Sport, Education and Society

ISSN: 1357-3322 (Print) 1470-1243 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cses20

Landscape of secondary physical education

teachers’ professional development in South
Korea

Okseon Lee, Euichang Choi, Mark Griffiths, Victoria Goodyear, Kathleen

Armour, Hyukjun Son & Hyunsoo Jung

To cite this article: Okseon Lee, Euichang Choi, Mark Griffiths, Victoria Goodyear, Kathleen
Armour, Hyukjun Son & Hyunsoo Jung (2019): Landscape of secondary physical education
teachers’ professional development in South Korea, Sport, Education and Society, DOI:
10.1080/13573322.2019.1612348

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2019.1612348

Published online: 29 Apr 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 98

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=cses20
SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2019.1612348

Landscape of secondary physical education teachers’ professional

development in South Korea
Okseon Lee a, Euichang Choia, Mark Griffithsb, Victoria Goodyear b
,
Kathleen Armour b, Hyukjun Son a and Hyunsoo Junga
a
Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea; bSchool of Sport, Exercise and
Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The purpose of this study was to examine the landscape of continuing Received 31 December 2018
professional development (CPD) for Korean secondary physical Accepted 24 April 2019
education (PE) teachers. Specifically, teachers’ perceptions of the
KEYWORDS
characteristics of CPD, factors determining the effectiveness of CPD, and Continuing professional
outcomes of CPD were examined. Data were collected from online development; teacher
questionnaires (n = 251) and in-depth interviews with secondary PE learning; physical education;
teachers (n = 20). The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS 20.0 learning culture; teacher
and the qualitative data were subjected to content analysis using education
NVivo11. The findings revealed that Korean PE-CPD was characterized as
(a) excessively institution-based, (b) distorting teachers’ patterns of CPD
participation depending on years of teaching experience, and (c)
emphasizing sport skills development. The teachers described an
effective PE-CPD program as having (a) novel, relevant, and practical
content, (b) an active, interactive, and collaborative structure, and (c) a
knowledgeable, open, and risk-taking program facilitator. CPD was
perceived to have predominantly proximal outcomes, such as the
acquisition and application of knowledge and skills for immediate use,
indicating that the traditional format of CPD is limited in promoting
teachers’ continuous learning. The discussion addresses teachers’
agentic actions through the processes of interpretation, decision-making
and perception, framed by values and teacher education traditions
within a Korean social context.

Introduction
Enhancing student achievement through high-quality education is a global concern. As the provision
of such education relies on knowledgeable, motivated, and competent teachers (Darling-Hammond,
2000), the recruitment, preparation, and retention of high-quality individuals are critical issues in
teacher education. In Korea, the teaching profession is highly competitive due to the Confucian
emphasis that affords teachers job security and respect. This enables physical education teacher edu-
cation (PETE) programs to recruit academically and physically high-performing candidates (Lee &
Choi, 2011).
The job security enjoyed by Korean teachers, known as their ‘iron rice bowl,’ has however been
criticized for reducing incentives to engage in professional development (Kim & Kim, 2014). Critics
have highlighted the need to strengthen teacher accountability and promote continuing professional
development (CPD) for teachers in Korea. Consequently, a teacher competency evaluation system

CONTACT Okseon Lee okseonlee@snu.ac.kr Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, South
Korea
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 O. LEE ET AL.

and mandates for teachers’ CPD participation were introduced to Korea in the 2000s (Lee, 2010). The
Teaching and Learning International Survey revealed that since then, Korean teachers’ CPD partici-
pation rate was higher (91.9%) than the average for OECD countries (88.5%). Korea also ranked
second among 23 countries for the number of days (30.0) spent participating in CPD (Kim & Kim,
2014). These data reflect policymakers’ increasing efforts to promote CPD and strengthen in-
service teachers’ professionalism in Korea.
Despite this rapid growth in Korean teachers’ CPD participation, however, research on CPD has
focused on providing theory-informed suggestions for improvement or small-scale program develop-
ment. For example, Park (2014) analyzed 200 studies of general education CPD published in Korea
before 2013 and found that quantitative surveys on program satisfaction and literature reviews
were the major research approach adopted; few studies in the database provided detailed accounts
of teacher interactions with CPD in Korea. Little is known about specific aspects of Korean CPD, such
as activity type and duration or the perceived effects of CPD programs and how participants experi-
enced them.
This trend is mirrored in research on CPD in the wider field of PE (PE-CPD). For example, many PE-
CPD studies over the last 10 years have provided suggestions for future development, but few have
clearly described or analyzed PE teachers’ existing CPD experiences (Lee, Choi, Jung, & Yoon, 2017). It
has long been recognized that the lack of research on teachers’ experiences of and perspectives on
PE-CPD is an international problem, not limited to Korea (Armour & Yelling, 2004). Research has often
focused on participants’ passive interpretations of CPD in terms of receiving and applying new knowl-
edge to professional practice (Griffiths, Armour, & Cushion, 2018; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Yet to make
sense of practitioners’ interactions with CPD, it is necessary to consider the impact of social context
on professional development and how it shapes practitioners’ interpretations of their CPD experi-
ences. As Daniels (2012) commented, learning is always a process of interpretation and meaning-
making, and the process of interpretation is shaped by ‘historically situated, socially enacted, and cul-
turally constructed worlds’ (p. 8). To produce a more nuanced and sensitive understanding of tea-
chers’ CPD interactions, research should consider both the microstructures in CPD (e.g. situated
activities and teachers) and the macro structures (e.g. systems/national organizations and schools)
that mediate practitioners’ interpretations and decision-making in CPD. In other words, CPD research
must widen its evaluation lens, and it is by doing so that this paper contributes to knowledge on
teacher professional learning.

