group
of young consumers with high demand for the use of technological devices along with strong access to current
technological advances. Therefore, this study assesses the potential for reuse and recycling of laptops by students at Can
Tho University, a key university training institution in Vietnam with about 40,000 students being trained each year [25].
The objectives of the study are to assess (1) the current state of ownership, (2) the current state of use and disposal, and
(3) quantify the potential reuse and recycling of laptops at Can Tho University. The results of the study will be a useful
database for planning the future implementation of laptop waste collection and treatment. At the same time, the research
also helps raise awareness among students about the importance of smart consumption and safe disposal of electronic
devices.
To achieve the set objectives, the study has collected and processed data through five steps (Figure 1).
Identify related keywords

Step 1:
Secondary Essential
Secondary
data literature review Conduct a document search
data
collection for quantifying
collection
potential
Selection and synthesis
Design draft questionnaire
Step 2: Experimental interview with 30 students

Primary Questionnaire
data design Edit words and content accordingly
collection
Complete the official questionnaire
Step 3:
Conducted interviews Conduct a formal interview
Step 4:
Synthetic data Summarize data on Excel software
Statistical analysis using Excel and SPSS

(demographic characteristics of students; laptop purchase, use and
disposal behavior, correlation between factors)
Data
processing
Step 5: Calculate the number of laptops generated:
𝑛
Data analysis
𝑊 𝑛 = 𝑃𝑂𝑀 𝑡 . 𝐿𝑝 𝑡, 𝑛
𝑡=𝑡0
Quantify potential for 3 levels:

(1) Direct reuse; (2) Reuse with support; (3) Recycling
Figure 1. The process of methodology
2.1. Data Collection

First, the study collects secondary data through scientific articles published in specialized scientific journals to
strengthen the theoretical basis related to the research objectives. The data search is performed with various keywords,
such as "laptop management", "e-waste management", "LCA for laptops", "LCA for e-waste", "impact of laptops", etc.
The data mining platforms used mainly in the study were Elsevier-ScienceDirect and Google Scholar.
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Next, primary data was collected through direct interviews with students at Can Tho University. After the
experimental interviews were adjusted, the official questionnaire consisted of four parts (Step 2). Including (1) general
information about the respondents, (2) current ownership status, (3) consumption behavior, and (4) laptop disposal
behavior. The study conducted interviews for two months, from February to April 2022. With the goal of building a data
set including the information of 300 students, the research conducted a parallel interview and data entry process at the
end of the day to promptly remove the interview forms that did not meet the full information (Steps 3 and 4). This is
done to ensure the quality of the dataset. At the end of the interview process, the research team completed the data set
of 300 students from 312 questionnaires conducted. There were 12 questionnaires that were rejected because they did
not fully meet the necessary information; the rate of satisfactory questionnaires was 96.2%.
2.2. Data Processing

After data synthesis, descriptive statistics on student demographics, laptop lifespan, laptop purchase, use, and
disposal behavior were performed using Excel and SPSS. In addition, the correlation between a laptop's lifespan and
consumer behaviors (intensity of use, reading manuals, practicing recommendations, and device maintenance) was also
analyzed using IPM SPSS Statistics 26 software.
Next, the potential for reuse and recycling was assessed by the quality and quantity of the laptops generated. The
time of purchase and the expected time of disposal of the laptops were used as input data for the calculation of the
number of laptops produced per year [26]. The estimated formula is as follows:
W n = ∑nt=t0 POM t . Lp t, n (1)
where: W(n) is the number of laptops made in five n (pcs); 𝑃𝑂𝑀 𝑡 is the number of machines purchased in year t
(units); 𝐿𝑝 𝑡, 𝑛 is the probability that a laptop purchased in year t becomes obsolete in year n (%).
The potential to reuse and recycle laptops was classified into three levels (Table 1). In the study by Messmann et al.
[27], the condition of the equipment was assessed directly at the collection site. However, in keeping with the conditions
and objectives of the study, the quality of the laptops in this study was determined by the students' intention to dispose
of laptop.
Table 1. Quality and potential classification of laptops
Quality of Component
Level Potential Detailed description Surface state
laptop state
1 Reuse directly without going Very good Good as new Full New
through any repair/ refurbishment Good There is very little sign of wear Full New/ Medium
There are signs of moderate wear (small scratches/breaks,
Medium Missing Medium
Reuse but must be through noticeable defects/damages, etc.)
2
repair/refurbishment or recycle There are signs of heavy wear (large scratches/breaks,
Poor Missing Medium
noticeable defects/damages, etc.)
The damaged component is an integral part of the
Very poor Faulty Old
product's function
3 Recycle
Complete loss of structural/functional integrity of the
Unusable Faulty Old
product

The survey at Can Tho University has collected information from 300 students, 48% male and 52% female. In which
the proportion of freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior is 19.3%, 35%, 20%, and 19.3%, respectively. The remaining
6.3% are postgraduates.
3.1. Current Status of Owning a Laptop

The survey results show that 100% of the interviewed students own a laptop. Thus, a total of 300 laptops are being
used in the observed sample size of the study at Can Tho University (n = 300). According to the research's speculation,
the actual ownership rate of this device may be lower than 01 laptop per student because a small number of students will
not use laptops. However, the study believes that this percentage will be insignificant because the results of studies at
universities in Australia and China have both recorded a very high rate of laptop use. These rates were 0.95 and 0.97
laptops/student, respectively [23, 24]. Compared with the research results conducted on household subjects, students
have about 8 times higher rates of laptop ownership. Specifically, the survey results in 120 households in Can Tho city
with 507 people recorded only 60 computers in use, which is only 0.12 units/person [20]. Thereby, it can be seen that
the university is the place where a large number of laptops are used, and students are an important contributor to the
increase in the number of these devices. Statistical results show that newly purchased laptops have increased sharply in
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the period 2018–2021, especially in 2020 and 2021 (Figure 2). This number is forecast to continue to increase in 2022
because the results collected as of mid-April 2022 have recorded a 40% increase in the number of new computers
purchased compared to 2021. One of the reasons to make the rapid increase in laptop purchasing power is the change
from face-to-face learning at schools to online learning during the period of application of COVID-19 prevention
measures. During this period, 81.33% of students confirmed that they had to increase their laptop use time by an average
of about 2.6 hours per day. Not only in Vietnam, COVID-19 is also the cause of increasing demand for laptops in other
regions and countries [1, 28].
35%
30%
Numbers of labtops
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Year
Figure 2. Number of laptops purchased over the years
The surveyed laptops belong to 11 different brands (Figure 3). In which, the 03 laptop brands that students choose
to buy the most are Asus (31.67%, or 95 units), Dell (24.67%, or 74 units), and HP (20.33%, or 61 units).
35%
30%
Numbers of laptop computers
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Brands
Figure 3. Laptop brands being used
To decide whether to buy a laptop, students often consider many factors (Figure 4). In which the factors of price,
brand, and features are considered the main factors when over 75% of students are interested. Next are the elements of
style, warranty period, and installment program. Meanwhile, the environmental label factor has not really attracted the
attention of students. This factor only contributed to the purchase decisions of 7.67% of students and only accounted for
2.19% of the total selection. The study of Liao and Chuang [29] also identified price as the most important factor in a
laptop purchase decision. They are given priority over the criteria describing the environmental friendliness of the
product. This shows that it is necessary to raise awareness of green consumption among consumers to improve their
level of interest in and willingness to pay for environmentally friendly products.
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100%
80%
Percent contribution
60%
40%
20%
0%
Price Brand Function Types Warrant Modes of Green label Others
policy payment
Factors influencing on labtop computer choice decision
Figure 4. Factors affecting the decision to buy a laptop
3.2. Current Status of Laptop Consumption and Disposal

3.2.1. Actual Usage Life of the Laptop
In addition to determining the current state of laptops in use, the study looked at consumption habits and the lifespan
of previously discarded laptops. This serves as the basis for considering the correlation between the actual lifespan of
laptops and the consumption behaviors of students. The survey results showed that 54 units were disposed of in the years
2015–2022 (Figure 5). The colors in the data columns represent the year these computers were purchased. It can be seen
that 2021 has the highest number of discarded laptops (accounting for 31%). Notably, 17% of laptops will be discarded
in the first 4 months of 2022.
2005 2007 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
20
18
16
Numbers of laptop computers
14
12
10
0
2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Laptop computers discarded
Figure 5. The number of laptops generated in the period 2015 – 2022
The actual lifespan of these laptops is 2–10 years (Figure 6a), for an average of 5.28 years. In which, the high
percentage is 5 years (29.63%) and 4 years (24.07%). The results in the study of Hennies & Stamminger [4] also recorded
a similar lifespan of laptops from 3-6 years, with the highest being 10 years. Meanwhile, laptops of students at a
university in Sydney have a lower average life expectancy, with an average value of only 4.31 years [5]. When discarded,
most of these laptops are in unusable (20.4%) or usable conditions, but the quality ranges from poor (25.9%) to very
poor (35.2%). Only 3.7% of computers are still in good working condition, and 14.8% are the average state (Figure 6b).
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Figure 6. Discarded laptop characteristics
3.2.2. Laptop Consumption Behavior

Many previous studies have suggested that the lifespan of electronic devices in general and laptops in particular
depends on many factors, from production design to consumer behavior such as usage intensity, maintenance, etc. [30,
31]. However, this study did not find any correlation between laptop lifespan and factors related to consumer behavior
(sig>0.05). Behaviors considered included intensity of use, reading of user manuals, equipment maintenance, and level
of recommended practices (device cleaning, preventing collisions, battery protection, secure software installation).
For electronic devices in general and laptops in particular, their service life is affected by many factors, from the
design and quality of the manufacturing process to consumer behavior [30, 31]. However, this study did not find any
correlation between laptop lifespan and factors related to consumer behavior (sig>0.05). Behaviors considered included
intensity of use, reading of user manuals, equipment maintenance, and level of recommended practices (device cleaning,
preventing collisions, battery protection, secure software installation). It should be noted that these correlations were
only considered for 54 previously discarded laptops, as they accurately determined their actual lifespan. The survey
results show that laptops were used for 1–15 hours per day (Figure 7a), averaging 4.3±2.5 hours per day. In which
students mainly use laptops for about 3 hours per day (24.1%). However, it is worth noting that 18.6% of students use
more than 8 hours per day. This is a high-intensity use. The results of the correlation analysis show that the correlation
between the intensity of use and the life of the laptop is not statistically significant (sig = 0.111).
Figure 7. Laptop use behaviors
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Similarly, reading the manuals is also not correlated with the actual lifespan of the laptop (sig = 0.646). The survey
results showed that up to 55.6% of students did not read the instructions before using the laptop (Figure 7b). Former
research [31] shows that up to 80% of consumers do not read the instructions for use. It can be seen that the habit of not
reading the manual before use has become common. However, this behavior doesn't seem to have a big impact on the
laptop's lifespan. As an example, the lifespan of laptops between students who read and did not read the user manual
did not differ significantly, at 5.1 years and 5.4 years, respectively [31]. The lifespan of laptops for those who have a
habit of reading the manual before using them was 4.6 years, and for those who do not have this habit, it was 4.8 years.
Although not correlated with device lifespan, user manual reading is averagely correlated with device battery protection
behavior (r = 0.458) and collision prevention behavior (r = 0.349). Both of these correlations have a statistical
significance level of 1%.
Besides usage intensity and user manual reading, all recommended practices considered in the study were not
correlated with laptop lifespan (sig>0.05). Of the four recommendations, the installation and use of safe software and
the protection of laptops from strong collisions were performed most frequently, with 81.5% and 83.3%, respectively
(Figure 7c). For the maintenance practice (Figure 7d), the average equipment lifespan of 59.3% of students who did not
perform maintenance was 5.2 years. Similarly, the lifespan of laptops for 40.7% of students who performed device
maintenance was 5.5 years. The results did not show a significant difference. Therefore, the correlation between laptop
lifespan and maintenance practices is also not statistically significant.
3.3. The Potential for Laptop Reuse and Recycling

3.3.1. Quantity and Quality of Expected Laptops to Dispose
Of the 300 laptops in use, students are expected to dispose of them between 2022 and 2041 (Figure 8), with a total
weight of up to 561 kg. The expected lifespan of these laptops ranges from 2 to 20 years (Figure 7a), with an average of
6.8 years. However, the number of computers used over the past 10 years is not significant (only 3.33%). Therefore, the
majority of computers will be disposed of before 2031 (96.67%). Details about the number of expected laptops wasted
are shown in Figure 8 below. The colors in the column represent the year the device was purchased for use. Calculation
results show that 2025 and 2026 are expected to generate the most laptops. These laptops have a lifespan of mainly 5
and 6 years, as most were purchased in 2020 and 2021.
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
60
50
Numbers of laptops
40
30
20
10
0
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
3033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
Expected years of labtop computers discarded
Figure 8. Expected number of laptops to be generated
Compared to the actual lifespan of 54 previously discarded laptops (5.28 years), 300 laptops in use have a longer
expected lifespan (6.8 years). Similarly, the actual usage time of the laptop is only 4.7 years, while the expected usage
time is 5.6 years [31]. It can be seen that the expected average lifespan of the equipment is always higher than the actual
lifespan.
Besides estimating the number and volume of laptops that will be generated, forecasting the quality of the device is
also important. This is considered the main factor determining the feasibility of reuse and recycling [27]. In this study,
the quality of laptops was determined based on the students' intention to throw them away and was classified into 06
levels (Table 1). The survey results show that no students intend to throw away their laptops when they are still in very
1477
good condition. Only 2.33% of laptops are expected to be replaced while still in good condition. Most of the time,
students will replace laptops of medium (30%) to poor (58.33%) quality. The remainder will be used until the equipment
is of very poor quality (6.67%) or no longer usable (2.67%). Figure 7-b shows that the actual quality of the discarded
laptop is significantly lower than the expected future disposal. While in fact, students dispose of laptops when they are
of poor quality, very poor, and no longer usable. In the future, they will dispose of laptops when they are of medium
and poor quality. This may shorten the useful life of these laptops compared to expectations. Laptops that are no longer
in use are mainly stored at home, exchanged for a new one at the manufacturer's distribution store, donated to others, or
sold to free scrap collectors (Figure 9). In particular, the forms of storing it at home, selling it to free scrap collectors, or
throwing it together with household waste are not recommended because of potential environmental risks and because
they affect the circulation of materials. Unfortunately, out of a total of 54 previously discarded notebook computers,
81.5% were made using these methods. In particular, none of the students transferred their unused laptops to formal
processing centers. The main reason is that they do not know the information related to formal processing. After
participating in the study's survey, students made more positive choices about how to handle laptops in the future. In
which, 39% of students will bring their unused laptop to the store to exchange for a new one. At the same time, laptop
waste will be transferred to formal disposal centers by 1.7% of students.
Throw away with household waste
Go to official treatment center
Sell to scrap collectors
Change new laptop at the store
Donate to someone else
Storage at home
0 10 20 30 40 50
Expected Actual Percentage selection
Figure 9. The method of disposing
3.3.2. Quantify the Potential for Reuse and Recycling

Percentage of laptops of 300 students at Can Tho University with potential for direct reuse (level 1), reuse through
support (level 2) and recycling (level 3) is 2.33%, 88.33% and 9.33%, respectively (Figure 10). The evaluation results
show that only 2.33% of laptops will be discarded when it is still good enough conditions to reused directly (equivalent
to 7 machines). The largest percentage is level 2, which can be reused or recycled. However, reuse should take
precedence over recycle. This level applies to 88.33% of average and poor qualities laptops (equivalent to 265 devices).
Note that reusing the laptops in this case needs to be further supported by repair or refurbishment activities. The rest,
9.33% of equipment that is of very poor quality or no longer usable will be classified as recycling.
300
Number of laptops
250
200
150
100
50
0
Direct reuse Reuse with support Recycling
Potential
Figure 10. The potential for laptop reuse and recycling
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With a sample size of 300 students, the study quantified the reuse and recycling potential of 300 laptops. The study
firmly believes that the real potential of laptop reuse and recycling at Can Tho University is much greater. According to
statistics, the whole university has 34,365 full-time university students and 8,553 university students trained in other
forms [25]. Assuming the usage rate according to the survey results is 1 laptop per student, the whole Can Tho University
will have 42,918 laptops. In addition to students, Can Tho University also have 2,873 graduate students, 1,389 officials,
and about 500 other employees engaged in teaching and research [25]. All of these actors have the potential to provide
laptops for the formal recycling and reuse program. Therefore, in the coming time, it is necessary to promote research
and implementation of recovery, reuse, and recycling of this potential waste stream with the goal of prolonging the life
of equipment, circulating the flow of valuable materials, and reducing environmental pollution.
4. Conclusion
With a usage rate of 1 laptop per student, it is estimated that the whole Can Tho University has 42,918 laptops in
use. The results show that universities are a potential place to implement material collection and recycling programs for
electronic devices, especially information and communication technology devices such as laptops. Of the 300 students
who participated in the survey, 54 had previously discarded their laptops, with an average lifespan of 5.28 years.
However, the expected lifespan of 300 laptops in use is expected to be higher, at about 6.8 years. These laptops will be
discarded from 2022 to 2041, with a total weight of 561kg. Of which, 2.33% of laptops are expected to be disposed of
when the quality is still good and they meet the conditions of direct reuse (level 1). Medium and poor-quality laptops
(88.33%) will be reused with the assistance of repaired or refurbished laptops (level 2). The remaining 9.33% of laptops
that are of very poor quality or are no longer usable will have the potential for recycling (level 3). The current findings
provide useful information on laptop use and discard for promoting research on circulating the flow of valuable materials
and reducing environmental problems.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, N.T.G. and L.T.K.T.; methodology, N.T.G. and L.T.K.T.; software, N.T.G., L.T.K.T., and
H.T.H.N.; validation, N.T.G., L.T.K.T., and H.T.H.N.; formal analysis, N.T.G., L.T.K.T., and H.T.H.N.; investigation,
N.T.G. and L.T.K.T.; resources, N.T.G., L.T.K.T., and H.T.H.N.; data curation, N.T.G., L.T.K.T., and H.T.H.N.;
writing—original draft preparation, L.T.K.T.; writing—review and editing, N.T.G.; visualization, L.T.K.T. and
H.T.H.N.; supervision, N.T.G.; project administration, N.T.G. and L.T.K.T.; funding acquisition, N.T.G. and L.T.K.T.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding
This work was funded by Vingroup Joint Stock Company and supported by the Domestic Master/PhD Scholarship
Programme of Vingroup Innovation Foundation (VINIF), Institute of Big Data, code [VINIF.2021.ThS.29].