Context of PE and CPD in South Korea

Currently, little is known about the characteristics of Korean PE-CPD programs and their alignment
with the characteristics of effective PE-CPD. International evidence suggests that effective PE-CPD
is relevant, practical, teacher-centered, collaborative, supportive, and continuous (Armour, Makopou-
lou, & Chambers, 2008; O’Sullivan & Deglau, 2006; Parker & Patton, 2017). These characteristics appear
to correspond to the guiding principles provided by the Korean Ministry of Education (MoE) for CPD
programs, which state that they must be teacher-centered, case-based and encourage teachers to
create rather than transmit knowledge (MoE, 2018). A series of government documents (MoE,
2017, 2016, 2015a) has repeatedly emphasized the importance of considering teachers’ needs,
solving problems in context-specific ways, and treating teachers as active learning agents by adopt-
ing diverse learning methods. These policies reflect the notion of teacher learning as participation in
activities rather than acquisition of knowledge (Sfard, 1998), based on the assumption that teachers
are ‘interested in certain kinds of activities rather than in accumulating private possessions’ (Sfard,
1998, p. 6). Therefore, the current study fills a gap in the research by examining Korea’s PE-CPD land-
scape and how it reflects the characteristics of effective PE-CPD.
It is widely accepted that teachers have both a right and a responsibility to engage in CPD (Armour
& Makopoulou, 2012; Darling-Hammond, Chung Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). As PE-
CPD in Korea is positioned at the intersection of PE and CPD, understanding both backgrounds is
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 3

necessary. First, PE is mandatory for secondary students in South Korea (Grades 7–12). During the
three years of middle school (Grades 7–9), each student must complete 272 h of PE, which equals
2–3 h per week. In addition, students are required to participate in school sports clubs of their
choice (34–68 h across the academic year) as part of the regular curriculum.
The guiding principles and content of PE and the activities of school sports clubs are specified in
the National Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE), last revised in 2015. The goal of the NCPE is
to foster core competencies such as health management, physical expression, game performance,
physical training, and safety (MoE, 2015b). The ultimate goal of PE is to develop the whole person
through character development. Teachers are encouraged to interpret and implement the curricu-
lum in line with their schools’ contexts and students’ needs, which demands considerable
professionalism.
Second, the preparation, certification, and employment of secondary PE teachers differ from those
of elementary school PE teachers. PE teacher candidates are recruited based on tests of scholastic
aptitude, physical skills and fitness, and professional disposition. The typical PETE program is a 4-
year university program offering knowledge and training in diverse areas, such as physical activity,
physical discipline, pedagogy, and curriculum development. To certify as teachers, candidates
must undertake 4 weeks of student teaching as a capstone experience. On completing the required
coursework, they are certified as Grade 2 secondary PE teachers. However, to gain employment as
public-school teachers, they must also take the National Teacher Employment Test, which comprises
three phases: (1) a disciplinary content knowledge and educational knowledge test, (2) a physical
skills and activity test, and (3) a lesson plan writing and teaching performance test (Lee & Choi,
2011). However, although recruitment is rigorous, Korea’s PETE system has often been criticized
for failing to provide continuous support after employment (Kim & Kim, 2014).
To tackle this problem, the MoE has taken action to strengthen teachers’ CPD participation. For
example, 4 years after initial employment, all PE teachers are required to undertake 90 h of CPD pro-
vided by the local educational office to move up a grade in their teacher certification. At the begin-
ning of each year, the MoE provides a CPD policy framework including purpose, time requirements,
reporting structure, financial support, and quality criteria, based on which each educational district
establishes a plan for CPD. According to these guidelines (MoE, 2015a, 2016, 2017, 2018) teachers
are required to participate in 60 h of CPD per year, which is one of the criteria assessed in the
annual teacher performance evaluation. A 15-hour CPD program confers one CPD credit, and
credits are accumulated and recorded in the National Education Information System (NEIS) to
track teachers’ CPD participation. In addition, the Korean government pays every teacher $220 per
year to support CPD participation (MoE, 2016).
In sum, the increasing emphasis on teacher accountability and teacher quality have spurred the
government to implement strong initiatives with policies on CPD quality criteria, format, duration,
and assessment to support PE teachers’ CPD participation (MoE, 2017, 2018).

Theoretical background
Scholars have generally agreed that high-quality CPD programs are content-focused, coherent, sus-
tained and promote active learning and collective participation (Desimone & Pak, 2017; Hill, Beisiegel,
& Jacob, 2013). Nevertheless, research across a number of professional fields has failed to provide
convincing evidence of the relative effects of different types of CPD on participant learning and exist-
ing practice (Borg, 2018). While consideration of the structural elements of CPD learning activities is
valuable, contemporary evidence suggests that it is necessary to investigate not only teachers’ learn-
ing dispositions towards CPD but also the physical, socio-cultural, and organizational contexts that
shape teachers’ perceptions of their engagement in any CPD activity (de Vries, Jansen, & van de
Grift, 2013). This study draws attention to the relationships between PE teachers and the multiple
learning communities that they occupy (e.g. schools, formal CPD, informal teacher networks) to
provide new insights into teachers’ experiences of formalized CPD.
4 O. LEE ET AL.

Contemporary CPD research has begun to articulate how learning through formalized CPD is not
simply the acquisition of knowledge by disconnected individuals, but a process of social participation
within specific learning contexts (Whitworth & Chiu, 2015). This produces an understanding of CPD
that moves beyond learning as simply doing to learning as engagement in contextual and culturally
grounded activities (Hager & Hodkinson, 2009). What teachers do and how they learn what to do are
therefore consequences of social, political, and cultural reconstructions of practice and action
(Kemmis, 2010). In this way, it is important to understand how and why teachers engage in
different learning situations (e.g. formal vs. informal CPD) and how their practices and learning dis-
positions are influenced by the culture of the situations (Hager & Hodkinson, 2009). We use Swidler’s
(1986) definition of culture as ‘publicly available symbolic forms through which people experience
and express meaning’ (p. 273). In the context of this study, symbolic forms of meaning include
values, beliefs, practices, routines, stories, and the learning culture perceived by Korean PE teachers.
Korean schools offer a frame of reference within which teacher learning was viewed, actioned, and
evaluated by the teachers themselves.
To help navigate and analyze the Korean PE-CPD landscape, we drew from the Hodkinson,
Biesta, and James (2008) model of cultural learning theory to consider learning, both from an indi-
vidual perspective, and in relation to the learning situation. The authors are critical of learning
metaphors such as ‘acquisition’ and ‘transfer’ because such terms imply that knowledge travels
seamlessly between contexts. When conceived of as a process of boundary crossing (e.g.
between CPD activities and school), learning becomes a form of cultural participation involving
interpretation and decision making rather than a passive process of knowledge procurement
(Hager & Hodkinson, 2009). Subsequently, Hodkinson et al. (2008) advocate a cultural theory of
learning that examines how individuals learn in different situations and how their practices,
actions, and dispositions are influenced by different learning cultures. It is in the application of
a cultural theory of learning to PE teachers’ CPD experiences that this paper attempts to contribute
fresh understanding.
The purpose of this study was to examine the landscape of PE-CPD in Korea in terms of (a) the
characteristics of PE-CPD, (b) the factors determining effective PE-CPD, and (c) the impacts of PE-
PCD programs as perceived by Korean secondary PE teachers. Special attention was paid to how
PE-CPD in Korea is framed by Korean values and the extent to which it reflects the characteristics
of effective PE-CPD.