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Evaluating the Potential of Recycled Asphalt for Sustainable

Road Construction: An Environmental and Economic Analysis
Muhamet Ahmeti 1 , Milaim Ahmetaj 1 , Visar Krelani 1*

1
Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Department, University for Business and Technology UBT, Pristina, Republic of Kosovo.
Abstract
Objective: This study investigated the possibility of using recycled asphalt for road construction and maintenance in
Kosovo. Methods: By analyzing statistical data from the Ministry of Infrastructure based on the status of infrastructure,
the life cycle of asphalt, and investments in this area, this study determined the amount of asphalt that needs to be recycled.
Results: The results showed that 1454008.5 m3 of asphalt needs to be recycled in Kosovo. We studied using 10%, 15%,
and 20% recycled asphalt in asphalt base courses. We determined the benefits of recycled asphalt in terms of environmental
protection, energy savings, and low cost. Depending on the percentage of recycled asphalt, the savings in mineral mix
ranged from 11% to 23% and the road bitumen dosage from 6 to 8.5%. Novelty/Improvement: The proposed method of
reusing recycled materials can reduce the consumption of natural resources, energy, and financial costs and help protect
the environment.
Keywords: Recycled Asphalt; Construction; Environmental; Kosovo; Road Network; Natural Resources.
1. Introduction
Asphalt is an artificial product made from various ingredients. It has been used in the construction sector for about
125 years, especially in railroad and road construction [1]. Advances in science and technology have enabled the
recycling of asphalt, thus favoring its reuse in construction infrastructure. Recycling has resulted in extracting fewer raw
materials from nature, saving energy, reducing costs, and protecting the environment [1]. The Republic of Kosovo covers
an area of 10,905.25 km2 [2]. The road network is 2434 km long and consists of 137.20 km (5.6%) of highways, 753.00
km (30.94%) of national roads, 1495.00 km (61.42%) of regional roads, and 18.8 km (2.00%) of connecting roads
(MMPHI, 2023). All these roads are asphalted, and the thickness of the asphalt varies from 15 to 30 cm depending on
the type of road [3]. According to the Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning, and Infrastructure (2023), the asphalt
layer's thickness on Kosovo roads varies from 15 cm to 30 m, with an average road width of 7 m [3]. The impact of the
asphalt business on the environment and economy can be reduced by using recycled asphalt pavement (RAP).
Recycled materials have been used for road construction for many years. RAP is used more frequently due to
improvements in material processing machinery and mix technology. The benefits of using RAP include economic
savings from reduced material consumption, environmental protection, and energy savings in the mix production [4].
Although asphalt mix is considered recyclable, indicating that RAP is a sustainable material, few studies have
comprehensively investigated its effectiveness [5]. RAP is more economically and environmentally beneficial when a
thin asphalt overlay is used than a new pavement. A net present value is assigned to the bitumen, the operation of the
plant, the aggregates, and the transportation of the raw material [6]. In 1999, after two years of war and decades of
* Corresponding author: visar.krelani@ubt-uni.net

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communist administration, Kosovo was among the countries in Europe with the least developed and underfunded road
infrastructure. Despite the recent increase in road infrastructure investment in the post-war period, Kosovo still lags
behind neighboring and European countries. Indicators show that recent and ongoing investments in Kosovo’s Road
infrastructure have positive economic, environmental, and social impacts [2, 3]. Road repairs using asphalt recycling
technology are more affordable and have a lower impact on the environment than traditional methods. RAP, the asphalt
produced during road repairs, is recycled into recycled asphalt mix, which is then used to construct new roads [7]. The
typical life of asphalt roads is 18 years. Many factors affect the actual results beyond the performance of concrete or
asphalt [8]. Like other countries, there are financial constraints on road infrastructure investments in Kosovo [9].
Identifying appropriate financing options and techniques to raise the necessary funds for road infrastructure development
is a major concern. Since traffic estimates indicate a significant increase in traffic, developing methods for financing
road infrastructure will continue to be a problem for several years [10].
This study analyzes Kosovo's roads and road infrastructure investments from 2005 to 2022. It proposes different
recycling solutions that are most appropriate in different circumstances. In addition, this study discusses the advantages
and disadvantages of each solution. Taking the necessary steps to ensure that recycled asphalt is properly placed and
maintained will ultimately save money and reduce waste in the long run. By taking appropriate steps to ensure that
recycled asphalt is properly placed and maintained, Kosovo can make the most of its aging road infrastructure and save
money. This paper presents a new analysis of the potential amount of recycled asphalt that can be easily determined
without complex calculations based on the dimensions and thickness of the asphalt layers, their deterioration date, and
when they need to be replaced. This simple method allows engineers to quickly analyze the amount of asphalt that can
be recycled and use the design mix to recycle the new asphalt according to the laboratory methodology.
This study investigated the use of recycled asphalt, evaluated the potential amount that could be used, and developed
a calculation method to determine the feasible amount. It also examined the economic, environmental, and other benefits
of using recycled asphalt in constructing roads and infrastructure where asphalt is the base material. This study collected
statistical information on the condition and evolution of road infrastructure over time, analyzed asphalt service life, and
determined the condition of roads and existing asphalt. Based on these findings, the potential amount of recycled asphalt
that can be reused in layered structures and other road structures was calculated.
I. Study design: a quantitative research design was used, including a case study, data collection, data analysis,
statistical analysis, and calculation and interpretation of data.
II. Data collection: the study was conducted using statistical data from the Ministry of Infrastructure on the condition
of road infrastructure from 2006 to 2022. In addition, this study analyzed infrastructure investment before 2006 and
road infrastructure investment from 2006 to 1975.
III. Data Analysis: The analysis was based on statistical data on road conditions and years of construction and involved
various studies that examine asphalt service life. Years of construction were compared to the life of the asphalt and
the time it takes to repair the asphalt layers and replace the last layer. In addition, the potential amount of recycled
asphalt resulting from this data was calculated.
Two major routes (6 and 7) connecting the area with EU transit through Kosovo are part of a larger Southeast
European core network (Figure 1) [3, 9].
Figure 1. Infrastructure of Kosovo
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Most major and minor roads have been constructed or upgraded to highway standards, and work is ongoing on many
others. Determining the amount of recyclable asphalt is critical because it can help determine the amount of recycled
asphalt that can be used in Kosovo. Road repairs using recycled asphalt technology are more affordable and have a lower
environmental impact than traditional methods. Asphalt roads typically last 18 years, but actual performance depends
on many factors beyond the properties of concrete or asphalt [11]. Like many other countries, there are financial
constraints on road infrastructure investments in Kosovo.
Table 1. Roads of Kosovo according to categories by years and category
Year Motorway (Km) National (Km) Regional (Km) Connecting roads (Km) Total (Km)
2022 137.200 753.000 1495.000 48.800 2434.000
2021 137.150 753.440 1494.930 46.880 2432.400
2020 137.200 755.200 1486.300 46.880 2378.700
2019 137.200 665.200 1509.400 38.105 2311.700
2018 119.100 641.700 1313.900 .. 2074.700
2017 108.000 630.400 1305.000 .. 2043.400
2016 98.000 630.400 1305.000 .. 2033.400
2015 78.000 630.400 1305.000 .. 2013.400
2014 78.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 2003.100
2013 78.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 2003.100
2012 60.400 630.400 1294.700 .. 1985.500
2011 38.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1963.100
2010 0.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1925.100
2009 0.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1925.100
2008 0.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1925.100
2007 0.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1925.100
2006 0.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1925.100
2005 0.000 630.400 1294.700 .. 1925.100
In order to achieve this goal, a research methodology was used that included four main phases: Field studies,
laboratory analysis, interpretation of results, and document evaluation (Figure 2).
Identify Problem
Data Collection
Collection of the data on Kosovo's Analysis of asphalt lifespan based

asphalt roads from 2005 to 2022 on different literature and analysis
Processing and Analysis
Analysis of asphalted and built Analysis of the state of highways,

roads before the war in Kosovo highways, regional, local, and
1999 connecting roads
Results and Discussions
Method of extraction of recycled Calculation of the possible amount

asphalt of asphalt that can be recycled
Conclusion
Conclusion New in this paper
Figure 2. Flowchart of the methodology
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3.1. History of Asphalt Recycling
The asphalt industry has had considerable success recycling asphalt pavement. Although asphalt pavement
recycling was introduced in 1915, it did not catch on until the early 1970s, when asphalt binder prices increased due
to the 1973 Arab oil embargo [12]. The asphalt industry responded to this situation by developing recycling
technologies that helped reduce the need for asphalt binders and, thus, the cost of asphalt mixtures. Many of the
processes originally developed during this period are still in use today and have become an integral part of routine
pavement construction and rehabilitation operations [13]. Motivations for recycling include economic savings and
environmental benefits. Recycling reduces the demand for non-renewable natural resources (both bitumen and
aggregates), thus reducing the energy and emissions associated with the extraction and transportation of these raw
materials [14].
In addition, recycling helps to avoid landfilling old pavement material that is removed during rehabilitation.
Economic benefits come from the material cost savings that result from replacing some of the new aggregate and
bitumen [15]. An asphalt mixture's bitumen and aggregate components account for most road construction costs.
Advances in hot mix plant technology have enabled the successful integration of RAP and rejuvenators throughout
the asphalt manufacturing process [16]. According to a 2017 survey, European countries, including Belgium,
Finland, the United Kingdom, Hungary, and Slovakia, recycled over 90% of the available RAP to produce hot and
warm asphalt for wearing courses [17].
3.2. Factors Affecting the Life of Asphalt

The longevity of asphalt depends on whether it is a completely new surface or just an overlay. The typical life of
asphalt parking lots and roadways is 20 years. New surfaces can last up to 20 years and are often more durable. In
contrast, the surface is more likely to deteriorate over time and is unlikely to last more than 10 to 15 years [18]. The
exposure of asphalt to traffic, both in terms of quantity and type, affects its longevity. If asphalt pavement is used
only for passenger car traffic, it should last much longer. However, its life is shortened when asphalt pavement
supports heavy loads and large equipment [19]. If these problems are not corrected, it may be necessary to resurface
the entire asphalt lot. Resurfacing the entire parking lot or street area is often more cost -effective when 25–35% of
the area requires significant removal [5, 20]. Although asphalt roads are inexpensive, durable, and resilient, they
have a regular life cycle. A properly constructed, low-traffic asphalt road installed by professionals can survive up
to 25 years or more [21].
3.3. How to Calculate the Amount of Recycled Asphalt?

The longevity of asphalt depends on whether it is a completely new surface or just an overlay. The typical life of
asphalt parking lots and roadways is 20 years. New surfaces can last up to 20 years and are often more durable. In
contrast, the surface of an overlay deteriorates over time and is unlikely to last more than 10 to 15 years [18]. The
exposure of asphalt to traffic, both in terms of quantity and type, affects its longevity. If asphalt pavement is used only
for passenger car traffic, it should last much longer.
However, if asphalt pavement is used to support heavy loads and large equipment [19], its life would be
shortened. If these problems are not corrected, it may be necessary to resurface the entire asphalt lot. Repaving the
entire parking lot or road surface is often more cost-effective when 25%-35% of the surface area requires
significant removal [20]. Although asphalt roads are inexpensive, durable, and resilient, they have a regular life
cycle. A properly constructed asphalt road with low traffic installed by qualified professionals can survive up to
25 years or longer [21].
3.4. Pavement Demolition

Complete demolition of an existing sidewalk can provide recycled material. Mechanical tools, such as bulldozers or
excavators, can accomplish this. Only small pieces of pavement can be used for this technique [22-25]. Large chunks of
pavement produced by this retarded method may be more difficult to recycle due to their size [26]. Before being used
as shoulder or subgrade material, the material must be crushed if it is contaminated with soil. In many locations in
Kosovo, asphalt waste has been removed from existing roads in various forms, either by excavation (Figures 3 to 5) or
by erosion (Figure 6).
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Figure 3. Full-Depth Demolition
Figure 4. Full-Depth demolition of asphalt thickness 15 to 30 cm
Figure 5. Full-Depth Demolition of asphalt thickness 15 to 30 cm
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Figure 6. Asphalt erosion on the roads that will be replaced with the final 5 cm layer
4. Calculation of the Possible Amount of Asphalt that Can be Recycled in Kosovo

In Kosovo, many roads have been asphalted for over 30 to 60 years, and about 80% need to be renewed. Many of
these roads are restored with new asphalt, removing the old asphalt first, and about 80% of them need to be resurfaced.
Many of these roads are being reconstructed with new asphalt, removing the old asphalt and then placing the new asphalt;
these roads are being converted to two-lane roads [27]. The maximum service life of asphalt is 30 years [28]. However,
in Kosovo, this service life is much shorter due to the poor quality of asphalt and companies' lack of experience working
in road infrastructure [29]. Therefore, the average life of asphalt will not exceed 20 years. In addition, the rehabilitation
and intervention of completed roads do not exceed 5 to 10 years after completion. Based on these data, the amount of
asphalt that can be recycled can be calculated. Reconstruction of new roads in Kosovo usually takes place on average
seven years after completion; removing the asphalt and paving a new layer is usually used. Erosion is usually up to 5
cm (Figure 6) since most roads have a final layer that is not basalt or abrasive materials, and the new layer should be
made of abrasion-resistant materials.
As shown in Table 2, roads in Kosovo are considerably old, with about 1925.1 km (or about 13475700.00 m 2
calculated using average road width) built more than 30 years ago. The average thickness of asphalt is about 15 cm, as
shown in photo 4. There are about 202135.00 m3 of asphalt on roads older than 30 years, which is the maximum life of
asphalt. No investments were made in road infrastructure before 2010.
Table 2. Roads of Kosovo according to categories: Calculation of the possible amount of asphalt that can be recycled
7 m road
Construction Construction Construction Connecting Construction 15 cm thickness
Year Motorway National Regional Total width is taken
progress progress progress roads km progress of the asphalt
as an average
km km km km km km km km km m2 m3
2022 137.2 - 755.0 - 1495.0 - 48.8 1.92 2434.00 17038000.00 2555700.00
2021 137.15 - 755.0 - 1494.93 8.6 46.88 - 2432.40 17026800.00 2554020.00
2020 137.2 - 755.0 89.8 1486.3 - 46.88 8.77 2378.70 16650900.00 2497635.00
2019 137.2 18.1 665.2 23.5 1486.3 172.4 38.105 38.10 2311.70 16181900.00 2427285.00
2018 119.1 11.1 641.7 11.3 1313.9 8.9 - - 2074.70 14522900.00 2178435.00
2017 108 10 630.4 - 1305 - - - 2043.40 14303800.00 2145570.00
2016 98 20 630.4 - 1305 - - - 2033.40 14233800.00 2135070.00
2015 78 - 630.4 - 1305 10.3 - - 2013.40 14093800.00 2114070.00
2014 78 - 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 2003.10 14021700.00 2103255.00
2013 78 17.6 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 2003.10 14021700.00 2103255.00
2012 60.4 22.4 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1985.50 13898500.00 2084775.00
2011 38 38 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1963.10 13741700.00 2061255.00
2010 0 - 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1925.10 13475700.00 2021355.00
2009 0 - 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1925.10 13475700.00 2021355.00
2008 0 - 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1925.10 13475700.00 2021355.00
2007 0 - 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1925.10 13475700.00 2021355.00
2006 0 - 630.4 - 1294.7 - - - 1925.10 13475700.00 2021355.00
2005 0 - 630.4 630.4 1294.7 1294.7 - - 1925.1 13475700 2021355.00
Total 137.2 km 755 km 1494.9 km 48.8 km
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1975 to 2010:
 Considering that only about 70% of this surface is completely removed and the rest is corroded and resurfaced,
we can expect this amount of recycled asphalt.
 With an average thickness of the asphalt of about 15 cm (Figures 3 to 5), we can obtain 1414948.5 m3 of
recovered asphalt.
2011 to 2018:
 This amount would be increased to 781200.00 m2 × 0.05 = 39060.0 m3, with the remainder being repaired by
erosion with a depth of 5 cm (Figure 6).
 After calculating the total amount of asphalt that could be recycled, we arrive at the following figure: 1454008.5
m3 = 1414948.5 + 39060 m3. This is the highest amount of asphalt that can be recycled.
The importance of recycling asphalt from the point of view of environmental protection, energy consumption, and
economic efficiency was studied by analyzing the use of recycled asphalt in a proportion of 10%, 15%, and 20% for the
asphalt base layer [30]. The following components were used to produce asphalt mixtures.
 Stone powder;
 Smaller stone fractions 0/4, 4/8, 8/16, and 16/31;
 Bitumen for road construction 50/70.
Three recycled asphalt mixtures with different proportions of road bitumen (5.2%, 5.50%, and 6.10%) were studied
in the laboratory to prepare test formulations [1, 31]. Based on the laboratory results, an ideal granulometric composition
of 4.90% 50/70 road bitumen was established following the standard EN 12697-8 and considering the percentage of
voids and their filling. The General Technical Conditions for Road Construction specify limit values [32]. Formulations
for the production of asphalt mixtures were prepared. Following laboratory tests, the production of BNHS-22 was
started, an asphalt mixture with different proportions of recycled asphalt (10%, 15%, and 20%) [33]. The obtained results
are presented in Table 3 and show the possible savings in producing asphalt mixtures. Depending on the percentage of
recycled asphalt, the savings in the mineral mix ranged from 11% to 23% and in the dosage of road bitumen from 6%
to 8.5%.
Table 3. In the manufacturing of mixed asphalt, savings were planned for and accomplished
10% recycled 15% recycled 20% recycled

Bituminized bearing wear layer BNHS-22
asphalt asphalt asphalt
Realized savings of mineral mixture about 11% about 19 % about 23 %
The expected proportion of road bitumen before
4.90 – 5.10 % 4.80 – 5.00 % 4.80 – 5.00 %
production based on laboratory tests
5.20-6.00 kg/t 7.80-9.10 kg/t 10.40-12.10 kg/t
Planned savings in the dosing of road bitumen
(10.50 – 12.20 %) (15.80 – 18.50 %) (21.20 – 24.70 %)
Real saving of road construction bitumen 4 kg/t (8.33 %) 4.20 kg/t (8.57 %) 3.00 kg/t (6.12 %)
The granulometric composition of the mixture, the density of asphalt samples according to EN 12697-5, the density
of asphalt mixtures according to EN 12697-6, the percentage of voids, and the filling of voids according to EN 12697-
6 were determined by laboratory tests. One of the most common uses of construction waste worldwide is the admixture
of recycled asphalt aggregates in new asphalt mixtures [34]. Recycled asphalt aggregates have been proven in road
construction in established European countries over many years, first on test sections under real conditions and then as
a standard material. Recycled asphalt has long been used to produce fresh asphalt in European countries [35].
5. Conclusion
The Republic of Kosovo, with an area of 10905.25 km2, has a road network of 2434 km, consisting of 137.20 km
(5.6%) of highways, 753.00 km (30.94%) of national roads, 1495.00 km (61.42%) of regional roads, and 18.8 km
(2.00%) of connecting roads. Many roads in Kosovo are rehabilitated and built with new asphalt, where the old asphalt
is first removed and then replaced with new asphalt, or old roads are converted into two-lane roads. The maximum
service life of asphalt is 30 years. However, in Kosovo, this lifespan is much shorter due to the poor quality of asphalt
and the lack of experience of companies involved in infrastructure work. Moreover, rehabilitation works and
interventions on completed roads are carried out 5 to 10 years after completion using different proportions of reclaimed
asphalt. Recycled asphalt has long been used in European countries to produce fresh asphalt. However, asphalt recycling
has been used only in Kosovo in the last two decades. This work determined the amount of asphalt that needs to be
recycled in Kosovo. It is estimated at 1454008.5 m3. The analysis of 10%, 15%, and 20% recycled asphalt in asphalt
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base courses showed the importance of recycling asphalt in terms of environmental protection, energy savings, and
economic prospects. Depending on the percentage of recycled asphalt, the savings in mineral mix ranged from 11% to
23% and the road bitumen dosage from 6% to 8.5%. Asphalt recycling in Kosovo is crucial for conserving natural
resources and the environment. It reduces the demand for new natural resources, energy, and transportation and promotes
integrated natural resource management. Kosovo should adopt recycling solutions such as in-place and in-plant
technologies that reduce resource waste and lower road maintenance and construction costs to maximize the cost-saving
benefits of recycled asphalt. The decision to use hot or cold methods should be based on cost, environmental impact,
and the ability to produce a mix that meets design specifications.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, Mu.A. and Mi.A.; methodology, V.K.; formal analysis, Mu.A.; investigation, Mu.A; data
curation, Mu.A; writing—original draft preparation, Mu.A. and V.K.; writing—review and editing, Mu.A.;
visualization, V.K.; supervision, Mi.A.; funding acquisition, V.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published

6.3. Funding

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[24] Rusbintardjo, G. (2014). Recycled: Take Advantage of Old Surface Pavement Recycled Material for Base Layer in New
Pavement. Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany.
[25] Xiao, F., Yao, S., Wang, J., Li, X., & Amirkhanian, S. (2018). A literature review on cold recycling technology of asphalt
pavement. Construction and Building Materials, 180, 579-604. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.006.
[26] Oeser, M., Wistuba, M., Liu, P., & Wang. (2023). Temperature Reduction Technologies Meet Asphalt Pavement: Green and
Sustainability. MDPI Books, Basel, Switzerland. doi:10.3390/books978-3-0365-6519-4.
[27] Richard Willis, J. & Howard, I. L. (2020). Asphalt Recycling. TR NEWS, Mississippi State, United States.
[28] Harvey, J., Al-Qadi, I. L., Ozer, H., & Flintsch, G. (2020). Pavement, Roadway, and Bridge Life Cycle Assessment 2020. CRC
Press, London, United Kingdom. doi:10.1201/9781003092278.
[29] Willis, J. R., & Marasteanu, M. (2013). Improved Mix Design, Evaluation, and Materials Management Practices for Hot Mix
Asphalt with High Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Content. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP),
Transportation Research Board (TRB), Washington, United States. doi:10.17226/22554.
[30] Xiao, Y., Erkens, S., Li, M., Ma, T., & Liu, X. (2020). Sustainable designed pavement materials. Materials, 13(7), 1575.
doi:10.3390/ma13071575.
[31] Nguyen, N. L., & Le Vu, P. (2022). Eco-friendly Super Sulphated Cement Concrete Using Vietnam Phosphogypsum and Sodium
Carbonate Na2CO3. Civil Engineering Journal, 8(11), 2445-2460. doi:10.28991/CEJ-2022-08-11-06.
[32] De Bock, L. (2006). Recycled asphalt pavement. In Use of Recycled Materials, 45–51. doi:10.1617/2912143691.005.
[33] Filippi, A., Carsana, M., Lollini, F., & Redaelli, E. (2022). Characterization of Recycled Asphalt Pavement as Aggregate for
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1490

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
The Influence of Climatic Aging on the Performance of Wood-

Based Panels
Ekaterina Pakhomova 1, Sergey Emelyanov 2*, Viktor Yartsev 3 , Vladislav Danilov 3 ,

Pavel Monastyrev 3
1
Dean of the Faculty of Construction and Architect, Southwest State University, Russian Federation.
2
Rector of the Southwest State University, Southwest State University, Russian Federation.
3
Institute of Architecture, Construction and Transport, Tambov State Technical University, Russian Federation.
Abstract
The purpose of this work is to experimentally determine the climatic effects on the performance of wood-based panels
using the methodology developed on the basis of the thermo-fluctuation concept of material aging. This methodology
makes it possible to determine the durability of the material by taking into account the simultaneous action of temperature,
time, and mechanical stress, as well as additional external influences. The experiments were conducted on particleboard,
fiberboard, and plywood. The following climatic effects were studied experimentally in specialized laboratory facilities:
high humidity, thermal aging, and UV-irradiation. As the evaluation indicators of the performance characteristics of wood
boards were selected, water absorption, swelling rate, thermal expansion, penetration strength, and bending strength. From
a theoretical point of view, the value of this work lies in demonstrating a methodology for determining the performance
characteristics of particleboard, fiberboard, and plywood, which is highly accurate by considering these characteristics
together rather than separately. From a practical point of view, this paper contains experimental results that allow us to
judge the characteristics of the wood boards. It has been proven that exposure to UV rays and heat aging causes the binder
between the filler particles to break down, and moisture is detrimental to the filler. The thermo-fluctuational constants
obtained in the course of the study make it possible to predict the durability of the materials in question over a large range
of operating parameters.
Keywords: Fiberboard; Chipboard; Thermal Fluctuation; Panels ; Plywood.
1. Introduction
One of the main methods of residential or small commercial structure construction is the use of wooden structures.
Wood frame construction is popular partly because of its economical technology and wide availability of materials.
Currently, there is an active replacement of natural wood with its modernized artificial analogs, wood composites. The
reason for this is both the general development of scientific and technological potential and economic development [1].
Wood composites are usually considered to be wood modified by polymers [2]. Such materials include particleboard,
fiberboard, and plywood, which are considered in this paper. It is also worth noting that the list of such materials is quite
wide, but those considered in this paper are the most common around the world.
All building materials are exposed to external influences (moisture, exposure to low and elevated temperatures,
ultraviolet, etc.) during operation. The impact of external factors can lead to the aging of building materials, i.e., a change
in their structure, as well as the deterioration of their operational properties (strength, heat resistance, etc.) [3, 4].
* Corresponding author: bvv001@mail.ru

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In world practice, when studying the strength characteristics of particle boards, fiberboard, and plywood, maximum
strength values were obtained under various types of loading (transverse bending, compression, stretching, punching,
etc.) under normal conditions [3–5]. Currently, the physical and mechanical characteristics of wood slabs with
modernizing additives affecting fire resistance, moisture resistance, etc. are being studied [6–13]. Due to the wide
availability of such materials, the possibility of using such materials in seismic areas is being studied [14]. It is also
worth noting that researchers in some countries are studying the properties of adapted types of wood slabs for local raw
materials [15–18]. For example, the use of bamboo filled with modernizing additives [19]. It should be noted that some
attempts were made to study the long-term strength of particle boards, fiberboard, and plywood, but without taking into
account the joint work of various influencing factors [20–22]. The material is exposed to prolonged loads in combination
with the effects of temperature and humidity influences, atmospheric influences, and solar radiation in the process of
manufacturing and operation at the same time, and it must be comprehensively studied as well.
This work is based on the basic ideas of the thermo-fluctuation concept, which considers the failure of the structure
(destruction of chemical bonds) due to the joint work of the energy of thermal motion of atoms and the work of an
external force. This principle was developed by S.N. Zhurkov and was further significantly refined by Soviet and
Russian scientists. Accounting for the durability of materials based on this concept is currently a rather labor-intensive
method, but it has high accuracy. Because of its high labor intensity, this method is still under development and is
currently used only in post-Soviet countries, especially in Russia [23].
Currently, in the thermo-fluctuation concept, the durability of the material is described by the following formula:
𝑈0 −𝛾⋅𝜎
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚 ⋅ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ⋅ (𝑇 −1 − 𝑇𝑚−1 )] (1)
𝑅
where τ is the durability of the material or the time before the onset of one of the limiting states, [s]; R is universal gas
constant, [kJ/mol·K]; σ is stress, [MPa]; T is temperature, [К]; τ m is minimum fracture time of a solid, characterized by
the oscillation period of a particular kinetic unit (atom, group of atoms or segments), [s]; U0 is maximum activation
energy of the destruction process, which is determined by the bonding energy preventing the loss of body integrity, and
in metals is close to the sublimation energy; in polymers, it is close to the activation energy of the thermo destruction
process, i.e., the maximum activation energy of destruction is numerically close to the activation energy of interatomic
bond decay in solids, [kJ/mol]; γ is a structural-mechanical constant characterizing the efficiency of the mechanical
field when the load is applied to the body [kJ/(mol∙MPa)]; T m is the limiting temperature of existence at which the
chemical bonds of the polymer are destroyed in a single thermal fluctuation, [K].
Fracture of solids is a process that is thermally active over time and constantly evolving. The formula contains the
multiplier "𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑈/𝑘𝑇)". This multiplier is the inverse of the Boltzmann factor. The task of this multiplier is to provide
a description of the rate of standard physical and chemical processes. Such processes include: chemical reactions,
diffusion, evaporation, phase transitions, etc. In view of the fact that the rate of the named processes accelerates with
increasing temperature, such processes are called thermo active [24]. Such processes are performed if the system is
metastable. The elements in such a system pass from one state to another by means of thermal fluctuations, overcoming
the energy barrier expressed by the "U" value. At the moment when the mechanical load is established, the acceleration
of breaking intermolecular and interatomic bonds begins. Since the applied load has a certain direction, the process
cannot be stopped because mechanical destruction occurs by the elementary act of breaking intermolecular and
interatomic bonds. This phenomenon is called the mechanothermal process. This process proceeds over time, which, in
turn, increases the number of thermal fluctuations. In connection with the above, we can say that time does not play a
large role but only increases the number of thermal fluctuations required for the transition from one energy state to
another [25, 26].

A set of studies, including six types of experiments, was carried out in this work to explore the influence of climatic
factors on the operational properties of wood slabs. These experiments include determining the effects of increased
humidity, UV irradiation, and thermal aging by evaluating the parameters of water absorption, swelling rate, thermal
expansion, penetration strength, and transverse bending strength. Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the study.
2.1. Methodology for Determining the Effect of UV Irradiation and Thermal Aging on the Water Absorption
Process
The first experiment is aimed at identifying the possibility of breaking bonds in a material under the influence of
ultraviolet irradiation and thermal aging. This dependence is revealed when studying the absorption of liquid media by
the material and its swelling. The choice of water as a liquid medium is due to the high influence on the characteristics
of wooden composites. In addition, water is the most common liquid medium. In view of this, the study is carried out
with its application.
Determination of the resistance of wood slabs to ultraviolet radiation is carried out in a special camera of artificial
photoaging. The process of thermal aging is carried out by heat treatment in a drying cabinet. Figure 2 shows an artificial
photo aging chamber and a drying oven.
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Figure 1. Block diagram of the research methodology
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Artificial photo aging chamber (a), and drying cabinet (b)
Water absorption is determined by the formula:

𝑚н −𝑚к
В= ⋅ 100 (2)
𝑚н
where mн is the sample mass before the test, [kg]; mк is the sample mass after staying in water, [kg].
The swelling of the material in thickness is determined by a similar formula:
𝑐н −𝑐к
В= ⋅ 100 (3)
𝑐н
where cн is the height of the sample before the test, [mm]; cк is the height of the sample after its stay in the water, [mm].
Tests were conducted in water at temperatures of 20, 40 and 60 oC before and after exposure to UV irradiation and
heat aging. UV irradiation and heat aging were performed for 50 hours for each sample. Samples of size 20×20×20 mm
were used for the experiments.
2.2. Method for Determining the Effect of Ultraviolet Irradiation and Thermal Aging on the Swelling Rate
The second experiment determines the effect of ultraviolet irradiation and thermal aging on the swelling rate of wood
slabs. The determination of the swelling rate is determined by rearranging by grapho-analytic differentiation of the
graphs of the effect of thermal aging and UV irradiation on swelling into the coordinates of the logarithm of the swelling
rate from the inverse temperature. The Arrhenius equation is used to describe them:
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𝐸
𝑤 = 𝑤0 ⋅ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) (4)
𝑅𝑇
where w is swelling rate, [%]; w0 is pre-exponential multiplier, [%/с]; E is activation energy of swelling, [kJ/mol]; R is
universal gas constant, [kJ/mol·K]; T is temperature, [К].
2.3. Methodology for Determining the Effect of Ultraviolet Irradiation and Swelling on Thermal Expansion
The third experiment is aimed to identify the effect of ultraviolet irradiation and swelling on the thermal expansion
of wood slabs. Dilatometric studies make it possible to determine not only the temperatures of phase transitions, but also
to investigate the influence of various factors on them (molecular weight, thermal background, heating rate, etc.). The
type of dilatometric curves in the transition region depends on the structure of macromolecules and the supramolecular
structure of the polymer, which makes it possible to study the nature of transitions in copolymers, branched and cross-
linked polymers, in polymer-polymer and polymer-low molecular weight substance systems, etc.
At elevated temperatures and soaking, the dimensions of building structures change, causing significant thermal or
humidity loads in the material. The research consists in constructing dilatometric graphs based on experimental data
[10]. The experiment is carried out on a linear dilatometer at a constant heating rate of 1.65 oC/min. The tests are carried
out in a free state, after ultraviolet irradiation and after soaking in water. According to the obtained curves, the coefficient
of linear thermal expansion is determined by the formula:
1 𝛥𝑙
𝛼= ⋅ (5)
𝑙0 𝛥𝑇
where α is coefficient of linear thermal expansion, [1/oC]; l0 is initial sample length, [мм]; Δl is elongation of the sample
[mm] when the temperature changes by the value of ΔT [oC].
Since the dependencies are not linear, they are divided into linear sections, where for each section is the coefficient
of linear thermal expansion. Then this coefficient is averaged and taken as common for the entire graph. Figure 3 shows
the optical dilatometer.
Figure 3. Optical dilatometer
2.4. Method for Determining the Effect of Temperature on Transverse Bending Strength
The fourth experiment determines the effect of temperature on the strength of wood slabs before and after UV
irradiation. The test consists in transverse bending of the elements of wood slabs at various constant temperatures (20,
30, 40, 50 and 60 oC) before and after UV irradiation. The samples are loaded stepwise on a six-position stand (Figure
4). This stand consists of frame, which is made of channels. On the support platform of the frame, two roller supports
are installed at a distance from each other equal to the span of the beam (50 mm). The sample is placed on roller supports
and loaded using a loading device. The increased temperature is created by rod electric heaters. To reduce heat loss and
create a directed heat flow to the support platform, a casing is installed and fixed to the frame. The temperature is set by
a laboratory autotransformer and regulated by a potentiometer in the range 0... 300 °C and additionally controlled by a
thermometer with an accuracy of ± 1 °C. It should be noted that the thermocouple and the thermometer ball are located
in the zone of destruction of the working part of the sample. To eliminate mechanical vibrations during the destruction
of samples, a damping device was used – a container filled with sand.
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Figure 4. Six-position stand
2.5. Method for Determining the Effect of Temperature on Penetration Strength

The fifth experiment shows the patterns of behavior of wood slabs during melting. The tests are carried out in the
mode of specified constant stress before and after ultraviolet irradiation at different temperatures (20, 40, and 60 oC).
The experiment is carried out using a lever installation with a long lever length. The depth of the dive is recorded by the
hourly indicator. The constants of thermal oscillations describing the introduction of the indenter into the surface of the
material were obtained during standard grapho-analytic rearrangements. Based on the experimental data obtained,
graphs are constructed in lgt – σ coordinates. The next step is the standard permutation of a family of fan-shaped straight
lines into lgt - 1000/T coordinates. The constants tm and Tm are determined by the pole of these lines. The constants U 0
and g are found from a graph constructed in the coordinates U 0 – σ. The constant U0 is the value formed along the
ordinate axis (U0, kJ/mol) by the intersection point of the line, and g is the angular coefficient of the line taken with the
opposite sign.
2.6. Method for Determining the Effect of Moisture Absorption on Transverse Bending Strength
The sixth experiment is aimed at studying the effect of humidity on the durability of wooden slabs. Pre-soaked
samples in water for 1 hour. Then their bearing capacity is determined during transverse bending on a six-position stand,
in the mode of constant set temperatures and stresses. Then, according to the experimental data obtained, a graph is
plotted in the coordinates of the logarithm of the durability of the voltage.