Methods
Data on Korean secondary PE teachers’ CPD participation were collected in two phases: first, through
online questionnaires, and second, through in-depth interviews with teachers.

Participants
Online questionnaires were administered to 251 secondary school PE teachers recruited from 17 edu-
cational districts in South Korea. The participants comprised 195 (77.7%) males and 56 (22.3%)
females, similar to the overall gender distribution of PE teachers in South Korea. The distribution
of teaching experience was as follows: fewer than 5 years (37.1%), 5–10 years (33.1%), 10–15 years
(13.1%), and over 15 years (16.7%). The sample comprised 154 (61.4%) middle school teachers and
97 (38.6%) high school teachers.
Twenty teachers were selected from the original pool of 251 PE teachers to participate in semi-
structured interviews. To obtain more detailed information, the participants were selected based
on gender, teaching experience, and previous experience as PE-CPD participants and/or facilitators.
Fifteen of these teachers were male and 5 were female. Four had fewer than 4 years’ teaching experi-
ence, 13 had fewer than 20 years’ experience, and 3 had more than 20 years’ experience. Informed
consent was obtained from every participant.
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 5

Data sources
Online questionnaires on PE-CPD
To obtain a general profile of the PE teachers’ professional development, online questionnaires were
administered. The questionnaires were designed to obtain information on the nature of PE-CPD and
included descriptive and evaluative questions as well as spaces to write comments freely. The partici-
pants were asked to list all of the PE-CPD programs they had attended in the last 3 years. For each
program, they indicated its title, provider(s), duration (hours), and learning type(s) (online, lectures,
activities, discussion, micro-teaching) and evaluated their satisfaction on a 4-point Likert scale. To
examine the reasons for CPD participation, 7 self-report items were developed based on the literature
review and discussion with providers and participants. Participants were asked to indicate their
agreement with each statement, such as ‘I participate in CPD to meet the criteria for promotion’
using a 4-point Likert scale, on which 1 represents ‘strongly disagree’ and 4 ‘strongly agree.’
In addition, on open-ended questionnaires, participants were asked to select the most/least
effective PE-CPD in which they had participated, and to provide reasons. To examine the effects of
the PE-CPD, participants were asked to comment freely on what they had learned and how CPD par-
ticipation had influenced their teaching. As every teacher’s CPD participation is recorded in Korea’s
NEIS, the participants were asked to provide exact information by referring to the information regis-
tered on the system. Therefore, the definition of CPD in this study was limited to structured CPD
recorded in the NEIS and authorized by the Korean MoE.

In-depth interviews
The second phase of data collection was conducted through in-depth interviews with 20 secondary
PE teachers. As a general profile of PE-CPD had already been obtained from the above mentioned
online survey, the in-depth interviews focused on obtaining a more detailed description of PE-
CPD, its perceived effects, and teachers’ motivations for participating. Specifically, the participants
were asked to describe the most/least effective CPD programs they had experienced; what, how,
and under what conditions they had learned; and how CPD had influenced them and their students.
They were also asked to describe their experience as facilitators and explain the characteristics of an
ideal PE-CPD program. Further investigation was conducted through in-depth interviews as necess-
ary to clarify the online survey data. Each interview took approximately 1 h and was recorded and
transcribed verbatim. The research protocols were reviewed and approved by the university’s Insti-
tutional Review Board, and informed consent was obtained from all of the survey and interview
participants.

Data analysis
Quantitative data were predominantly analyzed using descriptive statistics. A series of t-tests were
employed to determine if motivation differed for CPD based upon years of experience. The data
were screened and key assumptions of the t-test including homogeneity of variance were evaluated.
Qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis. The qualitative data were imported to
NVivo 11.0 and assigned codes, categories, and themes. To identify any trends, the data on providers,
course types, and activity types were analyzed by count frequency.
The interview data were organized according to individual teachers’ responses. The researchers
read the interview data repeatedly and made notes where important points were addressed. In
each transcript, significant sentences or phrases dealing with CPD characteristics were identified
and initial codes were assigned. Next, the researchers wrote brief memoranda on individual partici-
pants’ characterizations of PE-CPD participation. The researchers then grouped the initial codes based
on the three research questions, focusing on (a) characteristics of PE-CPD, (b) effective PE-CPD, and (c)
perceived outcomes of PE-CPD. The codes corresponding to each research question were compared
across the participants, and focused codes were created based on patterns, similarities, and
6 O. LEE ET AL.

differences. Next, the focused codes were categorized into themes representing bigger concepts, and
explanations of the themes were developed based on typical cases and examples.
The trustworthiness of the research was ensured through member check and triangulation
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). For the member check, the interview transcripts and initial interpretations
of the data were shared with the research participants, who had the opportunity to express their
opinions. The data sources were triangulated by assessing the consistency of the survey data
findings and the themes drawn from individual interviews to provide corroborating evidence.

Findings
The findings of this study are reported under the following three major themes: (1) characteristics of
PE-CPD programs, (2) effective PE-CPD, and (3) impacts of PE-CPD.