3.1. Effects of UV Irradiation and Thermal Aging on Water Absorption
Water significantly affects the physical and mechanical characteristics of wood materials. The tests were carried out
in water at constant temperatures (20, 40, 60 oC) before and after exposure to thermal aging and ultraviolet irradiation.
Based on the results obtained, kinetic curves were constructed in the coordinates of water absorption from the exposure
time in water and swelling from the exposure time in water. The curves have an exponential shape. Figure 5 shows
graphs of water absorption of fiberboard, chipboard and plywood without external influences, Figure 6 shows graphs of
swelling.
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Figure 5. Water absorption of wood boards without external influence: a - chipboard; b - fiberboard; c – plywood
(a)
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(b)
۴
Figure 6. Swelling of wood slabs without external influence:
Due to the fact that the nature of the curves does not change under the influence of thermal aging and ultraviolet
irradiation, the results obtained are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Effect of thermal aging and UV irradiation on water absorption of wood boards
Water absorption at ambient temperature, [%]

Material Impact time, (min) Type of exposure
20 oC 40 oC 60 oC
Without exposure 0…5 0…8 0…13

Сhipboard 0…24 UV irradiation 0…4 0…7 0…10
Heat aging 0…7 0…9 0…12
Without exposure 0…3 0…7 0...21
Fiberboard 0…24 UV irradiation 0…2 0…10 0…15
Heat aging 0…4 0…8 0…12
Plywood 0…24 UV irradiation 0…45 0…55 0…70
Heat aging 0…45 0…64 0…75
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Table 2. Effect of thermal aging and UV irradiation on wood board swelling slabs
Swelling at ambient temperature, [%]

Material Impact time, (min) Type of exposure
20 oC 40 oC 60 oC

Сhipboard 0…24 UV irradiation 0…17 0…32 0…60
Heat aging 0…21 0…42 0…63

Fiberboard 0…24 UV irradiation 0…10 0…70 0…98
Heat aging 0…17 0…48 0…78

Plywood 0…24 UV irradiation 0…9 0…10 0…13
Heat aging 0…12 0…11 0…11.2
Based on the above results, it was found that the processes of swelling and water absorption occur most strongly at
the initial site (for 50 ... 100 minutes), after which they slow down or stabilize. At the same time, the speed of the
processes is strongly influenced by the temperature of the water. Thus, when heated to 60 °C, the water absorption value
of wood boards increases from 2 (plywood) to 5 (fiberboard) times. After thermal aging and ultraviolet irradiation, the
behavior of wood boards and plywood in water changes. So, at room temperature after thermal aging, the amount of
water absorption increases by 1.3-1.5 times. And after exposure to ultraviolet radiation, they behave differently: the
water absorption of plywood and fiberboard increases slightly, and chipboard decreases. When water is heated to 60 oC,
a drop in the value of their water absorption is a characteristic of all materials both after thermal aging and after
ultraviolet irradiation. At the same time, chipboard and plywood are characterized by the lowest water absorption after
exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and for fiberboard - thermal aging. When swelling, the materials behave in a similar
way. From the results obtained, it follows that in wood slabs, under the influence of ultraviolet irradiation and thermal
aging, there is a violation of the bonds between the filler particles. As a result, materials become less susceptible to the
action of water.
3.2. Results of Determining the Effect of UV Irradiation and Thermal Aging on the Swelling Rate
To determine the characteristics of water absorption of wood slabs, the dependences of the swelling rate on the
reverse temperature were constructed (Figure 7). It can be seen from the figures that straight lines were obtained as a
result.
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Figure 7. Dependence of the swelling rate of wood slabs in water on the reverse temperature: a - chipboard; b - fiberboard;
c – plywood (1 - without exposure; 2 - UV irradiation; 3 - thermal aging)
The preexponent is determined by extrapolating this straight line to the ordinate axis (swelling rate), and the
activation energy of this process is defined as the tangent of the angle of inclination of the straight line. The results
obtained are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Values of physical constants of swelling of wood slabs
Material Type of exposure E, kJ/mol lgv E/lgv

Without exposure 13.7 3.4 4.03
Сhipboard UV irradiation 43.97 8.6 5.11
Heat aging 30.74 6.65 4.63
Fiberboard UV irradiation 61.47 7.65 8.04
Heat aging 35.13 11.55 3.04
Plywood UV irradiation 19.96 2.2 9.07
Heat aging 21.95 4.6 4.77
It can be seen from the table that the constants characterizing the swelling rate vary depending on the type of wood
slab and the impact. Moreover, thermal aging is the most dangerous for plywood and fiberboard, and ultraviolet
irradiation is for chipboard. So, for fiberboard E and lgv is 2 times more than for chipboard. In plywood, these values
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have an intermediate value. To assess the degree of climate impact, consider the E/lgv ratio. It can be seen from the table
that all the studied wood slabs are highly resistant to ultraviolet radiation. The data obtained make it possible to predict
the rate of swelling of wood slabs after exposure.
3.3. Results of Determining the Effect of UV Irradiation and Swelling on Thermal Expansion
The behavior of wood slabs in the free state when heated at a given rate before and after ultraviolet irradiation and
swelling in water was also studied. The results are shown in Figures 8 & 9, and Table 4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 8. The effect of UV irradiation on the linear thermal expansion of a wood slab:a - chipboard; b - fiberboard; c –
plywood (1 - without exposure; 2 - after UV irradiation)
1500
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9. The effect of swelling on the linear thermal expansion of a wood slab: a - chipboard; b - fiberboard; c – plywood (1
- without exposure; 2 - after swelling)
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Table 4. Values of coefficients of linear thermal expansion of building composites
Material Type of exposure Coefficient of linear thermal expansion α×10-6, 1/oC
Without exposure 76
Сhipboard UV irradiation 109
Swelling 781
Without exposure 121
Fiberboard UV irradiation 167
Swelling 111
Without exposure 131
Plywood UV irradiation 99
Swelling 61
The coefficients of linear thermal expansion are determined by the obtained curves. From the data obtained, it can
be seen that exposure to ultraviolet radiation increases the coefficient of linear thermal expansion for fiberboard by 1.3
times, and for chipboard by almost 1.5 times. For plywood, on the contrary, there is a decrease of 1.2 times. After
soaking, the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the chipboard increases by 10 times, which is associated with the
destruction of the physical bonds of this material. For fiberboard, on the contrary, the coefficient value decreased by 1.1
times, and for plywood - by 2.2 times.
3.4. Results of Determining the Effect of Temperature on Transverse Bending Strength

Structural transitions after photoaging were determined, which are characterized by transition temperatures: for
plywood, these are temperatures of 40 and 70 oC. After ultraviolet irradiation, the transition temperature shifts to a
higher temperature range (50–90 oC). This is due to the layered structure of the material. In fiberboard, the transition
points do not shift because the fibers in this material are oriented. The particle board had three transition points
before external influences: at temperatures of 40, 60, and 80 oC. After ultraviolet irradiation in the range of 40–80
o
C, the point disappears, i.e., the structure of the material in this temperature range is leveled. There is a resorption
of internal stresses.
Experimental results of the influence of temperature on the strength of wood slabs before and after ultraviolet
irradiation are shown in Figure 10.
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Figure 10. The effect of temperature on the strength of wood slabs before and after UV irradiation: a - chipboard; b -
fiberboard; c – plywood (1 - without exposure; 2 - after UV irradiation)
It can be seen from the figure that after ultraviolet irradiation, the strength of the fiberboard is significantly reduced.
Ultraviolet has a negative effect on the emulsion of rosin and paraffin, which are part of the binder of the fiberboard;
the bond between the fibers weakens, and they begin to work as free. Thus, the load required for the destruction of the
material is reduced. On the contrary, in plywood, the strength increases after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. This is
due to the so-called shielding effect: the upper veneer protects the polymer layer from destruction, and the wood itself
becomes stronger after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The short-term strength of chipboard practically does not
change after UV irradiation: the structure of the material becomes more homogeneous, the binder loses strength, and the
filler, consisting of sufficiently large chips, acquires strength.
Based on the data from the graph, the temperature of destruction of wood slabs without load application and the limit
voltage at a temperature equal to zero are calculated (Table 5). The value of the limit temperature without the application
of a load is obtained by interpolation along the abscissa axis. The value of the breaking voltage at zero temperature is
obtained by interpolation along the ordinate axis.
Table 5. The value of the fracture temperature of plywood without load application and the value of the limiting voltage at a
temperature equal to zero when exposed to UV radiation and without exposure
Material Type of exposure t, oC, at σ = 0 MPa σ, MPa, at t = 0 oC

Without exposure 137 19
Сhipboard
UV irradiation 137 19
Fiberboard
Plywood
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3.5. Results of Determining the Effect of Temperature on Penetration Strength

The study of the patterns of behavior of wood slabs during melting was carried out only for particle boards and
fiberboard. The results of penetration tests at temperatures of 20, 40, 60 oC in the coordinates lg τ – σ without external
influences and after exposure to UV radiation are shown in Figures 11 and 12.
(a)
(b)
Figure 11. Dependence of the logarithm of durability on voltage and temperature for chipboard: a - without external
influences; b - after UV irradiation (1 – at 20 oC; 2 – at 40 oC; 3 – at 60 oC)
(a)
1504
(b)
Figure 12. Dependence of the logarithm of durability on voltage and temperature for fiberboard: a - without external
influences; b - after UV irradiation (1 – at 20 oC; 2 – at 40 oC; 3 – at 60 oC)
The dependences of the logarithm of the velocity on the inverse temperature for wood slabs both before and after
exposure to ultraviolet radiation are linear and converge at one point. This confirms the temperature fluctuation
characteristic of the deformation of wood slabs during melting. After ultraviolet irradiation, the dependencies take the
form of reverse rays. As a result of grapho-analytical rearrangements of these graphs, the constants of thermal
oscillations are calculated, which are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. The value of thermal fluctuation constants of wood slabs during penetration before and after exposure to UV radiation
Thermal fluctuation constants

Materials Type of exposure
τm, sec Tm, K Uo, kJ/mol γ, kJ/(MPa×mol)
Without exposure 10-10 455 68 6.47
Сhipboard 7
UV irradiation 10 260 12 -3.33
Without exposure 10-10 476 175 1.83
Fiberboard 11.5
UV irradiation 10 253 -22 0.32
These constants characterize the introduction of the indenter into the surface of the material during melting. As can
be seen, ultraviolet irradiation causes significant changes in these constants.
When studying the effect of UV irradiation on the nature of the introduction of a solid indenter during penetration,
thermal oscillation constants were obtained, which allow us to judge the degree of influence of this type of aging on
durability. It is established that after 50 hours of photoaging in wood slabs, the constants of thermal oscillations change,
accompanied by the transformation of the direct beam (the dependence of the logarithm of durability on voltage) into
the reverse.
3.6. Results of Determining the Effect of Moisture Absorption on Transverse Bending Strength
In order to study the effect of water on the durability of wooden slabs, long-term tests were carried out. The
experimental data obtained in lgτ – σ coordinates are shown in Figure 13.
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Figure 13. The dependence of the logarithm of durability on the voltage for wood slabs before and after swelling for 1 hour
a - chipboard; b - fiberboard; c – plywood
It can be seen that the nature of the dependencies before and after exposure to water remains, but for all materials,
there is a significant loss of durability and strength.
Humidity has a very significant effect on the durability of plywood. His strength dropped by about 4.5–5 times.
Chipboard products should be insulated from contact with moisture, as the load-bearing capacity of this material drops
sharply on impact. The most moisture-resistant material turned out to be fiberboard, which has the least decrease in
durability and strength.
4. Conclusion
Studies of the effects of thermal aging and UV irradiation on the physical and mechanical characteristics of wood
composites have shown that the deleterious effects of these influences destroy the binders, namely polymer-enhancing
additives. This is confirmed by the fact that after exposure to UV irradiation and thermal aging, there is a decrease in
the density of the material and consequently in its susceptibility to water. This also proves a general decrease in the
strength of wood composites, namely resistance to transverse bending and penetration. The influence of water also
impairs performance, but the deleterious effect is not on the binder but on the filler wood. It has been proven that UV
irradiation and thermal aging have different effects, as the obtained swelling constants are different from each other.
The results of this study show that a comprehensive approach to the study of performance characteristics is the most
optimal solution. The application of the thermos-fluctuation concept increases the accuracy of the results since taking
into account the operating parameters at different temperature ranges makes it possible to give a much more accurate
prediction of the durability of materials. Thus, the considered efficiency indicators considerably deteriorate at high
temperatures as compared to low ones. This pattern confirms the basic postulate of the thermos-fluctuation concept that
higher temperatures cause much higher energy fluctuations in interatomic bonds and require much less mechanical
energy from the outside to break them. The results of this study prove the validity of the proposed methodology for
studying the performance characteristics of wood composites. Therefore, further research on the performance
characteristics of wood composites, which were not involved in this study, is needed for future studies. In addition, to
increase validity, it is necessary to conduct full-scale tests in addition to laboratory studies, which will include the study
of real performance characteristics in different climatic zones.
1506
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, E.P., and S.E.; methodology, S.E., V.Y., and V.D.; formal analysis, S.E.; resources, V.Y., V.D.,
and P.M.; data curation, E.P., and S.E.; writing—original draft preparation, E.P., and S.E.; writing—review and editing,
E.P., S.E., V.Y., V.D., and P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding

6. References
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[17] Ashori, A., Nourbakhsh, A., & Karegarfard, A. (2009). Properties of medium density fiberboard based on bagasse fibers. Journal
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[19] Trisatya, D. R., Satiti, E. R., Indrawan, D. A., & Tampubolon, R. M. (2020). Durability of fiber boards made of Jabon and
Andong bamboo with additional activated carbon additives against dry wood termites and subterranean termites. IOP Conference
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[22] Jorda, J., Kain, G., Barbu, M. C., Köll, B., Petutschnigg, A., & Král, P. (2022). Mechanical Properties of Cellulose and Flax
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[25] Zhurkov, S. N. (1984). Kinetic concept of the strength of solids. International Journal of Fracture, 26(4), 295–307.
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[26] Ratner, S. B., & Lur’e, E. G. (1966). Thermoactivation theory of wear in plastics. Polymer Mechanics, 2(6), 558–562.
doi:10.1007/BF00859978.
1508

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Soil Reinforcement Model Test Using Timber Pile at

Liquefaction Area
Suyadi 1*, Tri Harianto 1 , A. Bakri Muhiddin 1, Ardy Arsyad 1

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Hasanuddin University, Gowa 92171, Indonesia.
Abstract
Indonesia is a tropical country threatened by many disasters, such as earthquakes and other collateral hazards (liquefaction).
Utilization of micro pile on the liquefaction prone areas is quite popular to increase the soil bearing capacity. In this
research, Eucalyptus Pellita Timber was used as micro-piles alternatives. This study aims to determine the effect of timber
pile addition on soil settlement and the increase in bearing capacity. Some laboratory investigations were conducted, such
as timber and soil physical and mechanical characteristics, preloading tests, and seismic load tests by using small-scale
shaking table test. The preloading tests were carried out for 40 days, and the settlements were recorded every 24 hours.
Subsequently, seismic load tests were conducted on sandy soil with Dr = 40%. The seismic duration was 37 seconds, with
PGA = 0.3 g and f = 0.78 Hz. The preloading test results show that Eucalyptus pellita timber piles are able to reduce the
settlement by 18%. and from seismic load testing results are able to reduce the settlement by 68% due to earthquake loads
with PGA = 0.3g and a frequency of 0.78 Hz on sandy soil with the potential for liquefaction. This is due to the resistance
at the tip of the pile and the skin friction on the timber pile. So, from the results of the model test, it shows that the use of
Eucalyptus Pelita timber piles can be used as an alternative to handling sandy soils in areas where liquefaction has the
potential to occur.
Keywords: Liquefaction; Timber Pile; Eucalyptus Pellita; Soil Reinforcement.
1. Introduction
Micro-piles are defined as small-diameter, drilled piles composed of placed or injected grout with steel reinforcement
in the grout's center to resist the bulk of the design load. The central reinforcing element is either a high-strength steel
bar or tube embedded in high-pressure grout to improve soil bonding. Micro-piles can be installed on virtually any type
of terrain and at any inclination. Micro-piles have been extensively adopted for a variety of applications. They are ideal
for use with existing structures because they can be installed in any ground condition with minimal vibration,
disturbance, and noise, at any angle, and in areas with limited access and low headroom [1]. The micro-piles are
extremely beneficial. Besides increasing the bearing capacity of the soil, micro-piles can also be used as seismic retrofits.
The existence of micro-piles directly resists applied loads that mainly through skin friction, and they can also be used
as ground reinforcement through the creation of a soil/pile composite structure. Because of that, micro-piles are currently
being developed to reduce the risk of soil liquefaction since they can increase soil stiffness and reduce soil movements.
If cyclic shear strains are reduced sufficiently, liquefaction should not occur [2–4].
Before numerous studies on micro-piles were conducted, several studies on the use of large-diameter mono-piles
were conducted [5, 6]. Some theoretical approaches [7–11] and experimental studies were conducted. It was found that
* Corresponding author: suyadi19d@student.unhas.ac.id