Characteristics of Korean PE-CPD programs

Providers of PE-CPD
The 251 teachers reported attending 518 PE-CPD programs. The findings showed that these pro-
grams were dominated by institutions such as district educational offices (n = 166; 32%), in-service
teacher training centers (n = 122; 24%), the Federation of Teachers’ Associations (n = 27; 5%), univer-
sities (n = 27; 5%), public institutions (n = 38; 7%), and sports governing bodies (n = 23; 4%). These
institutions had gained approval from the Korean Ministry of Education as PE-CPD providers by
meeting specific criteria for content, format, duration, assessment methods, and qualifications of
facilitators. The participating PE teachers were attracted to these institution-based PE-CPD programs
because they were considered ‘legitimate PD’ by school administrators. Unlike unauthorized PD pro-
viders, accredited institutions provided a certificate of attendance allowing the participants to
request money and time from their schools for PD. The result was a preference for accredited provi-
ders of PE-CPD, ‘locking in’ the participants to institutions approved by educational authorities.
Data also illustrated how teachers’ perceptions of PE-CPD centered on formal aspects such as
‘courses,’ ‘training,’ ‘off-school settings,’ and ‘structured learning opportunities.’ The PE department
head teachers were required to attend sessions on revisions to the national curriculum every 4–5
years, and then to disseminate the course information in their own schools. The weaknesses of
this traditional transmission-based CPD model were acknowledged: ‘We just spread the word that
the curriculum has been revised without providing more details. Teachers at our school usually
respond by saying “Another change?” or “We don’t care anymore”’ (T1).
Meanwhile, many of the teachers were attracted to PE-CPD programs provided by sports govern-
ing bodies because they provided stress-free, fun, and enjoyable sports experiences. Courses on
jumping rope, cheerleading, and soccer were provided by sports-related associations. Korea’s intro-
duction of a school sports club policy in the late 2000s propelled sports governing bodies to provide
PE-CPD to expand and strengthen school sports provision. However, sports governing bodies cur-
rently focus on promoting specific sports activities and equipment rather than developing teachers’
instructional skills.
The data illustrated how professional knowledge was highly valued when delivered by official
organizations approved by the government. Yet teachers also acknowledged the limitation of CPD
knowledge transmission due to the gap between ‘official’ CPD knowledge and context-based
knowledge.

Reasons for participating in PE-CPD

Understanding the participants’ motivations was critical to understanding their engagement in PE-
CPD. Although the government had provided strong support for PE-CPD, these policies did not
always match the teachers’ intrinsic motivations, and sometimes even inhibited their learning.
Respondents were asked how strongly they agreed with the reasons for CPD participation on a 4-
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 7

point Likert scale. As shown in Table 1, the average scores for extrinsic reasons, such as accruing the
mandatory number of hours of CPD and satisfying criteria for promotion, were lower than those for
intrinsic reasons. Similarly, the qualitative data suggested that the teachers’ motivations for PE-CPD
participation were predominantly intrinsic, such as fulfilling a ‘thirst for learning’ (T12), ‘establishing
best practice’ (T6), and ‘pursuing and realizing happiness through teaching’ (T2). The results show
that the institution-based CPD programs provided for meeting teachers’ mandatory CPD hours are
not sufficient to satisfy teachers’ intrinsic motivations, and that alternative formats of CPD need to
be developed.
Despite the prevalence of internal motivations for PE-CPD engagement, the official policy requir-
ing 60 h of participation in PE-CPD distorted patterns of teachers’ CPD participation differently
depending on their years of teaching experience. For example, beginner teachers (with less than 5
years of teaching experience) were obliged to participate in PE-CPD to enhance their school evalu-
ation scores. Given that CPD participation is an important criterion for school evaluation scores,
the administrators mandated that beginning teachers who are lower in the hierarchy had to partici-
pate in CPD rather than encouraging all teachers’ participation. As can be seen in Table 1, the inde-
pendent t-test showed that beginner teachers felt more pressure from administrators to participate in
PE-CPD than teachers with more than 5 years of teaching experience (p < .05). The age hierarchy (Kim,
Ryu, Lee, & Seo, 2010) imposed a mandatory 60 h of ‘homework’ on beginner teachers, as described
in the following interview excerpt.
When I started my first job, all of my senior colleagues and the principal asked me to undertake at least 60 hours
of training. It felt like homework, because they checked my participation. Meanwhile, I found that some older tea-
chers never attended the workshops and only forced powerless young teachers to go this and that type of
program. (T11, interview)

In addition, to strengthen accountability in teacher learning, the MoE requires providers to evaluate tea-
chers who pursue more than 60 h’ worth of PE-CPD. However, this strategy has had unexpected side
effects: the PE teachers tended to avoid pursuing sustained CPD programs due to the stress of being
evaluated. Consequently, they fulfilled the 60-hour CPD requirement by attending multiple one-day
workshops rather than participating in long-term CPD programs. Of the 558 CPD programs attended
by the participants, 82% lasted for fewer than 30 h, followed by 30–60 h (11%) and 60–90 h (7%).
Although the goal of evaluation was to strengthen teacher accountability, the assessment was
centered on a ‘fact-oriented memory test’ (T16) rather than long-term teacher learning and develop-
ment. For example, one teacher was dissatisfied with the evaluation process because it ‘ranked tea-
chers based on their scores for low-quality and irrelevant testing items’ (T3).
The Korean schools considered in this study were rich in cultural practices that exerted control and
power (i.e. mandatory CPD) over teacher professional learning. Indeed, it was interesting to note that

Table 1. Reasons for CPD participation.

Reasons for CPD Years of teaching experience N Mean SD p
Improving knowledge and skills for teaching 0–5 93 3.54 .56 .28
>6 160 3.62 .53
Sharing and finding solutions to problems 0–5 93 3.36 .62 .42
>6 160 3.43 .64
Extending network with other teachers 0–5 93 2.83 .72 .99
>6 160 2.83 .67
Requested by administrators 0–5 93 2.53 .70 .00*
>6 160 2.21 .77
Accruing mandated number of PD hours 0–5 93 2.37 .83 .09
>6 160 2.19 .81
Improving teacher evaluation score 0–5 93 1.96 .68 .02*
>6 160 1.75 .74
Meeting criteria for promotion 0–5 93 1.87 .67 .10
>6 160 1.72 .71
*statistically significant (p < .05).
8 O. LEE ET AL.

teachers engaged in ‘strategic’ decision-making about the types of CPD courses they would engage
with based on course duration and the absence of evaluation processes.