1509
the group interaction effect reduced the lateral resistance of group piles relative to the monopile [12]. Several studies on
the group-pile foundation as a soil reinforcement are explained as follows:
Gu et al. (2014) conducted a large-scale model test on a 2 × 1 steel pile group subjected to eccentric lateral loading
in silts. The test results revealed that the eccentricity of lateral loads had a limited effect on the overall performances of
the 2 × 1 pile group, but significantly contributed to the unevenness of the internal forces of the individual piles [13].
Another test on 2 × 1 pile group was presented. Mahmood & Abbas (2019) reported the lateral dynamic response of 2
× 1 alluminium pile groups embedded in dry sand under the influence of vertical loads, which are subjected to lateral
two-way cyclic loads. The laboratory tests were done in two types of pile groups, which are circular and square. The
result shows the reduction in lateral displacement of the square piles with the presence of vertical loads responding more
than circular piles, about 40% [14].
Moreover, the potential of micro-piles for liquefaction remediation was discussed [1]. Centrifuge tests investigating
the performance of non-structural inclined micro-piles as a liquefaction remediation method for existing buildings.
Centrifuge tests were carried out with and without inclined micro-piles in each soil profile to compare the effectiveness
of the micro-piles. From the conclusion of the paper, it may be concluded that the arrangement of non-structural inclined
micro-piles did not offer an effective way to reduce the structural damage caused by liquefaction to existing buildings.
It was reported that, no detrimental effects were observed, but no consistent improvements occurred either. Some
improvements in structural settlement were observed when the earthquake was relatively small and when the depth of
free-field liquefaction was above the depth of the base of the uppermost micro-piles. It was suggested to try different
configurations of micro-piles, such as a grid formation, since it has been shown to be effective when used under new
buildings [15].
Research on micro-piles utilization in Indonesia was mostly carried out by utilizing timber piles. The abundance of
sources of timber in Indonesia makes timber-based piles more accessible than other types of micro-piles. Timber is a
flexible and versatile raw material that can potentially be used to achieve sustainable construction. To provide concrete
evidence, a study on the effectiveness of timber piles to improve the bearing capacity of soft soils was conducted by
several researchers.
Harianto et al. conducted research on timber-based raft piles to increase the bearing capacity of soft soil. According
to the findings of the research, the bearing capacity of the raft-pile foundation is sufficient to support the load without
any excessive settlement. The highest settlement reduction was obtained in the raft-pile foundation, with a percentage
reduction of 65% compared to the unreinforced soil. Moreover, there is no significant lateral movement observed beside
the foundation [2]. Sandyutama et al. tested a full-scale consolidation test with Galam timber-based pile reinforcement
combined with PVD in soft soil. PVD inclusion is meant to accelerate the dissipation of water pressure, so the rate of
consolidation could be increased [3]. Another test using Galam timber piles was also studied by Suheriyatna et al. [16].
The tests were comparing three stages of testing: geotextiles reinforcement, geotextiles reinforcement + straight
embedded timber pile with length 6 meters and horizontal distance 1 m, and geotextiles reinforcement + inclined timber
pile between straight piles with horizontal distances 1,2 m. The diameter of the timber pile is 10 cm, with the degree of
inclination 15º. According to the settlement plate observation result, the total settlement of each stage of the test was
found to be 1,13 m, 0,54 m, and 0,40 m, respectively. It shows adding timber piles has reduced the total settlement by
52% compared to without the timber piles, and the ratio increased to 65% when inclined timber piles were added. Similar
results were also presented by Harianto et al. [17].
As we know, Indonesia is a country threatened by many disasters, such as earthquakes and other collateral hazards
(liquefaction). The liquefaction phenomenon in Palu, Central Sulawesi, in 2018 is one of the major disasters that have
occurred in Indonesia and caused enormous damage. None of the researchers have discussed the potential use of timber
piles as seismic hazard mitigation. Hence, this research aims to determine the effectiveness of timber piles as
reinforcement through a seismic scale test using a typical timber pile that is available in Indonesia and many other
countries, which is Eucalyptus pellita. In this research, this typical timber pile was tied into groups of three as one pile
and arranged at a predetermined distance. It is expected that this modification will bring new insights into soil
reinforcement alternatives.
Eucalyptus pellita plants are one of the forest plants prioritized for development in the industrial plantation forest
program. Eucalyptus pellita timber is currently being developed. Research on the quality test of Eucalyptus pellita for
the basic properties of timber has been developed by several countries, such as China [18], Brazil [19], and also
Indonesia [20–22]. The natural distribution area of Eucalyptus pellita mostly grows in Australia and surrounding islands,
including Papua. The abundance of Eucalyptus pellita makes this type of timber expected to be a new construction
material that could be the breakthrough in strengthening engineering and soil reinforcement, especially in areas prone
to liquefaction.
1510
2. Materials and Method

2.1. Materials
The design and materials used in the research refer to the results of primary and secondary data collection. The
results of tests carried out in the laboratory include the physical and mechanical properties of the soil and the material
characteristics of timber (Eucalyptus pellita). The test result is needed to determine the type of material used for the
scale model planning. The soil samples used in this research were divided into two types. For the preloading test, we
used soft clay (CH) from the Turikale sub-district, Maros district. While for the liquefaction test were using sand from
the Galesong Beach, Takalar Regency. The timber pile type is Eucalyptus Pellita from Merauke district, South Papua
Province, Indonesia (Ulilin district with coordinates 7°14'27.20"S and 140°43'34.59"E). The timber piles with a diameter
of 1cm and a length of 35 cm were tied by iron wire into groups of three, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. (a). Single timber pile, (b). Iron wire dan (c). Timber pile
2.2. Research Method

Figure 2 demonstrates the research flows for this study. As a preliminary study, a literature review was conducted
to determine the materials to be used. The subsequent step was to conduct characteristic tests on materials that will be
used in this test, including timber and soil. Then, the preloading tests were obtained to check the tied timber piles
effectiveness prior to the seismic loading test.
Literature study related to the utilization of local materials for handling soil with liquefaction potential.
Characteristic testing of Eucalyptus Pellita timber
Characteristic testing of soil with liquefaction

potential Model preloading test of timber in soft
soil a graded load of 10 kg, 20 kg and 40
kg for 40 days
Test the model without reinforcement (Test shaking table Test the model with timber piles reinforcement (Test shaking
PGA=0.3 g, F=0.78 Hz and seismic load for 37 seconds) table PGA=0.3 g, F=0.78 Hz and seismic load for 37 seconds)
Test Result:
 Bearing capacity
 Soil settlement
Conclusions and Recommendations
Figure 2. The Flowchart of Research
1511
2.2.1. Preloading Test

The preloading test were carried out by gradually giving the loads (10, 20, 40 kg). The test were conducted in 2
models: soft soil without reinforcement and with timber piles reinforcement. The tied timber piles configuration were
set in a rectangular-grid pattern with a distance of 10 cm for each tied timber piles. The surface of the soft soil were
covered with woven geotextile and filled with 5 cm loose sand. The load were put on the top of sand layer.
The loads addition was carried out in 3 stages. The applied loads are given gradually on each stages from 10, 20 and
40 kg, respectively. The loading were increased when the observed settlement has not changed significantly. Settlement
monitoring was carried out every day by controlling the dial gauge and ruler mounted on each sample. The settlement
was observed every 24 hour during 40 days. This preloading test scheme are presented in Figures 3 and 4.
Static Load Wires

1 cm
Dial Gauge Timber Pile D= 1 cm; l=33 cm
Sand
Steel Plate t= 4 mm
Sandstone
Timber pile
Geotextile Steel Plate t=4 mm
Timber Pile Testing Bak
Soft Clay
Figure 3. Preloading Test Schemes
Figure 4. Preloading Test Configuration on Laboratory
2.2.2. Seismic Load Test (Shaking Table Test)

The sand used was from Galesong Beach, Takalar Regency. This sand was categorized as having a high potential
for liquefaction based on the grain size distribution curves of soils that were vulnerable to liquefaction that were stated
in [23, 27]. Selain itu, liquefaction generally occurs in clean, sandy soils with a high degree of saturation and a relative
density (Dr) that is less than 50% [24, 25]. Therefore, the relative density (Dr) of the sand in this research was 40%,
with a thickness of 50 cm. A steel tub with dimensions of 120 cm × 100 cm × 80 cm was used to configure this shaking
table test (Figure 5). Installation of the tied timber was carried out in a rectangular-grid pattern with distances of 10 cm
(same as the preloading test). The installation of all the materials is shown in Figure 6.
1512
10 CM 60 CM 10 CM
Embankment /Silt
0.12.5
Coarse sand
0.05
Ground water level
0.80 0.17 Water Pressure Gauge
Timber pile
0.35
Loose sand Dr. 40%
0.15 5D
Plat Baja 1.2 X 1.2 M
Shaking Table
1.20 M
Figure 5. Shaking Table Test Configuration
Figure 6. Timber piles (a) tied with wire, (b). installed with d = 10 cm (c). installation pattern
After the installation of the timber piles was completed, it was covered by uniform graded sand material with
thickness of 5 cm. On the top of sand, a trapezoid soil embankment which is functioning as a load was placed. The
dimensions of the trapezoid embankment were: 1. Lower dimensions of the embankment l = 80 cm, and w = 60 cm, 2.
upper dimensions of the embankment are l = 60 cm, w = 40 cm, h = 12.5 cm. This scheme is presented on Figure 7.
Figure 7. Shaking table test set up
1513
The data parameters were recorded for data analysis. The parameters observed in this test were the
changes/improvement of the bearing capacity and the settlement that occurred due to the given seismic loads. The
measuring instruments used included the Hand Cone Penetrometer (HCP), elevation grid, scale on the test tub,
displacement sensor, and accelerometer.
The seismic load test or shaking table test is conducted on a small-scale model. The test was set at PGA = 0.3g, f =
0.78 Hz with a loading duration of 37 seconds. The accelerometer records taken during testing are attached in Figure 8.
The stresses and deformations measured in the experiments do not truly represent the stresses and deformations in the
field due to the low confusion pressure and boundary effects in the model study. Therefore, it is very important to apply
proper similarity rules to experiments in order to apply the results to actual field conditions. Iai [26] presents the
similarity laws for the 1 g model test from the basic definitions of effective stress, strain and constitutive law, overall
balance, and mass balance. The geometric scale factor, λ, is defined as a constant of proportionality between the model
and prototype geometry. The same proportionality equation is assumed for other parameters such as stress-strain and
pore water pressure. For this study, the geometric scale factor, λ, was taken as 10. Therefore, the height of the model
wall was maintained at 0.5 m, corresponding to 5 m in the field. The dimensions of the timber pile in the model test
were 0.01 m in diameter and 0.35 m in length, corresponding to the field prototype of 0.1 m in diameter and 3.5 m in
length.
PGA = 0.3 g _ Frequency = 0.78 Hz

0.6
0.4
Acceleration (g)
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (Second) Accell_Y
Figure 8. Acceleration graph based on accelerometer record during test

3.1. Testing The Physical Properties of The Material
Based on the results of mechanical properties test of Eucalyptus pellita timber that has been carried out, Eucalyptus
pellita timber is included in the timber group based on the 1979 Indonesian timber construction planning procedures [2].
With a timber specific gravity value of 0.91 and a flexural strength of 118.5 MPa. Therefore, it is included in the timber
group I which is classified as a strong category. Based on the this timber class grouping, Eucalyptus pellita timber can
be used as a timber pile material according to the technical instructions for timber piles application as foundations issued
by the Ministry of Public Works technical guideline, No. 029/T/BM/1999 [27].
The results of testing the soil characteristics showed that the type of soil used for the preloading model test based on
the USCS classification is high plasticity clay (CH) and the classification based on AASHTO is in groups A-7-6. To
summarize, the results of characteristic soil testing can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1. The results of testing the characteristics of the preloading test soil
No. Testing Type Unit Testing Result

Characteristics of Physical Properties
1 Soil Specific Gravity (Gs) - 2,74
2 Water Content (w) (%) 72.91
Atterberg
Shrinkage Limit (SL) (%) 13.88
3 Plastis Limit (PL) (%) 26.77
Liquid Limit (LL) (%) 82.75
Indeks of Plasticity (IP) (%) 55.98
1514
Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer

Gravel (%) 0.00
4 Sand (%) 7.20
Silt (%) 25.50
Clay (%) 67.30
5 Permeability (cm/s) 2.3 × 10-7
Classifications
USCS CH
AASHTO A-7-6
From the results of sand soil testing, it was found that the beach sand material for Galesong, Takalar Regency, South
Sulawesi which, has the potential for liquefaction to occur. This was shown in the grain size distribution curve of soils
which are vulnerable to liquefaction [23, 27]. The relative density was calculated based on the loose dry unit weight γd
min 1.82 (gr/cm3) and the dense dry unit weight γd max 2.06 (gr/cm3). The relative density used in the test model is
40%, so the dry unit weight was 1.91 gr/cm3. The results of testing soil parameters can be seen in Table 2 and for the
grain size distribution curves of soils that are susceptible to liquefaction [23] is shown in Figure 9.
Table 2. Sand / Soil technical data
No. Types of Inspection Symbol Results of Inspection

Soil Characteristics Testing
1 Water Content (w) wc 18.26 %
2 Specific Gravity (Gs) GS 3.47 -
Sieve Analysis Examination
a. Gravel 0.00 %
3 b. Sand 99.00 %
c. Silt 1.00 %
d. Clay 0.00 %
Content Weight
Minimum Dry Volume Weight γdMin 1.82 gram/cm3
4 Maximum Dry Volume Weight γdMax 2.06 gram/cm3
Minimum Pore Number emin 0.86 -
Maximum Pore Number emax 0.65 -
5 Potential for Liquefaction High Potential
Sand material beach Galesong Boundaries for most liquefiable soil Boundaries for potentially liquefiable soil
100
90
Percent finer by weight (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm)
Fine Medium Coarse

(Clay) (Silt) (Gravel)
(Sand)
Figure 9. Grain Size Distribution Curve of Soils which are Vulnerable to Liquefaction [23]
1515
3.2. Preloading Test

From the observational data of the preloading test during the test, it was found that the reinforcement of timber piles
given to soft clay soils could increase the bearing capacity. This could be seen from the pattern of settlement that occurs
due to a given load.
The reinforced soil had a smaller settlement when compared to the unreinforced soil; this was due to the resistance
at the top of the timber pile and the shear force on the cover of the timber pile. In the corrugated reinforcement sample,
it was able to reduce the settlement to a greater extent when compared to the unreinforced sample. During the loading
test for 40 days, it showed that reinforcement using timber piles was able to reduce the settlement by 18%. This can be
seen in Figure 10.
80
70
60
Load (kg)
50
40 Load
30 Without reinforcement
20
With Timber Pile reinforcement
10
0
Reduction (mm)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Time (day)
Figure 10. Graph of the relationship between time, load, and reduction
The graph of the comparison of settlement due to load also shows that at the first loading stage, namely 10 kg of
reinforcement using a timber pile was able to slow down the settlement rate when compared to without reinforcement.
This was due to the installation of timber piles, which resulted in vertical deformation that occurred on the soil given
the reinforcement, which was relatively smaller than the unstretched ground. This was due to the pile group's additional
load on the subgrade. Load transfer was continued through end resistance and skin resistance to deeper layers, so the
test results showed that Eucalyptus timber piles provided a slower settlement time when compared to unreinforced soil.
In addition, the results of the Hand Cone Penetrometer (HCP) test, which was carried out before the preloading test,
were 2.93 kg/cm2 for the 2 models and then experienced an increase after the preloading test was carried out. For the
unreinforced test model, the increase in bearing capacity was 4.16 kg/cm 2, and the timber pile reinforcement was 5.87
kg/cm2. So that the use of Eucalyptus pellita timber could increase the bearing capacity of the soil by 41% compared to
the soil without reinforcement. The Hand Cone Penetrometer (HCP) test results can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 11.
Comparison diagram of the HCP test results before and after reinforcement. The results align with the research
conducted by Suheriyatna et al. [16]. That the use of timber piles was able to increase the bearing capacity of the soil
and reduce the settlement due to the load on it.
Table 3. HCP test results before and after the preloading test
qc (kg/cm2)
Comparison of qc increase with unreinforced
Sample
Before preloading After preloading model (%) after preloading
Without reinforcement 2.93 4.16 0

With timber piles reinforcement 2.93 5.87 41
1516
Before preloading After preloading

7
Qc (kg/cm2) 4
0
Without reinforcement With timber piles reinforcement
Sample
Figure 11. HCP test result diagram before and after preloading test
3.3. Seismic Load Test

From the test results data due to seismic loads with PGA = 0.3 g and a frequency of 0.78 Hz, it was found that the
reinforcement of timber piles given to sandy soils that have the liquefaction potential could provide increment of bearing
capacity. This could be seen from the settlement that occurs due to the load given, which was smaller compared to the
unreinforced soil equal to 2.75 cm or reducing the settlement of 68.04% bearing capacity when receiving seismic loads.
The installation of micro pile as a soil reinforcement material has the function of carrying the load indicated by the
decrease that occurs in the embankment, this is in accordance with the research of Alsaleh & Shahrour (2009) states that
the use of micro pile It also induces a settlement that can have an important effect on the response of the soil - micro
pile - structure to earthquakes [28]. Recapitulation of changes in settlement ratio in Table 4 and graph of settlement due
to seismic loads Figure 12.
Table 4. Recapitulation changes in the reduction ratio
Model Test Before After X Direction Reduction (cm) Reduction (%)