Contents of PE-CPD
The teachers felt that the content of PE-CPD was dominated by sports skills development (n = 184;
36%), followed by curriculum/instruction/assessment (n = 130; 25%), upgrading teaching certificate
(n = 72; 14%), safety/first aid (n = 53; 10%), developing competencies related to teacher duties (n =
47; 9%), general education issues (n = 22; 4%), and sports policy updates (n = 10; 2%). Courses
such as ‘basic badminton skills,’ ‘intermediate soccer,’ ‘swimming’ were provided. The emphasis on
sport skills development reflected both teachers’ needs and providers’ interest. The PE teachers per-
ceived sport skills and fitness as indicators of teachers’ professionalism.
I envy most a teacher with excellent sports skills. I have good badminton skills, but I am not good at soccer or
basketball. Demonstrating good sport skills is an indicator of PE teachers’ professionalism. (T5, interview)

Unlike teachers of other subjects, PE teachers use their bodies to teach. So developing fitness and physical skills is
a basic requirement for a PE teacher. (T6, interview)

This notion of teacher professionalism seems to have originated from the Korean PETE system,
which has constantly tested candidates’ sports skills and physical fitness levels as an important selec-
tion criterion throughout the process of teacher recruitment, teacher preparation, and the Teacher
Employment Test (Lee & Choi, 2011). The content of CPD was perceived as an extension of
teacher preparation, which focuses on physical activity and sports skills development.
However, the sports skills-oriented programs were not only repetitive and lacking in learning pro-
gression, but also out of sync with the development of the NCPE to embrace a broader scope of PE.
The following questionnaire and interview responses show how programs focused on sports skills
failed to match teachers’ needs and changing educational trends.
Although the courses were entitled “beginner,” “intermediate,” and “advanced,” they showed no differences. I
couldn’t see the relevance of the course to my actual teaching, even though it was taught by a sports expert.
(Open-ended questionnaire)

I think that the status of PE and PE teachers has improved a lot. They used to call us “gym teachers” or “chore
guys,” but with the emphasis on character education and the school sports policy, we are now expected to
play an important role in schools. However, we are not well prepared for these responsibilities because there
is no appropriate [PE-CPD] program. (T6, interview)

Although the roles and responsibilities of Korean PE teachers have broadened with changes in edu-
cational policy, the content of PE-CPD did not closely match their redefined professional identity.
Data from the study suggested that PE teachers’ conceptualizations of CPD were shaped by individ-
ual interpretations but were located within wider fields of social practice (e.g. perceptions of teacher
professionalism, the Korean PETE system). These acts of interpretation shaped and brought into focus
what was important to teachers as they engaged with content through formalized CPD.

Teachers’ perceptions of effective PE-CPD

In line with much of the research literature (Desimone & Pak, 2017; Hill et al., 2013), the participants in
this study reported that the effectiveness of PE-CPD was determined by the novelty, relevance, and
practicality of the program content. Some of the teachers, who had multiple years of CPD experience,
found that the content was repetitive and failed to provide fresh knowledge relevant to practice. For
example, a teacher commented, ‘If you go to the workshops for many years, you will find that they are
like peas in a pod. It’s the same old content. So a program dealing with brand new content would be
very effective’ (T 13).
The relevance of PE-CPD content was assessed in terms of its alignment with changing PE policies
and teachers’ real-life practice. The teachers’ notions of practicality were centered on how quickly
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 9

information could be utilized in their schools, and how well the content was balanced between
theory and practice. As the teachers were under time pressure, they preferred ready-made content
that could be seamlessly transferred to their school contexts. Furthermore, the participants indicated
that to ensure its practicality, the content should balance pedagogy and content, theory and practice,
abstract knowledge and specific case examples. One teacher commented, ‘We’d rather have a bag of
tricks than attempt to grasp clouds in the sky. But we also want sound theoretical knowledge because
it is not easy to obtain other than here’ (T19). Despite teachers valuing novelty and theory as charac-
teristics of effective CPD, their priority on practicality with immediate use was often satisfied by
official providers, as this was what they primarily wanted. Thus, the impact of PE-CPD on transforming
practice was limited.
The teachers also felt that the effectiveness of PE-CPD was linked to program structure. A program
structure that facilitated collaboration, the sharing of ideas, networking with other teachers, and
hands-on experience was perceived to be effective. As one teacher observed, ‘When we listen to a
lecture we have only one idea, but we have N ideas when N teachers share their stories’ (T11).
Through socializing and networking, the participants were exposed to not only new knowledge,
but also opportunities for communication post course. To increase networking opportunities,
group tasks, extended periods of engagement, and informal networking (e.g. during coffee breaks)
were highly valued. The teachers placed a notable emphasis on collaboration rather than competition
to facilitate networking and teacher learning. Given that Korean PE teachers are trained in a highly
competitive environment, the participants’ preference for alternative learning styles that went
beyond individualism and competition was particularly interesting.
The teachers commented that to facilitate effective experiences, course educators should be
willing to learn with and from teachers rather than simply transmitting information. For this
reason, one teacher indicated that schoolteachers were better for the role than university researchers
by commenting, ‘University researchers may have more knowledge than school teachers, but facili-
tators from public schools are more effective because their mindset allows them to learn with partici-
pants without imposing their own perspectives’ (T16). Moreover, effective program leaders
demonstrated behaviors such as a willingness to listen, open-mindedness, and acceptance of vulner-
ability. As one teacher observed, ‘We learn more when people share their mistakes than from their
glorious successes. Making it happen, that’s the role of the facilitator’ (T14).
The data from the study reflect much that has been written in the CPD literature concerning per-
ceptions of professional relevance and teachers’ learning dispositions. In their highly competitive
teaching environment, Korean teachers welcomed CPD activities as ‘safe’ collaborative spaces that
facilitated increased networking opportunities, and they valued course content that aligned with
school practice.

Perceived impacts of PE-CPD

The participants’ perceptions of the impacts of PE-CPD centered on teachers’ sport skills and fitness
improvement rather than student learning. Typical responses in the open-ended questionnaires
included ‘strengthened weak areas of my sports skills,’ ‘gave me the chance to play sports that I
had never played before,’ and ‘enhanced my fitness.’ In addition, obtaining information and instruc-
tional tips was considered a significant outcome of PE-CPD. Acquiring information on changes to PE
policies, such as the introduction of the ‘free semester’ policy, school sports clubs, and the compe-
tency-based national PE curriculum, was perceived to be important because such information pro-
vided directions for practice. Yet learning as the acquisition of information, knowledge, and skills
without considering adaptive expertise (Hatano & Oura, 2003) was acknowledged to be limited, as
shown below.
Although you think, “Aha, this is a neat idea,” it will suddenly change once you go back to your school because
your school and your students are different. To a certain degree, the information provided during PE-CPD courses
10 O. LEE ET AL.

should be adapted because you cannot just plug these ideas in to your school context. It’s like pie in the sky,
because we hold the information without knowing how to use it. (T9, interview)