Without reinforcement 66.12 57.52 8.61 0.00
With timber piles reinforcement 66.12 63.37 2.75 68.04
Before After
68
66
64
Reduction (cm)
62
60
58
56
54
52
Without reinforcement With timber piles reinforcement
Sample
Figure 12. Settlement due to seismic loads
Before and after the seismic loading test was carried out with PGA = 0.3 g at a frequency of 0.78 Hz, the Hand Cone
Penetrometer (HCP) test was carried out, indicating that the reinforcement of timber beams could provide additional
bearing capacity. This test aims to determine the soil's consistency based on the Qc value before and after the seismic
load test. From the results of the HCP test, it could be seen that the increase in soil bearing capacity increased
1517
significantly in unreinforced soil samples at a depth of 30 cm to 50 cm, while for a depth of 0 to 20 cm, it was relatively
small when compared to those using timber piles, this occurred due to the soil decreases. Directly as a result, when
receiving seismic loads, while for the reinforcement of timber piles there was the friction of the soil particles against the
timber piles so that the compaction process was reduced. This analysis showed that the research was in line with previous
research, that when sandy soil liquefies due to seismic loads, relative density will increase, influenced by grain gradation
and specific gravity [29]. Yuan et al. [30] stated that the denser soil settlement is smaller than the less compacted soil.
The soil without recess reinforcement has a greater settlement than the soil with percutaneous perforation when
compared to the unreinforced.
The HCP test was carried out at 4 points in each model test sample, and the location of the test points is shown in
Figure 13. And the hand cone penetrometer (HC) test results were made in Table 5. The graph of the relationship between
changes in the increase in bearing capacity and depth is shown in Figure 14.
Figure 13. Test point Hand Cone Penetrometer (HCP)
Table 5. Test result of Hand Cone Penetrometer (HCP)
Depth (cm) Without Reinforcement With Timber Piles Reinforcement

Before After Before After
0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 3.12 13.93 5.50 22.00
20 7.52 36.48 14.67 57.20
30 10.27 82.50 19.80 86.17
40 13.38 100.47 25.48 97.17
50 18.15 109.82 36.30 103.58
Qc (kg/cm2)
0 30 60 90 120
0
Without
10
Reinforcement (Befor)
With Timber Piles

Depth (cm)
20 Reinforcment (Befor)
Without
Reinforcement (After)
30
With Timber Piles
Reinforcment (After)
40
50
Figure 14. Graph of the relationship between changes in the increase in bearing capacity to depth due to seismic loads
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Settlement changes that occurred in the model test without reinforcement are shown in Figure 15. Meanwhile,
changes in a settlement that occurred in the timber piles reinforcement model test are shown in Figure 16.
Height (cm)
Width (cm)
Length (cm)
(a) Elevation contour before testing
Height (cm)
Width (cm)
Length (cm)
(b) Elevation contour after testing
Figure 15. Appearance of the unreinforced model test condition

Height (cm)
Width
(cm)
Length (cm)
(a) Condition before testing

Height (cm)
Width (cm)
Length (cm)
(b) Condition after testing
Figure 16. The test conditions for the timber piles reinforcement model
The results of the model test analysis carried out from the preloading test and seismic load testing with PGA = 0.3 g
at a frequency of 0.78 Hz showed that the reinforcement of timber piles could provide improvement on bearing capacity
and was able to reduce settlements when compared to without reinforcement. So that, it verifies the effectiveness of
using timber beams as a soil reinforcement material in liquefaction-prone areas.
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4. Conclusion
This research experimentally evaluated the effect of using Eucalyptus pellita timber piles as reinforcement material
on sandy soils with liquefaction potential. Based on the results of the testing of the mechanical properties of Eucalyptus
pellita timber that has been carried out, Eucalyptus pellita timber can be used as a timber pile material in accordance
with the technical instructions for the implementation of timber pile foundations issued by the Ministry of Public Works
technical guidelines (1999), No.029/T/BM/1999. The results of preloading tests on soft soils showed that the timber pile
was able to increase the bearing capacity of the soil and reduce the settlement by 18%, while testing due to seismic loads
with PGA = 0.3 g, frequency 0.81 Hz on sand soils found that reinforcement of the timber pile given to sand soils with
liquefaction potential can provide additional bearing capacity and can reduce the settlement by 68%. This is due to the
resistance at the tip of the timber pile and the skin friction of the timber. So the model test results show that the
reinforcement test with the reinforcement of the timber pile can increase the bearing capacity of soft soil and soil with
liquefaction potential.
Our testing and analysis in this research are still limited to small-scale modeling so that the results achieved are
sufficient as a parameter for the mechanical ability of the Eucalyptus pellita timber pile reinforcement model test on
potential liquefaction soils. Some suggestions can be made for improvement, such as conducting further research related
to the use of reinforcement of Timber pile, as well as measuring changes in vibration acceleration on the surface with a
larger scale, complex and also need to conduct a test of the reinforcement model of Timber pile with several kinds of
installation patterns and relative density (Dr) and comparing their performances.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, S. and T.H.; methodology, S.; software, S.; validation, T.H., A.B.M., and A.A.; formal analysis,
S.; investigation, S.; resources, S.; data curation, S.; writing—original draft preparation, S.; writing—review and editing,
S.; visualization, S.; supervision, T.H., A.B.M., and A.A.; project administration, S.; funding acquisition, S. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding
The authors received financial support from Indonesia Endowment Funds for Education (LPDP), Ministry of Finance
of the Republic of Indonesia, for the publication of this article.
The first author of this study would like to express the greatest gratitude to LPDP (Indonesia Endowment Fund for
Education), Ministry of Finance, Republic Indonesia for providing financial support for doctoral study at Hasanuddin
University, Indonesia.

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1521

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023
Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Water

using Leachate Modular Tower
Frank Aneke 1* , Joy Adu 2

1
Geotechnics and Materials Development Research Group (GMDRg) Civil Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 4001, South Africa.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
Abstract
The heavy metals (HMs) and metalloids such as Cr(VI), As(Ill), and Pb(II) in contaminated water are toxic even at trace
levels and have caused devastating negative health impacts on human beings. Hence, the effective adsorption of these
heavy metals from contaminated water is important to protect biodiversity, hydrosphere ecosystems, and human beings. In
this study, a leachate modular tower (LMT) was developed for the singular purpose of adsorbing HMs. The LMT contained
nano-slag as a liner, which was synthesized from slag. The nano-slag was blended in different proportions of 90:10; 80:20,
70:30, 60:40, and 50:50 to the combined mass of clay and nano-slag, to evaluate the most efficient ratio of the blends
capable of adsorbing HMs and metalloids with 100% efficiency. A series of leachate tests were performed to evaluate the
adsorption capacity of LMT with different embedded liners. Attenuation periods of 2, 5, 7, and 10 days with a temperature
of 500 °C were also selected to improve the sorption rate and uptake of HMs. Subsequently, the effluents were subjected
to inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) tests to evaluate the concentrations and percentages of adsorbed
HMs, which were calculated using a pseudo-first-order adsorption model. The results revealed that the removal of 98%As,
99%Cd, and 99.9% Pb was achieved with a 50%:50% ratio of soil and nano-slag as the liner at 10 days equilibrium period.
Furthermore, 98%Zn, 95.45%Cu, 93.3%Fe, 97%Ni, and 89% Hg were achieved upon further investigation using the same
dosage of soil and nano-slag and equilibrium conditions. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests demonstrated that
some traces of the absorbed HMs and metalloids were found on the liner surfaces, indicating significant changes in
microstructure. The results indicated the sorption rate increased significantly due to the elevated temperature,
aluminosilicate structure, and prolonged attenuation period, which are also associated with an elevated pH level and higher
cation exchange capacity (CEC), of the liner.
Keywords: Contaminated Water; NSCL; Heavy Metals; LMT; Equilibrium Period.
1. Introduction
Water is one of the most valuable natural resources on earth because of its essentiality to humans, animals, plants,
etc. The low standard of quality of water supplies to end-users has been on the rise in the recent past due to rapid
urbanization, mining, and industrial activities. Also, the uncontrolled discharge of untreated industrial wastewater has
caused serious environmental and health damage, including heavy metal pollution. Heavy metal ions refer to the
metalloids that have an atomic weight in the range between 63.5 g/mol and 200.6 g/mol and a specific gravity of more
than 5.0 g/cm3 [1].
This water contamination can occur through natural or anthropogenic processes, either from single or multiple
sources with high toxicity. The World Health Organization, according to their report, quantified the following metalloids
* Corresponding author: anekef@ukzn.ac.za

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arsenic (As), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr) as the most toxic
[2]. The most common anthropogenic water contamination results from Industrial processes such as metal plating,
fertilizer manufacture, petrochemical, paper making, and mining operations. This process has significantly increased the
mobilization of HM to both ground and surface water sources. The aforementioned water contamination process has
become a serious threat to plants, animals, and humans due to the non-biodegradable, bioaccumulation, and toxic
properties of heavy metals, even at low concentrations. Therefore, the effective removal of heavy metals from aqueous
solutions is crucial to protecting humans and environmental health. Bind et al. [3] suggested that long-term exposure to
HMs in the environment could accumulate in the food chain and mobilize food poison due to their non-biodegradability.
And could even lead to water scarcity [4, 5]. Given the prevention and control of heavy metal pollution in water sources,
it is of great significance to accurately trace the source of heavy metal pollution and provide an effective removal
technique through rational scientific procedures.
Several techniques have been available to remove heavy metal ions from wastewater prior to being released into the
environment. Elimination of heavy metals can be achieved through various methods, including nanofiltration, ion
exchange, phytoremediation, chemical precipitation, electrocoagulation, and adsorption [6–12]. Despite the
effectiveness of these aforementioned techniques, some parameters contribute to its drawback i.e., sludge generation,
maintenance, equipment cost, energy consumption, low efficiency, and time-consuming. By contrast, adsorption is
considered the most effective physicochemical technique for heavy metal removal because of its ease of handling, low
capital cost, high efficiency, and suitability for both batch and continuous processes [13]. Although the adsorption
technique has good heavy metal removal efficiencies, however, its effectiveness depends on the adsorbent type and the
ionic concentration of the metalloids. Hence, the sorption reaction is generally considered to be very slow [14]. Some
of the adsorbents commonly used are activated carbon (AC), biochar (BC), clay minerals, chitosan, lignin,
nanomaterials, and geopolymers [15].
Among various adsorbents, geopolymer has gained a great interest among researchers due to its excellent
immobilization effect. Geopolymer is an inorganic polymer with a three-dimensional polymeric structure and pores
formed by the condensation of aluminosilicate mineral powder being added into an alkali solution at temperatures below
100 0C. Similarly, the nano-geopolymer structure provides excellent adsorbent properties, which can aid in heavy metal
removal from wastewater. Geopolymer has similar properties to zeolite and has a high capacity for cation exchange and
a strong affinity for cationic heavy metals with the presence of Al in the geopolymer matrix [16, 17]. In addition,
geopolymer can be synthesized by using geological origins such as kaolin, metakaolin, and dolomite and industrial waste
such as slag, fly ash (FA), and sludge as an aluminosilicate precursor. Also, nanotechnology is known for removing
contaminants through adsorption [18]. However other studies suggested that nanotechnology removes HMs through
adsorption, coagulation, and precipitation process [19]. Although, the removal of HMs using nanotechnology could also
be achieved through ion exchange or complexation. However, some studies suggested that the effective removal of HMs
and metalloids could depend on the proper selection of adsorbents [20, 21].
Ibrahim et al. [22] suggested that nanotechnology offers unique adsorption properties such as different structural
selectivity, optimal sorption capacity, and cation exchangeability for various metal cations, which can be used to
optimize the process design of wastewater treatment due to its large specific surfaces, sorption capacity, and large surface
interactions that mobilize fast adsorption rates.
Mathur et al. [23] assessed the effective removal of Cd, Ni, and Pb from contaminated water by utilizing three silica-
based nanomaterials, i.e., non-functionalized silica nano hollow sphere (SNHS), amino-functionalized silica gel (NH2-
SG), and amino-functionalized silica nano hollow sphere (NH2-SNHS). According to their results, their investigation
concluded that the adsorption capacities of the 3-nanomaterials were in the order of NH2-SNHS > NH2-SG > SNHS
with associated metal removal through adsorption of Pb (II) > Cd (II) > Ni (II). The maximum adsorption capacities for
Pb (II), Cd (II), and Ni (II) were achieved using NH2–SNHS was 96.79, 40.73, and 31.29 mg·g −1 respectively. Other
than the application of nanotechnology in the removal of HMs, some studies have supported the use of recycled waste
materials due to their value-added adsorbent efficiency. This requires careful execution and selection to mitigate
overdosing of the contaminated water. Kumara and Kawamoto [24] investigated the removal of HMs through the
synergy effects of clay and slag. They reported that the combination of crushed waste clay bricks (CCB) and municipal
solid waste slag (MSWS) recorded appreciable heavy metal adsorption from highly concentrated wastewater in their
study. Among these, their study suggested that the adsorption of HMs using CCB and MSWS was mainly controlled by
deprotonation at a neutral pH value. Whereas, at a pH value between 7 and 9, metalloids like Cd 2+ and >7 for Pb2+, were
60% removed from the wastewater as the traces of these metalloids dominated the surface of the adsorbents forming
precipitate-like crystals.
Nguyen et al. [25] activated class “C” fly ash using 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) and sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS) as the surfactants after treatment with 1M NaOH solution. Their study concluded that the number of adsorbed
ions of the activated fly ash was 68% higher on average than that of the unmodified fly ash. The activated fly ash showed
the capability of adsorbing toxic metals because its oxides and hydroxides are capable of providing adsorption sites for
anions.
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According to available literature, it is established that the adsorption technique is wildly accepted, but the process
that guides the complete rate of the sorption process is slow. As such, the adsorption kinetics forms an integral part
sorption reaction because it provides information on the rate at which metalloids are absorbed. This is the gap this study
attempted to bridge by investigating the efficiency of heavy metal adsorption and also studying the important parameters
such as concentration of nanomaterial, solid-to-liquid ratio, equilibrium period, and the temperature required for the
complete pozzolanic process. Therefore, to understand the adsorption capacity of the nano-slag clay liner (adsorbent),
the following factors were investigated, the effect of pH on heavy metal adsorption and percentages of absorbed HM
ions using pseudo-second-order model [26]. Furthermore, Ahmadi et al. [27] suggested that the pseudo-second order of
kinetic reaction rate depends on the mass of the metalloids on the sorbent surface as well as the quantity of adsorbed
metal ions at equilibrium. This model is widely employed for the study of chemisorption kinetics for liquid solution
systems [28]. Therefore, chemisorption was employed in this study, since it involves the interaction between
nanomaterial (adsorbent) and contaminated water (adsorbate) through chemical reactions, which create covalently. This
study mainly targeted the removal of As, Cd, and Pb, however, the removal of other HMs and metalloid were also
investigated. The choice for selecting adsorbent was mobilized by its capacity to increase the pH level of the entire
chemisorption through adsorption, precipitation, and coagulation of metallic ions.

2.1. Natural soil
The soil used for this study is natural Bentonite clay collected from Mpumalanga in South Africa at a depth of 1.2
m without any form of contamination. The collected soil was oven-dried for 24 hours at a temperature of 24 0C to
eliminate hygroscopic moisture that might have been trapped within the soil voids. ASTM D1140 [29] test protocol was
followed to perform a sieve analysis test. Subsequently, different particles retained in sieve sizes of 9.5 mm and 4.75
mm, were used to determine the percentages of gravel and sand. The percentage of the fine was also determined on the
soil particle size of 75µm following hydrometer analysis. The percentages of clays and silts were further evaluated;
hence the soil’s particle size distribution curve is presented in Figure 1. The studied soil has a symbol of CL, this implies
that it is clay soil with low plasticity, according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).
100
80
Percentage Passing (%)
60
40
20
NAT-S
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle Sizes (mm)
Figure 1. Soil gradation curve
The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) test was also performed to evaluate the chemical compositions of the NAT-S. The
test results revealed the selected NAT-S possessed SiO2, Al2O3, + Fe2O3, and CaO as the dominant chemical compounds.
Following the cation exchange capacity (CEC) which was also performed following Indian Standard, IS 2720-24 [30].
An ammonium chloride solution of 485±3 ppm content equivalent to NH 4+ concentration, to determine the total negative
charge and CEC of the NAT-S. The result showed that the NAT-S contained fine particles greater than >65%. This
indicates that the NAT-S has a positive surface charge for cation exchange with a corresponding value of 48.37 meq/100
g. The value implies that the soil constitutes OH- ion concentration on the surface charge and the sufficient charged
hydroxyls (H+ ion) capable of losing at the surface. Based on the obtained CEC result, the soil is suspected to possess a
little to medium adsorption capacity for heavy metals.
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2.2. Nano-Blast Furnace Slag (NBFS)

The steel slag used herein is a basic-oxygen-furnace (BOF) slag acquired from a single batch and supplied by Fry’
Metals in South Africa. It constitutes of CaO, MgO, MnO, and FeO to a total oxide of 70% according to the XRF test
result. This confirms that the slag used was produced through the process of basic oxygen-furnace (BOF) slag. The slag
possesses a particle size of less than 15.3 mm with an average initial moisture content of 7.5%. The slag could not be
obtained on a nanoscale level; therefore, the obtained slag was synthesized to a nanoscale using the top-to-bottom
method. The nanoscale of the slag starts by drying it in an open-air environment for 7 days followed by mechanical jaw
crushing. The slag was first crushed into a granular size of <4mm followed by continuous grinding in a mechanical ball-
milling. The milling process lasted for 6 h with 0.5 h intervals at a rotation of 500rpm. Toluene and anionic surface-
active chemical agents were added at each interval to cool the inner chamber of the mill and eliminate any form of
agglomerations that might be formed by the slag nanoparticles. These conditions were repeated for each run until the
surface area of the nano-slag particles increased from 0.02 m2/gm to 23.40 m2/gm according to the high-resolution
transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) analysis, with the particle sizes of nanosized slag evaluated within the
range of >10 nm. The preliminary test results presented in Table 1 was essentially used to quantify the quantity of clay
minerals in the soil which was used to develop the nano-slag clay liner (NSCL). Unfortunately, the soil possesses little
capacity to adsorb the heavy metals and metalloids according to its CEC, pH value, and nano-size.
Table 1. Chemical composition of NAT-S and NBFS
Materials XRF
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO K2O MgO Others CEC (meq/100 g)
NAT-S 52.59 17.41 12.38 6.62 4.95 4.40 1.65 75
NBFS 17.41 5.21 28.24 38.68 1.4 6.3 2.77 298
Mineralogical compositions XRD
Smectite Phyllosilicate K-feldspar Plagioclase Illite Calcite
NAT-S 71.74 13.41 9.91 1.85 1.89 1.22 >>
Merwinite Olivine Wüstite Brownmillerite Larnite Vaterite
NBFS 51.13 43.24 33.23 23.11 18.21 11.21 >>
2.3. Contaminated Water

Samples of the contaminated water were collected from a single source near an active mine in Mpumalanga, South
Africa. The pictorial view of the contaminated water site is presented in Figure 2. The water body was suspected to be
contaminated with acid mine drainage due to nearby mining activities coupled with adverse impacts on the vegetation
and plants within the surrounding environment. Crystal salt formation was visible on the contaminated water surface
protrusions, as the contaminated water was collected from different locations to have a wide representation of the
contaminated water samples. The salt-like crystals formation are heavy metals that were noted as dissolved ions in the
contaminated water.
Figure 2. Site setup of the investigated acid mine drainage
1525
The contaminated water source was monitored on-site for 24 months using an acid concentration meter to determine
its concentrations. The variation in concentration over time for the contaminated water is shown in Figure 3. The lowest
pH value of 2.5, was recorded as the lowest [H+] concentration of the sampled contaminated water over 2 years, therefore
qualifying the contaminated water sample as acidic water.
4
-LOG[H+]
pH 1
1
pH 2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (months)
Figure 3. Site setup of the investigated acid mine drainage
A series of chemical composition and concentration evaluations were performed on the collected contaminated
water samples using ICP-MS and the results are summarized in Table 2. The test result confirmed that the contaminated
water rendered a high electrical conductivity and contained elevated levels of sulphate and dissolved heavy metals. Also,
the concentration of HMs and metalloids contained in the contaminated water were beyond the concentration ions limit
specified by WHO [2] and DWARF [31] for livestock, watering, and irrigation/construction as demonstrated in Table
2. The HMs and metalloids like As, Cr, Hg, Fe, Pb, Cu, Cd, and Ni were contained in the contaminated water with their
concentrations above the permitted limits for agricultural and irrigation/construction purposes. Thus, studies have
suggested that the major water contaminants are Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Mercury
(Hg), Thallium (Tl), and Nickel (Ni) [31].
Table 2. Chemical composition of raw AMD, water quality standards (DWARF, 1996)
Element pH Hg Fe As Zn Pb Cu Cd Ni Cr SO4
3
Concentration (Mgdm- ) 2.5 14 32 6.0 5.41 15.3 22 39.3 14.4 <0.5 1280
3
Livestock watering (Mgdm- ) 6.5-8.5 1.0 10 1.0 20 0.5 5.0 10 1.0 1.0 1000
3
Irrigation (Mgdm- ) 6.5-8.5 << 5.0 0.001 1.0 0.2 0.2 10 0.20 0.05 <<
3. Methods
The pH test was performed to measure the effects of proton in aqueous solutions and to evaluate the changes in pH
values (alkalinity) of the contaminated water when interacting with the NSCL. The ASTM D6276 [32] protocol was
followed to achieve this task, as four calibrated conical glass jars containing the solution of NBFS and soil to the
combined ratios of 90:10; 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, and 50:50. The maximum soil particles size selected for this test is
425μm. The calibrated conical glass jars were set up to contain 50g of NSCL and 200 ml of the contaminated water.
The solutions were agitated for 25 mins and allowed to settle before insertion of the pH meter to measure the pH values
from each jar. The test results revealed that the pH values of the investigated contaminated water increased as the
percentages of NBFS content increased in the clay liner mixture. A significant increase in pH values was noted at a
50:50 soil: NBFS ratio, beyond which the pH value remains stable as presented in Figure 4. The pH value indicated that
the nano-slag clay liner developed with 50% of clay and 50% NBFS recorded a pH value of 13.10. This implies that
under this combined ratio higher cations exchange capacity by anionic charge was achieved compared to the rest of the
clay liner.
1526
14
12
10
-Log[H+]
8
2
Soil
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
NSCL(%)
Figure 4. pH interaction of nanosized- slag clay liner with the contaminated water
3.1. Experimental Setup and Testing Procedure

The leachate test was performed in this study to adsorb the targeted heavy metals i.e. As, Cd, and Pb. The
methodological process was achieved by first blending nano-slag, and Bentonite soil in a varying ratio of 90:10; 80:20,
70:30, 60:40, and 50:50 to the combined mass of soil and nano-blast furnace slag (NBFS) followed by a slight addition
of water. The blends were thoroughly mixed for 15 minutes until a homogenous mixture was achieved forming a nano-
slag clay liner. The material was placed and compacted into the attenuation at a temperature of 500C. The temperature
was selected to improve the rate of sorption as well as to enable the complete development of the tertiary compound
through a polymerization reaction. Figure 5 illustrate the methodological flowchart of the leachate test.
Figure 5. Methodological process of the leachate test
The adsorption HMs from the contaminated water was achieved using the Leachate Modular Tower. The nano-slag
clay liner was compacted into the attenuation chamber of the LMT. Firstly, washed gravel aggregates between 2 mm to
2.5 mm sizes were placed at the bottom section of the attenuation chamber and a non-woven filtration geotextile material
was placed on top of the gravel. The filtration material was selected to allow an easy flow of the contaminated water
while preventing the NSCL particles from passing through. The testing was structured in a framework such that the
NSCL was uniformly compacted into the attenuation chamber to serve as a liner after the gravel aggregates, and non-
woven filtration geotextile material were placed into attenuation chamber. The perforated pressure pad was placed on
the top of the attenuation chamber to aid the distribution of the contaminated water across the circumference of the
compacted nano-slag clay liner in the attenuation chamber. The contaminated water was placed in the reservoir and the
LMT was coupled to avoid spillage. The equipment was powered and the internal temperature of 50 0C was maintained
1527
using the embedded heating ring around the lower block of the reservoir. This temperature was chosen based on the
study published by Dubey et al. [33] which concluded that a constant temperature of 50 0C plays a key role in the
adsorption process of HMs and metalloids. Also, the equilibrium adsorption capacity of nanomaterials is expected to
alter at elevated temperatures to mobilize the redox reaction rate. The experimental setup and schematic diagrams of the
built LMT are shown in Figure 6.
Name Part QTY

Pressure Piston 15 1
Porous Pressure Plate 14 1
Sample Holder 13 1
Attenuation Chamber 12 1
Porous Stone Chamber 11 1
Clip 10 1
Effluent 9 1
Standard Nut 8 6
Standard Nut 7 6
Geosynthetic Material 6 1
Lid 5 1
Influent 4 1
Leechate Chamber 3 1
Mid Block 2 1
Lower Block 1 1
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of Modular Leachate Tower
1528
After the setup of the LMT equipment, the contaminated water was retained in the attenuation chamber at different
equilibrium adsorption periods of 2, 5, 7, and 10 days to investigate the effects of the attenuation period on the sorption
capacities of the NSCL. After the equilibrium period was attained, the outlet was opened, and the contaminated water
that leached through the liner was collected using a graduated cylinder. As another inductive coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS) test was performed to measure the concentration of HMs and metalloid ions in the collected
leached water. The number of heavy metal ions adsorbed per gram of adsorbent, Q (mg·g −1), was calculated using
Equation 1.
(𝐶0 −𝐶𝑒 )
𝑄= (1)
𝑊
where 𝑄 is the amount of adsorbed metal ion at equilibrium conditions (metal ion (mg)/adsorbent (g)), 𝑉 is the solution
volume (𝐿), and 𝑊 is the sorbent mass (g). 𝐶0 and 𝐶𝑒 are the initial and equilibrium concentrations of metal ions in
solution (mg·L−1), which are determined by the ICP-MS test. To calculate the percentage removal of metal ions, pseudo-
first-order kinetic was applied as expressed in Equation 2.
(𝐶0 −𝐶𝑒 )
𝐻= × 100 (2)
𝐶0
where H is the percent removal of metal ions (%), all experiments were performed in triplicate and the average value
was recorded as the final test result.
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) test was conducted on the NSCL to evaluate the surface morphology
of the untreated natural soil liner and NSCL. The SEM test enables the high-resolution imaging of nanoparticles with
sizes below 10 nm. High-resolution image was achieved from the upper-most surface of the NSCL by advanced
detectors. The SEM machine used herein is the VEGA3 TESCAN-6480 scanning electron microscope operated at
20kV. The test was successfully conducted due to the capacity of SEM equipment to measure lateral dimensions on
the nano-scale.

4.1. Adsorption Capacity of The Natural Soil
The capacity of the natural soil to adsorb HMs was evaluated at different attenuation periods using Equation 1. The
reduction of HM ions concentration after the interaction period between the natural soil and contaminated water at
different attenuation periods is presented in Table 3. The results showed that the natural soil through ion exchange and
adsorption mechanisms slightly removed the cations and anions of few metalloids at 10 days of equilibrium periods.
Whereas no adsorption of Hms was achieved at 2, 5, and 7 days respectively. In furtherance, the degree of HMs
concentration after 2 and 5 days of interaction periods are higher compared to the standard stipulated by DWARF [31],
and WHO [2]. Whereas, at 7 and 10 days of interaction periods, the concentrations of the targeted metalloids ions i.e.,
as Cr(VI), As(Ill), and Pb(II) remined unchanged whereas slightly decrease Cd, Cu, and Hg ions concentration were
recorded. The low adsorption of HMs by the natural soil is associated with the inability to high exchangeable cations
and anions on the soil surface. Furthermore, the low surface area and pore volume were also noted to be part of the
contributing factor for low adsorption capacity of clay.
The result obtained in this study agrees with the report published by Chen et al. [34], and Zacaroni et al. [35],
which suggested that microstructure, and high cation exchange capacity (CEC) improves the adsorption capacity
of a soil. The hierarchy of the natural soil is in the order of sorption Cd> As> Pb>. However, no adsorption
activities were noted for Cr, Zn, Ni, As, and Fe ions after 10 days of the interaction process. It was also noted that
the concentration of Cu and Hg were reduced by 33% and 38% respectively with no change in concentration ion
for SO4. This could be attributed to the percentage of free aluminium phyllosilicate minerals available in the soil
as well as the diffused double layer within the outer surface structure and the elevated temperature. In addition,
study by Campillo et al. [36] supported that the uptake of heavy metals by clay minerals involves a series of
complex adsorption mechanisms, such as direct bonding between metal cations with the surface of clay minerals,
surface complexation, and ion exchange [37]. The soil use herein was noted to achieved low adsorption of HMs,
this implies that the soil requires pre-treatment and modification to enhances the surface area, pore volume, and
CEC on the surface for effective adsorption of HMs.
1529
Table 3. Quantities of absorbed heavy metals by non-treated clay liner

DWARF, 1996
Initial Conc. Effluent @ 2 Effluent @ 5 Effluent @ 7 Effluent @ 10 WHO(Mgdm-3)
HMs (Mgdm-3)
(Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3)
Livestock Irriga. Drinking water
Hg 14.0 11.52 9.35 5.23 0.95 1.0 >> 0.001
Fe 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 20.10 10.0 5.00 >>
As 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 1.00 0.01 0.001
Zn 5.41 5.41 5.41 5.41 5.41 20.0 1.00 >>
Pb 15.3 10.42 8.31 4.24 0.120 0.50 0.20 0.010
Cu 22.0 17.64 15.2 10.12 2.140 5.00 0.20 2.000
Cd 39.3 22.69 17.14 11.40 3.41 10.0 10.0 0.003
Ni 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.40 1.00 0.20 >>
Cr 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.05 0.050
SO4 1280 1280 1280 1280 1280 1000 >> >>
*WHO: World Health Organization
4.2. Adsorption of HMs by Nano-Slag Clay Liner (NSCL)

Nanomaterials has been extensively studied for the removal of heavy metals and metalloids due to their large specific
surface areas with enhanced active sites for contaminant adsorption [38]. The results indicated that the rate sorption of
the nano-slag clay liner improved significantly causing decrease in concentrations and quantities of the HM ions at
several contact times. Table 4 portrayed a high adsorption order of 98%As>, 99%Cd>, and 99.9%Pb> at 10 days
equilibrium time with adsorbent ratio of 50: 50 clay and nano-slag. The results further revealed that the metalloids like
Cu>, Zn>, Hg>, Ni> Fe>, and Cr> were greatly adsorbed at the same equilibrium period and nano-slag clay dosage. At
interaction period of 2 days, the concentration of HMs ions was slightly decreased. The adsorption trend portrayed
significant increase of adsorbate (heavy metals) as the interaction time continue to increase, the concentration of HMs
ions decreased. A significant decrease in ionic concentration was noted at 7 and 10 days of interaction time. For
example, Hg had an initial ion concentration of 14 Mgdm-3, upon 2 days of interaction period, the ion concentration
decreased from 14 Mgdm-3 to 6.14 Mgdm-3. Thus, further decease in ion concentration was noted at 5, 7, and 10 days
of interaction time resulting to decrease values of further from 2.15 Mgdm -3, 0.001 Mgdm-3, and 0.001 Mgdm-3
respectively
Table 4. Concentration of absorbed HM ions by 50: 50 NSCL
DWARF, 1996
Initial Conc. Effluent @ 2 Effluent @ 5 Effluent @ 7 Effluent @ 10 WHO (Mgdm-3)
HMs (Mgdm-3)
Hg 14.0 6.14 2.15 0.001 0.001 1.0. >> 0.001
Fe 32.0 20.2 18.0 4.31 2.14 10.0 5.00 >>
As 9.00 5.11 2.14 0.001 0.001 1.00 0.01 0.001
Zn 5.41 2.21 1.08 0.88 0.38 20.0 1.00 >>
Pb 15.3 8.14 3.42 0.18 0.11 0.50 0.20 0.010
Cu 22.0 13.2 7.42 1.24 1.00 5.00 0.20 2.000
Cd 39.3 20.2 11.22 3.10 0.41 10.0 10.0 0.003
Ni 14.4 9.21 3.12 0.20 0.20 1.00 0.20 >>
Cr 0.50 0.35 0.15 0.05 0.03 1.00 0.05 0.05
SO4 1280 1120 950 758 758 1000 >> >>
*WHO: World Health Organization
In Tables 5 to 8 similar decreasing trends were observed upon the evaluation of HM ions concentrations various clay
and nano-slag ratios of 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, and 90:10 as the adsorbent and NBFS liners at various interaction periods.
The result shows great proportionality between the adsorption of HM ions and the nanomaterial. The decrease in HM
ion concentration occurred as the nano-slag content increases and decreases when clay content increases. The adsorption
of the HMs and metalloids were significant at 7 days of interaction times beyond which the HMs ions concentrations
remained unchanged. Also, it was noted that the variation and effects of HM ions quantities decrease with an increase
in pH value and initial metal ion concentration. For instance, the removal of Cd is higher compared to Hg with a lesser
initial ion concentration, hence the adsorption capacity at 7 days for Cd is 36.2Mgdm -3 whereas in Hg an adsorption
capacity of 13.99 Mgdm-3 was recorded. These results indicated that the actual amount of HM ions absorbed per unit
1530
mass of the absorbent increased with metal ion concentration. The adsorption trend observed in this study is associated
to large surface area, high sorption capacities, temperature range and the adsorption capacity of nano-slag. The surface
area of the nano-slag mobilized the wide range sorption capacity for the system, suggesting its potential for treating
contaminated water. The results obtained in this study are related to other studies [38-44] which stated that nanomaterial
adsorbents are active for heavy metal removal due to their large specific surface areas with enhanced active sites for
contaminant adsorption and effective adsorbent in continuous adsorption mode. These concluded that nanomaterials
have many unique morphological and structural properties that mobilises effective adsorbents of heavy metals at the
outer surface.
DWARF, 1996
HMs (Mgdm-3)
Hg 14.0 8.31 4.21 0.01 0.001 1.0. >> 0.001
Fe 32.0 24.0 21.0 4.71 3.21 10.0 5.00 >>
As 9.00 5.12 4.14 0.81 0.001 1.00 0.01 0.001
Zn 5.41 2.10 1.23 0.94 0.67 20.0 1.00 >>
Pb 15.3 9.10 9.41 0.75 0.18 0.50 0.20 0.010
Cu 22.0 15.0 14.0 10.21 5.00 5.00 0.20 2.000
Cd 39.3 22.0 18.22 13.0 8.10 10.0 10.0 0.003
Ni 14.4 10.18 6.31 2.18 0.90 1.00 0.20 >>
Cr 0.50 0.40 0.25 0.05 0.05 1.00 0.05 0.05
SO4 1280 1260 1200 1150 1000 1000 >> >>
*WHO: world health organization

DWARF, 1996
HMs (Mgdm-3)
Hg 14.0 9.11 6.15 2.10 0.88 1.0. >> 0.001
Fe 32.0 26.2 22.0 5.00 4.00 10.0 5.00 >>
As 9.00 7.11 3.00 0.83 0.03 1.00 0.01 0.001
Zn 5.41 3.21 2.18 1.21 1.02 20.0 1.00 >>
Pb 15.3 10.0 8.12 1.25 0.53 0.50 0.20 0.010
Cu 22.0 17.0 15.1 12.0 7.00 5.00 0.20 2.000
Cd 39.3 24.0 22.0 15.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 0.003
Ni 14.4 13.0 7.00 3.21 1.0 1.00 0.20 >>
Cr 0.50 0.43 0.35 0.05 0.05 1.00 0.05 0.05
SO4 1280 1263 1200 1152 1000 1000 >> >>