The participants reported three levels of application of CPD content to their teaching: immediate
application, application with adaptation, and transformation of ideas. First, the teachers described the
direct and immediate application of resources, materials, and tip-centered ideas. This was character-
ized by ‘plug in,’ or the transplantation of ideas into the teachers’ respective teaching contexts.
Typical examples of immediate application were as follows: ‘I used resource pack examples for per-
formance-oriented assessment for my students’ and ‘The fitness station activity cards were useful to
my students’ (T11).
The second level of application was the adaptation of materials for use. The teachers reported
adding their own ideas, removing irrelevant materials, and replacing content to meet the needs of
their students and schools. For example, T19 adapted an idea for a school sports club event by
‘adding some non-competitive activities such as dance and cheerleading to reduce the negative
effects of fierce competition.’
The third level of application was the transformation of CPD ideas into teachers’ own teaching ideas.
Many of the teachers, however, found it frustrating and difficult to transform abstract ideas into specific
teaching practice due to insufficient time, competency, and support from their schools. Teachers
wanted contextually relevant knowledge, but given the nature of decontextualized knowledge deliv-
ered through CPD they struggled and could only implement tips-and-tricks-level content.
Practically, we don’t have much time for deep thinking and preparation at school. So all the good ideas from the
workshops are good for Friday, but gone on Monday. Plus, unless you are in the leading position in the PE depart-
ment, it is difficult to try out new ideas because people want to keep doing what they have always done. (T5,
interview)

To overcome these difficulties, some teachers felt a strong need to establish a teacher community
to facilitate the application of workshop content, as this could not be done alone. The unsatisfactory
nature of formal CPD programs triggered highly motivated teachers to design teacher learning
communities.
I have worked at an innovative school for the last 3 years, but the curriculum workshop was too short and unsa-
tisfactory. So after the workshop, I met with workshop participants who were also at innovative schools and estab-
lished a network with them. We thought that innovation should focus on school culture and PE should play a
central role in revitalizing our schools. I am still meeting with them to come up with school innovation ideas.
(T4, interview)

As we identified earlier, Korean government documents (MoE, 2017, 2016, 2015a) clearly high-
light the importance of considering teachers’ learning needs, promoting teachers’ abilities to
solve problems in the context of school practices, and treating teachers as active learning
agents. Yet data from this study suggest that formalized CPD activities promote decontextualized
knowledge and that schools framed by Korean values and PE teacher education traditions have
limited the perceived impact of CPD on practice. It is thus unsurprising that some teachers compen-
sated by seeking informal teacher networks for support. The findings clearly show how concepts of
teacher professionalization, school culture, and Korean education values were inextricably linked to
teachers’ perceptions of formalized CPD. These connections are developed further in the following
section.

Discussion
This study provides new evidence about the characteristics of Korean PE-CPD, the factors influencing
effective PE-CPD, and the impact of PE-CPD programs as perceived by secondary PE teachers. In the
context of the international PE-CPD literature, these findings reflect what we already know about
‘effective’ PE-CPD (see Armour, Quennerstedt, Chambers, & Makopoulou, 2017). Indeed, a consider-
able amount has been written about relevance, teacher professionalism, role identity, informal
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 11

learning communities, and school culture in explaining CPD engagement (see Makopoulou, 2018).
However, the conceptual approaches that have informed this study, with a focus on the social and
cultural interactions of teachers’ professional learning, lead to an appreciation of the ways in
which teacher learning can be understood as a dynamic process of interpretation, decision-
making, and perception. The value of thinking about teachers’ CPD experiences in this way is that
it allows a better understanding of a social participation process situated within a specific cultural
context that is both restrictive and facilitative. The findings suggest that despite the restrictive
nature of formalized learning, teachers still retained agency, albeit in the form of resistance and a
passive lack of engagement.
Korean PE-CPD was found to be highly dependent on and valued through institution-based pro-
vision. This dependence on external, formalized CPD arose from heightened governmental aware-
ness of the importance of in-service teacher education, which had long been neglected due to an
emphasis on the inflow of excellent candidates into the teaching profession (Jeon, 2012). Although
strong national policies had enhanced PE teachers’ participation in CPD to an internationally high
level in a short period (Kim & Kim, 2014), they had also fostered an insular learning culture in
which TE was provided predominantly by external institutions and teachers’ learning was assumed
to occur only outside the school context. The resulting dissemination of decontextualized knowledge,
provider-centered PE-CPD, did not reflect either the ‘lived reality of day-to-day practice’ (Armour &
Yelling, 2004, p. 87) or their school contexts (Armour & Makopoulou, 2012; O’Sullivan & Deglau,
2006), and thus failed to meet one of the criteria for effective PE-CPD.
Korean PE-CPD policies were entrenched through high levels of teacher accountability and man-
datory school procedures, thereby departing from the essential purpose of PE-CPD in building tea-
chers’ capacity for further learning (Patton & Parker, 2014). In particular, the process of CPD
assessment intended to enhance teacher accountability merely reproduced the competition-
oriented learning culture of pre-service teacher education, indicating that in-service teachers’ learn-
ing does not offer appropriate ‘learning progression’ following pre-service PETE (Armour & Mako-
poulou, 2012, p. 344). This problem stemmed from the bureaucratic nature of Korean
educational culture, which emphasizes conformity to policy in the name of performance manage-
ment and accountability (Kim & Lee, 2011). Therefore, the accountability mechanism of Korea’s PE-
CPD should be reconsidered, as it merely compels external compliance – ‘policy by numbers’
(Lingard, Hayes, Mills, & Christie, 2003) – rather than enhancing teachers’ sense of autonomy and
professional responsibility (Sugrue & Mertkan, 2017). In this study, the findings demonstrated
that in restrictive learning contexts, teachers still retain agency in the form of resistance and disen-
gagement. These forms of what Richardson (2015) called ‘agentic action in context’ bring to the fore
issues of control and power and the extent to which social context frames how CPD is perceived,
actioned, and engaged in by teachers.
The orientation of PE-CPD content toward sports skills development failed to reflect the ideals of
whole-person development and character education promulgated in Korea’s NCPE. This finding
echoes the results of international research (Armour & Yelling, 2004; Makopoulou & Armour,
2011). The strong focus on sports skills development was caused by a complex combination of indi-
vidual teachers’ emotional needs (e.g. seeking sports courses as an outlet to relieve their job stress)
and pro-sport policies such as the school sports club policy in place since 2000 (Jung, 2014). The
time-honored emphasis on sports skills development in Korean pre-service TE had also led the tea-
chers to equate professionalism with expertise in sports, which in turn served as a barrier to the
development of qualities beyond sports skills (Lee & Choi, 2011). The mismatch between the
ideal of the NCPE and the reality of sports-based CPD led teachers to feel ‘busy, happy, and able
to tick boxes,’ which boiled down to students’ feeling ‘busy, happy, and good’ (Placek, 1983)
without considering the learning outcomes specified in the NCPE. CPD in Korea, which is centered
on sports skill development, is isolated from the ‘big picture’ of the NCPE and transmits content in a
segmented and fragmented way, strengthening a performance-based pedagogy (Tinning, 1991).
Conceptualizing PE-CPD content through a cultural lens allows for a more nuanced understanding
12 O. LEE ET AL.