DWARF, 1996
Initial Conc. Effluent @ 2 days Effluent @ 5 Effluent @ 7 Effluent @ 10 WHO (Mgdm-3)
HMs (Mgdm-3)
(Mgdm-3) (Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3) days (Mgdm-3)
Hg 14.0 9.30 7.00 2.30 0.90 1.00 >> 0.001
Fe 32.0 27.0 22.11 5.20 5.00 10.0 5.00 >>
As 9.00 7.41 3.50 1.0 0.04 1.00 0.01 0.001
Zn 5.41 3.22 2.20 1.24 1.12 20.0 1.00 >>
Pb 15.3 11.2 8.31 1.35 0.58 0.50 0.20 0.010
Cu 22.0 17.2 15.3 12.3 7.20 5.00 0.20 2.000
Cd 39.3 24.2 22.3 15.2 9.2 10.0 10.0 0.003
Ni 14.4 13.2 7.20 3.40 1.00 1.00 0.20 >>
Cr 0.50 0.43 0.35 0.05 0.05 1.00 0.05 0.05
SO4 1280 1265 1210 1155 1000 1000 >> >>
1531

DWARF, 1996
HMs (Mgdm-3)
Hg 14.0 10.1 9.0 4.23 0.90 1.0 >> 0.001
Fe 32.0 27.1 22.2 5.25 5.00 10.0 5.00 >>
As 9.00 7.45 3.55 1.10 0.35 1.00 0.01 0.001
Zn 5.41 3.25 2.25 1.28 1.18 20.0 1.00 >>
Pb 15.3 11.4 8.31 4.24 0.12 0.50 0.20 0.010
Cu 22.0 17.3 15.4 12.4 2.10 5.00 0.20 2.000
Cd 39.3 24.3 17.2 11.4 3.41 10.0 10.0 0.003
Ni 14.4 13.4 7.25 3.41 1.00 1.00 0.20 >>
Cr 0.50 0.45 0.35 0.05 0.50 1.00 0.05 0.050
SO4 1280 1270 1220 1160 1000 1000 >> >>

4.3. Effect of pH on Heavy Metal Adsorption

The effects of pH HMs adsorption with nano-slag variation are presented in Figures 7 to 11. The test results revealed
that the pH has a significant influence on the adsorption process of heavy metals and metalloids, as it acts on the
functionality and could impact their sorption rates. The results revealed that increasing the dosages of the nano-blast
furnace slag in the mix mobilized an increase in pH values from 2.5 to 5.13, 7.23, 10.41, 11.18, and 13.1 upon the
inclusion of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% nano-blast furnace slag. The increase in the nano-blast furnace slag resulted
in a significant uptake of HM ions. This implies that nano-slag contents control the pH levels, which in turn influence
the sorption process. Therefore, at a low pH level, the mobility of metal ions in the wastewater is higher, whereas, at a
higher pH, the lower mobility of Cd>, As>, Pb>, and other metalloids is established by Zhang et al. [45]. The surface
area of the nano-slag used herein played a critical role in determining the potential for a given quantity of adsorbed HM
ions. For instance, a 50:50 ratio of soil and nano-slag increased the pH level from 2.5 to 13.1 and caused a decrease in
the HM ion concentration of Cd from 39.3 mg dm-3 to 20.2 mg dm-3 for 2 days interaction period. According to the
presented curves, the red color indicates a high-level HMs concentration at low pH values. Therefore, increasing the
contents of the nano-slag dosages, caused a significant decrease in HMs ion concentration as the pH level increased.
The increase in nano-slag dosage mobilized color changes and a reduction in the concentration of HMs, as shown by
the curve legends. The color was noted to change from red to orange and further change from orange to yellow, green,
and finally purple. These color changes imply significant uptake of HM ions until the optimum level of HM ions is
adsorbed at elevated pH values.
Figure 7. Variation of pH and adsorption of Hg and Fe from AMD with different absorbent doses
1532
Figure 8. Variation of pH and adsorption of As and Zn from AMD with different absorbent doses
Figure 9. Variation of pH and adsorption of Pb and Cu from AMD with different absorbent doses
Figure 10. Variation of pH and adsorption of Cd and Ni from AMD with different absorbent doses
1533
Figure 11. Variation of pH and adsorption of SO4 with different absorbent doses
Generally, the high adsorption of HM ions was possible due to the increase in pH which was triggered by the
pozzolanic reaction between the soil and nano-slag. The pozzolanic reaction formed tertiary compounds such as
dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium silicate (C3S), and free calcium oxide (f-CaO) in steel slag. These tertiary compounds
possess excellent alkalinity in the CSH. The alkalinity in the tertiary compounds triggers the increase in the pH value of
the framework from 2.5 to 13.1. This also mobilized the precipitation of HM ions at elevated temperatures during the
interaction time, forming insoluble hydroxide within the pores of the clay layer. The effects of pH values on the
adsorption of Hms and metalloids observed in this study trend agrees with the report published elsewhere [46-51], which
confirms that increased pH level, triggers an increase in the sorption rate of HM ions through which precipitation occur
on the surface of the adsorbent. The results obtained here are comparable to the study published by Yadav et al. [52]
which stated that the application of nanomaterial for wastewater treatment increases the sorption rate of heavy metals
with a significant influence on the temperature. The small particle size effect was noted to improve the reaction between
the nano-slag and clay minerals which resulted in favorable uptake of the targeted metalloids.
4.4. Percentages of Absorbed HM Ions
Figures 12 to 15 present the sorption capacity of the NSCL using Equation. 2. The ratio of 50% clay and 50% nano-
slag at various interaction times was selected to evaluate the adsorption efficiency of NSCL. It was noted that high
sorption capacity has great proportionality with interaction time. Also, the adsorption efficiency was noted to increase
with interaction. Furthermore, the absorbed percentages of HM ions were significantly influenced by initial
concentration rate, CEC, surface area, elevated pH, and surrounding temperature in the LMT. For instance, at an
equilibrium period of 2 days, Hg, Fe, As, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, Ni, and Cr, the adsorption efficiency of 49%, 31%, 43.3%,
59.2%, 47%, 40%, 49%, 36.4%, and 30% respectively. However, significant adsorption was observed at interaction time
between 7 days to 10 days with recording adsorption efficiency of 99.9%, 93.3%, 99.9%, 93%, 99.8%, 95.4%, 99%,
99%, 97%, and 99% respectively.
80
HM ions
Adsorption efficiency (%)
60
40
20
0
Hg Fe As Zn Pb Cu Cd Ni Cr SO4
Heavy metals
Figure 12. The percentages absorbed HM ions at 2 days interaction period
1534
100 HM ions
80
Adsorption efficiency (%) 60
40
20
0
Heavy matels
120
HM ions
100
80
60
40
20
0
Heavy matels
120 HM ions
100
80
60
40
20
0
Heavy matels
As was expected significant adsorption percentages of Hg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Ni, and Cr were noted due to the pH, CEC,
and charged surface area of the nanomaterial. The results obtained in this study are in line with research work published
[53-57]. Their studies concluded that nano-iron was successfully used for the removal of arsenic, whereas graphite oxide
at the nanoscale also showed effective uptake of Cr and Pb with a gradual decrease in Ni ion concentration as the dosage
of graphene oxide increased [58].
1535
4.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis

The SEM analysis was used to determine the surface morphology of the untreated natural soil liner and NSCL.
The microscopy results showed significant physical changes caused by the adsorption of HMs and metalloids after
the equilibrium period of 10 days. The SEM analysis traced some gel-like precipitates on the surface of the liners, as
shown in Figures 16 to 18. The surface morphology of the liner changes as the dosages of the NBFS increase. This
was expected because a higher dosage of NBFS absorbed more HM ions. Therefore, the liner with lesser dosages of
NBFS adsorbed fewer HMs, causing the formation of little precipitates on the surface of the liner. However, traces
of quartz, pyrophyllite, dicalcium silicate (C 2S), tricalcium silicate (C 3S), calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium
aluminate hydrate CAS, and free calcium oxide (f-CaO). Among the mineral precipitates traced at the surface of the
liner includes gehlenite (Ca 2Al2SiO7), akermanite (Ca 2MgSiO7), bredigite (Ca 5MgSi3O12), and merwinite (Ca 3Mg
(SiO4)2), and gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O). The formation of these minerals was expected due to the high sulfate contained
in the contaminated water, coupled with the ionic exchange release of OH − and Ca2+ from the tertiary precipitates of
the reaction.
(a) (b)
Figure 16. (a) Showing microstructures of natural soil. (b) Showing traces of mineral precipitated formed with 90: 10 ratio
of soil and nano-slag
(a) (b)
Figure 17. (a) Showing traces of mineral precipitated formed with 80: 20 ratio of soil and NBFS (b) Showing traces of
mineral precipitated formed with 70: 30 ratios of soil and nano-slag
1536
(a) (b)
Figure 18. (a) Showing traces of mineral precipitated formed with a 60: 40 ratios of soil and nano-slag (b) Showing traces of
mineral precipitated formed with a 50: 50 ratios of soil and nano-slag
In summary, it is observed that nano-slag contains a significant aluminosilicate component, capable of improving
sorption rate. Thus, the large surface area of the nano-slag effectively adsorbed the targeted heavy metal ions and
metalloids through the combined contribution of ion exchange, precipitation, and ion complexation with heavy metals.
The presence of metal oxide, and the nanoparticle size effects, and the elevated temperature produced by the LMT
increased the active site on the surface of the liner. The adsorbed HM ions co-precipitated during the pozzolanic reaction
and formed gel-like structures with metalloid salts. The concentration of the wastewater before treatment was evaluated
to be 2.5 on the pH scale; this implies that the wastewater is toxic due to the presence of metalloids and heavy metals.
However, the concentration of the effluents was in the pH range of 7.5 to 7.8, quantifying the effluents fit for livestock,
irrigation, and drinking according to DWARF and WHO standards. On the contrary, the natural clay failed to adsorb
HM ions due to the liquid-solid partitioning, which is governed by aqueous solubility as a function of pH.
Despite the fact that the nano-slag used in this study has shown significant capacity for adsorbing metalloids, it has
a few limitations and drawbacks. The nanomaterials in general are unstable and tend to aggregate, thus reducing their
removal capacity of the adsorbent. Furthermore, it is usually difficult to separate the nanomaterials from the aqueous
solution swiftly and efficiently due to their nanoscale size. The problems of aggregation, poor separation, and excessive
pressure drop when used in fixed-bed and flow-through systems should not be neglected [59].
5. Conclusions
This study evaluates the efficiency of adsorbing HMs (As, Cd, and Pb) using leachate modular tower (LMT)
embedded nanomaterial (nano-slag). It is evident that the major challenge of nanomaterials in adsorbing HMs and
metalloids is clotting; however, this study proved that increasing the temperature of the interaction between the
contaminated water (adsorbate) and nanomaterial (adsorbent) restricted clotting of the system and also improved the
rate of sorption at extended interaction times. Based on the obtained results, the removal of 98%As, 99%Cd, and
99.9%Pb was achieved with a 50%:50% ratio of soil and nano-slag as the adsorbent at 10 days equilibrium period. Also,
significant adsorption of 98%Zn, 95.45%Cu, 93.3%Fe, 97%Ni, and 89%Hg were achieved upon further study using the
same dosage of soil and nano-slag and interaction time. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests revealed that
some traces of the absorbed HMs and metalloids were found on the liner surfaces, indicating significant changes in
microstructure through precipitation mechanisms. The sorption rate increased significantly due to the elevated
temperature, aluminosilicate structure, and prolonged contact time, which are also associated with the elevated pH level
and higher cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the liner.
The LMT-embedded nanomaterials exhibit great efficiency in adsorbing heavy metals, as evaluated in this study.
Nevertheless, there are still some impediments that need to be addressed to make better use of the LMT embedded
nanomaterials for the adsorption of HMs from wastewater. First, the nanoslag used herein tends to aggregate, thus
reducing its removal capacity. Furthermore, it is usually difficult to separate the nanomaterials from the aqueous solution
swiftly and efficiently due to their nanoscale size. Again, the synthesis process, long-term performance, and some other
issues correlated with nanoslag with respect to the developed LMT need to be studied further. Second, the commercial
nanoslag used for heavy metal removal on an industry scale is rare, and more efforts are needed to develop market-
1537
available nanomaterials. The synthesis as well as the operating costs of nanoslag should be optimized for the sake of the
economy, and the production of nanoslag should meet the requirements of green chemistry. Also, the increasing use of
nanoslag in wastewater treatment, their impacts, and their toxicities towards both the environment and human beings
should be taken into consideration.
This research produced modified activated carbon from local bamboo using a two-step carbonization and
impregnation process. The optimal parameters for the adsorption of heavy metals at different operating conditions in
single metal, bimetal, and trimetal solutions were evaluated using Box-Behnken Design (BBD).
This work proposed the study of pH influence on the biosorption process for chromium (Cr6+), nickel (Ni2+), and
lead (Pb2+) ions in an aqueous solution, searching for a range of pH values ideal to promote the maximum removal rate
of these metals under the established conditions. In addition, four lignocellulosic materials were tested as biosorbents:
walnut shell (Carya illinoensis), chestnut shell (Castanea sativa), wood (Pinus spp.), and burnt wood (Pinus spp.), which
are low-cost and easily obtainable agroindustrial wastes. The main objective of this work is to determine an optimal pH
that could remove the maximum amount of these three pollutants using low-cost materials available in the region of
Viseu, Portugal.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, F.A. and J.A.; methodology, F.A. and J.A.; software, F.A.; validation, F.A. and J.A.; formal
analysis, F.A.; investigation, F.A. and J.A.; resources, J.A.; data curation, F.A.; writing—original draft preparation,
F.A.; writing—review and editing, J.A.; visualization, F.A.; supervision, F.A. and J.A.; project administration, F.A.;
funding acquisition, J.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding
The authors received financial support from the University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, for the publication of
this article.
6.4. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Geotechnics and Materials Development Research Group (GMDRg) and the
Water Research Group of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, for the support provided
for this research.

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Civil Engineering 2023

Editor in Chief: Dr. Jiliang Li

Dr. O. Aminoroayaie Yamini Prof. M.M. Rashidi

Dr. S. Hooman Mousavi Dr. Sanjay Tewari

Prof. Nikolaos Eliou

Contents Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023

Yazan Jaradat, Harry Far

Maria P. Widjanarti, Ari Probandari, Sumardiyono, Sunarto

Rokhaya Gueye, Makhaly Ba, Ibrahima Mbaye, Ida Bibalo Josiane Ki

River Mobile Armor Layer Induced by Flood

Arlendenovega S. Negara, Cahyono Ikhsan, RR. Rintis Hadiani, Yusep M. Purwana

Yassine Razzouk, Mohamed Ahatri, Khadija Baba, Ahlam El Majid

Behavior of Centrifuged GFRP Poles Under Lateral Deflection

K. Kanmani, Vasanthi P., Packirisamy Pari, N. S. Shafeer Ahamed

Novita Pradani, Rita Irmawaty, Muhammad W. Tjaronge, Irwan R. Rahim

Production Economical Reinforced Concrete Slabs using Eco-Friendly Material

Mustafa S. Shubber, Thaer J. Mohammed, Khalid M. Breesem

Contents Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023

Ahmed Youssef, Mahmoud Hegazy, Hatem Mostafa

Parea R. Rangan, M. Tumpu, . Mansyur, D. S. Mabui

Muhamet Ahmeti, Milaim Ahmetaj, Visar Krelani

The Influence of Climatic Aging on the Performance of Wood-Based Panels

Soil Reinforcement Model Test Using Timber Pile at Liquefaction Area

Suyadi, Tri Harianto, A. Bakri Muhiddin, Ardy Arsyad

Frank Aneke, Joy Adu

• Building Materials and Structures • Coastal and Harbor Engineering

• Earthquake Engineering • Environmental Engineering

• Road and Bridge Engineering • Structural Engineering

◼ Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) is published monthly.

Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) Indexing & Abstracting

◼ This is an open access journal under the CC-BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Civil Engineering Journal

Vol. 9, No. 06, June, 2023

Impact Stiffness of Linear Viscoelastic Model for Seismic Pounding

Yazan Jaradat 1*, Harry Far 1

* Corresponding author: yazan.jaradat@student.uts.edu.au

Figure 1. Flowchart for the implemented methodology

2. Linear Viscoelastic Impact Model

Figure 2. Linear viscoelastic model and contact force-deformation relation

3. Related Work in Impact Stiffness

𝑘 = 𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 × (50 − 100) (6)

where 𝑘1 is calculated based on Equation 5.

4.2. Earthquake Simulator

4.3. Tested Frames

4.4. System Identification of the Steel-Frame Models

4.5. Selected Seismic Acceleration Records

0.3 Hachinohe Earthquake

0.3 Scaled Hachinohe Eathquake

0.6 Scaling factor = 1/5.48

Scaled Kobe Earthquake

4.6. Test Set-Up

5.1. Experimental Impact Parameters

5.2. Theoretical Formulas for Impact Stiffness

2. Based on Equation (6) by Naserkhaki et al. [65]

(k-Naserkhaki et al. (2013)[65]) = 0.0275 × 100 = 2750 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 (9)

Table 2. Impact parameters to linear viscoelastic model

Method Impact Stiffness 𝐤 N/mm Impact Damping Coefficient 𝐂 kg/s

Experiment 20,660 1255

Maison & Kasai (1992) [43] 31,750 1556

Naserkhaki et al. (2013) [65] 2750 458

Jankowski (2008) [44] 16,000 1104

Xu et al. (2016) [48] 12,848 990

15000 1.6594 1.4937

500 k-Maison & Kasai (1992)