of how knowledge in one structure (i.e. NCPE) is classified, framed, and legitimized (Bernstein, 2000)
before being ‘transferred’ (or not) into another (i.e. sports-based CPD). For researchers, mapping
how knowledge is produced and re-contextualized across contexts can offer valuable insights
into the professional learning process, particularly the boundaries and barriers that inhibit
teacher learning.
Effective PE-CPD was perceived by the teachers to have novel, relevant, and practical content; an
active, interactive, and collaborative rather than competitive program structure; and a knowledge-
able, open, and risk-taking program facilitator. These findings were consistent with the characteristics
of effective PE-CPD identified in previous international studies (O’Sullivan & Deglau, 2006; Patton,
Parker, & Pratt, 2013). Interestingly, the teachers preferred informal networking opportunities and col-
laborative tasks to competitive tasks. This suggests that social constructivist and collaborative
approaches to learning are more effective than traditional didactic models (Desimone, 2011;
Parker, Patton, & Tannehill, 2012). In particular, alternative approaches that depart from the competi-
tive Korean teacher learning culture and enable teachers to exchange and produce knowledge in
more cooperative and interactive ways are urgently needed (Keay, 2006). To this end, facilitators
should be trained in learner-centered, active, and socially supportive strategies for CPD (Goodyear
& Casey, 2015; Patton et al., 2013), and should appreciate how professional knowledge encountered
through formal CPD is re-enacted in local (school) contexts. A sociocultural approach to CPD acknowl-
edges the importance of planning for ‘contextual sensitivities’ (Sriprakash, 2011) when designing
large scale formalized CPD programs.
In addition, the teachers’ preference for field-based practitioners as facilitators rather than those
who occupy hierarchical relationships, such as university researchers or educational administrators,
can be attributed to the gap between universities and public schools (Park, 2006). The ‘pedagogical
case’ (see Armour, 2017) offers a way of narrowing the gap between researchers and practitioners by
exploring concrete case narratives of learners with theories derived from diverse sub-disciplines and
seeking appropriate solutions. The findings of this study highlight the need to account for the crea-
tive processes of interpretation and translation that shape the ways in which knowledge offered in
formalized CPD is interpreted and applied by teachers in their school settings. A pedagogical case
offers an innovative mechanism through which to support knowledge translation between these
different contexts.
Finally, the teachers perceived PE-CPD to have mostly proximal outcomes focused on immediate
use, such as the acquisition of resources and plugging in of acquired information or skills. This indicates
the limitations of traditional CPD formats. Research has shown that teachers who work under time con-
straints and with heavy workloads value pre-packaged, workable resources (Coulter & Woods, 2012;
Petrie, 2012). This study’s finding also shows that learning is still regarded as the acquisition of com-
modities or objects (Sfard, 1998), and that the dimensions of participation and collaboration are under-
valued by many teachers. To promote continuing professional development, teachers’ notion of
outcomes should be extended beyond direct replication to embrace the concepts of ‘preparation
for future learning’ and ‘the ability to learn in new environments’ (Hager & Hodkinson, 2009, p. 620).
In summary, the findings of this study reveal how Korean PE teachers navigate a restrictive system
that sometimes fails to meet their learning needs. Acknowledging diverse forms of school- and indi-
vidual-based CPD as legitimate CPD, restructuring the content of CPD to embrace the diverse roles of
PE and PE teachers, and fostering an autonomous and collaborative learning culture, may address
some of these concerns. As this study examined only teachers’ perspectives, future studies should
explore multiple levels of CPD by considering diverse elements of the PE-CPD system (Borko,
2004), such as teachers, CPD providers, and CPD facilitators, and the connections and interactions
between them.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
 SPORT, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY 13

Funding
This work was supported by Global Research Network program through the Ministry of Education of the Republic of
Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea [grant number NRF-2016S1A2A2912046].

ORCID
Okseon Lee http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3635-8093
Victoria Goodyear http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5045-8157
Kathleen Armour http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1430-7420
Hyukjun Son http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3148-4928

References
Armour, K. M. (2017). Pedagogical cases: A new translational mechanism to bridge theory/research practice gaps in youth
physical activity education (PAE). Kinesiology Review, 6(1), 42–50.
Armour, K. M., & Makopoulou, K. (2012). Great expectations: Teacher learning in a national professional development pro-
gramme. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(3), 336–346.
Armour, K. M., Makopoulou, K., & Chambers, F. (2008, March). Progression in PE teachers’ career-long professional learning:
Practical and conceptual concerns. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting,
New York.
Armour, K., Quennerstedt, M., Chambers, F., & Makopoulou, K. (2017). What is ‘effective’ CPD for contemporary physical
education teachers? A Deweyan framework. Sport, Education and Society, 22(7), 799–811.
Armour, K. M., & Yelling, M. R. (2004). Professional ‘development’ and professional ‘learning’: Bridging the gap for experi-
enced physical education teachers. European Physical Education Review, 10(1), 71–93.
Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity: Theory, research, critique (Rev ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield.
Borg, S. (2018). Evaluating the impact of professional development. RELC Journal, 49(2), 195–216.
Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3–15.
Coulter, M., & Woods, C. B. (2012). Primary teachers’ experience of a physical education professional development
programme. Irish Educational Studies, 31(3), 329–343.
Daniels, H. (2012). Institutional culture, social interaction and learning. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 1(1), 2–11.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1), 1–42.
Darling-Hammond, L., Chung Wei, R., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning
profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. Dallas, TX: National Staff
Development Council and School Redesign Network at Stanford University.
Desimone, L. M. (2011). A primer on effective professional development. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(6), 68–71.
Desimone, L. M., & Pak, K. (2017). Instructional coaching as high-quality professional development. Theory Into Practice, 56
(1), 3–12.
de Vries, S., Jansen, E. P., & van de Grift, W. J. (2013). Profiling teachers’ continuing professional development and the
relation with their beliefs about learning and teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 33, 78–89.
Goodyear, V. A., & Casey, A. (2015). Innovation with change: Developing a community of practice to help teachers move
beyond the ‘honeymoon’ of pedagogical renovation. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 20(2), 186–203.
Griffiths, M. A., Armour, K. M., & Cushion, C. J. (2018). ‘Trying to get our message across’: Successes and challenges in
an evidence-based professional development programme for sport coaches. Sport, Education and Society, 23(3),
283–295.
Hager, P., & Hodkinson, P. (2009). Moving beyond the metaphor of transfer of learning. British Educational Research
Journal, 35(4), 619–638.
Hatano, G., & Oura, Y. (2003). Commentary: Reconceptualizing school learning using insight from expertise research.
Educational Researcher, 32(8), 26–29.
Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges.
Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476–487.
Hodkinson, P., Biesta, G., & James, D. (2008). Understanding learning culturally: Overcoming the dualism between social
and individual views of learning. Vocations and Learning, 1(1), 27–47.
Jeon, J. (2012). A study on the introduction certification for the evaluation of in-service teacher training institutes. The
Journal of Korean Teacher Education, 29(4), 39–62.
Jung, H. (2014). The understanding of physical education policy through discourse analysis: The meaning of physical
culture discourses embedded within physical education and School Sport Promotion Act in Korea. Korean Journal
of Sport Pedagogy, 21(1), 1–19.
14 O. LEE ET AL.

Keay, J. (2006). Collaborative learning in physical education teachers’ early-career professional development. Physical
Education and Sport Pedagogy, 11(3), 285–305.
Kemmis, S. (2010). Research for praxis: Knowing doing. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 18(1), 9–27.
Kim, E., & Kim, H. (2014). The quantity and quality of Korean teachers’ professional development: An analysis from an
international perspective. Research on Korean Educational Issues, 32(4), 103–119.
Kim, K., & Lee, S. (2011). Teachers’ perceptions of the teaching profession change under current educational policies. The
Journal of Politics of Education, 18(2), 57–81.
Kim, Y., Ryu, E., Lee, K., & Seo, Y. (2010). A study on the relationships among organizational structure, organizational
commitment and job satisfaction at central government agencies in Korea. Korean Association for Policy Science, 14
(4), 317–341.
Lee, K. (2010). A study on the improvement of teacher evaluation system for professional development. The Journal of
Korean Teacher Education, 27, 43–68.
Lee, O., & Choi, E. (2011). A comparison of Korean and US physical education teacher education systems. KEDI Journal of
Educational Policy, 8(2), 235–258.
Lee, O., Choi, E., Jung, H., & Yoon, K. (2017). A systematic review of physical education teachers’ continuing professional
development. Korean Journal of Sport Pedagogy, 24(3), 1–23.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Lingard, B., Hayes, D., Mills, M., & Christie, P. (2003). Leading learning: Making hope practical in schools. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Makopoulou, K. (2018). An investigation into the complex process of facilitating effective professional learning: CPD
tutors’ practices under the microscope. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 23(3), 250–266.
Makopoulou, K., & Armour, K. (2011). Teachers’ professional learning in a European learning society: The case of physical
education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 16(4), 417–433.
Ministry of Education. (2015a). 2016 plans for teacher professional development. Sejong: Korean Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2015b). Korean national curriculum of physical education. Sejong: Korean Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2016). 2017 plans for teacher professional development. Sejong: Korean Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2017). 2018 plans for teacher professional development. Sejong: Korean Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2018). 2019 plans for teacher professional development. Sejong: Korean Ministry of Education.
Opfer, V. D., & Pedder, D. (2011). Conceptualizing teacher professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 81(3),
376–407.
O’Sullivan, M., & Deglau, D. (2006). Principles of professional development. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 25(4),
441–449.
Park, J. (2006). Analysis and improvement of in-service training program for elementary physical education. Korean
Journal of Sport Pedagogy, 13(4), 55–80.
Park, S. W. (2014). A study on the research trends of in-service teacher education in Korea: Implications and tasks. The
Journal of Korean Teacher Education, 31(2), 227–254.
Parker, M., & Patton, K. (2017). What research tells us about effective continuing professional development for physical
education teachers. In C. D. Ennis (Ed.), Routledge handbook of physical education pedagogies (pp. 447–460). Abingdon,
Oxon: Routledge.
Parker, M., Patton, K., & Tannehill, D. (2012). Mapping the landscape of communities of practice as professional develop-
ment in Irish physical education. Irish Educational Studies, 31(3), 311–327.
Patton, K., & Parker, M. (2014). Moving from ‘things to do on Monday’ to student learning: Physical education professional
development facilitators’ view of success. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 19, 60–75.
Patton, P., Parker, M., & Pratt, E. (2013). Meaningful learning in professional development: Teaching without telling.
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 32, 441–459.
Petrie, K. (2012). Enabling or limiting: The role of pre-packaged curriculum resources in shaping teacher learning. Asia-
Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 3, 17–34.
Placek, J. H. (1983). Conceptions of success in teaching: Busy, happy, and good? In T. Templin & J. Olsen (Eds.), Teaching in
physical education (pp. 45–56). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Richardson, M. (2015). Agentic action in context. In R. Young, J. Domene, & L. Valach (Eds.), Counseling and action (pp. 51–
68). New York, NY: Springer.
Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13.
Sriprakash, A. (2011). The contributions of Bernstein’s sociology to education development research. British Journal of
Sociology of Education, 32(4), 521–539.
Sugrue, C., & Mertkan, S. (2017). Professional responsibility, accountability and performativity among teachers: The lea-
vening influence of CPD? Teachers and Teaching, 23(2), 171–190.
Swidler, A. (1986). Culture in action: Symbols and strategies. American Sociological Review, 51(2), 273–286.
Tinning, R. (1991). Teacher education pedagogy: Dominant discourses and the process of problem setting. Journal of
Teaching in Physical Education, 11(1), 1–20.
Whitworth, B. A., & Chiu, J. L. (2015). Professional development and teacher change: The missing leadership link. Journal of
Science Teacher Education, 26(2), 121–137.