Energy, in physics, the capacity for doing work.

It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical,

chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. There are, moreover, heat and work—i.e., energy in the
process of transfer from one body to another. After it has been transferred, energy is always designated
according to its nature. Hence, heat transferred may become thermal energy, while work done may
manifest itself in the form of mechanical energy.

All forms of energy are associated with motion. For example, any given body has kinetic energy if it is in
motion. A tensioned device such as a bow or spring, though at rest, has the potential for creating
motion; it contains potential energy because of its configuration. Similarly, nuclear energy is potential
energy because it results from the configuration of subatomic particles in the nucleus of an atom.

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Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only changed from one form to another. This principle
is known as the conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics. For example, when a box
slides down a hill, the potential energy that the box has from being located high up on the slope is
converted to kinetic energy, energy of motion. As the box slows to a stop through friction, the kinetic
energy from the box’s motion is converted to thermal energy that heats the box and the slope.

Energy can be converted from one form to another in various other ways. Usable mechanical or
electrical energy is, for instance, produced by many kinds of devices, including fuel-burning heat engines,
generators, batteries, fuel cells, and magnetohydrodynamic systems.

In the International System of Units (SI), energy is measured in joules. One joule is equal to the work
done by a one-newton force acting over a one-metre distance.

Energy is treated in a number of articles. For the development of the concept of energy and the principle
of energy conservation, see principles of physical science; mechanics; thermodynamics; and conservation
of energy. For the major sources of energy and the mechanisms by which the transition of energy from
one form to another occurs, see coal; solar energy; wind power; nuclear fission; oil shale; petroleum;
electromagnetism; and energy conversion.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by Adam Augustyn.

calorie

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calorie

unit of measurement

Also known as: gram-calorie

Written and fact-checked by

Last Updated: Sep 15, 2023 • Article History

Category: Science & Tech

Related Topics: heat energy unit kilocalorie International Table calorie

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Calorie, a unit of energy or heat variously defined. The calorie was originally defined as the amount of
heat required at a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°
Celsius. Since 1925 this calorie has been defined in terms of the joule, the definition since 1948 being
that one calorie is equal to approximately 4.2 joules. Because the quantity of heat represented by the
calorie is known to differ at different temperatures (by as much as 1 percent), it has consequently been
necessary to define the temperature at which the specific heat of water is to be taken as 1 calorie. Thus
the “15° calorie” (also called the gram-calorie, or small calorie) was defined as the amount of heat that
will raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5° to 15.5° C—equal to 4.1855 joules. Other less
common definitions in this series are the 20° calorie (4.18190 joules) from 19.5° to 20.5° C; and the mean
calorie (4.19002 joules) defined as 1/100 of the heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water from 0° to 100° C.
Another calorie, a unit of heat energy, is the International Table calorie (IT calorie), originally defined as
1/860 international watt-hour. It is equal to 4.1868 joules and is used in engineering steam tables.

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A unit of heat energy used in thermochemistry is the thermochemical calorie, equal to 4.184 joules. It is
commonly used as the unit for heat capacities, latent heats, and heats of reaction.

In a popular use of the term calorie, dietitians loosely use it to mean the kilocalorie, sometimes called
the kilogram calorie, or large Calorie (equal to 1,000 calories), in measuring the calorific, heating, or
metabolizing value of foods. Thus, the “calories” counted for dietary reasons are in fact kilocalories, with
the “kilo-” prefix omitted; in scientific notations a capitalized Calorie is used. In other words, if a peach is
listed as having 40 Calories, this indicates that that peach has actually 40,000 calories.

In nutrition it has been proposed that the kilojoule replace the kilocalorie as the unit of choice for
discussing the energy value of foods. Such a change would bring the nomenclature of food scientists into
closer agreement with that of other scientists. The conversion factor for expressing kilocalories as
kilojoules, as recommended by the Committee on Nomenclature of the International Union of
Nutritional Sciences, is 1 kilocalorie equals 4.184 kilojoules, based on the kilocalorie determined at 14.5°
to 15.5° C. Although government publications now often provide energy counts in kilojoules and
kilocalories, Calorie is still the most commonly used food energy unit around the world.

This article was most recently revised and updated by Michele Metych.

Maxwell’s demon

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Key People: James Clerk Maxwell

Related Topics: second law of thermodynamics

Maxwell’s demon, hypothetical intelligent being (or a functionally equivalent device) capable of
detecting and reacting to the motions of individual molecules. It was imagined by James Clerk Maxwell in
1871, to illustrate the possibility of violating the second law of thermodynamics. Essentially, this law
states that heat does not naturally flow from a cool body to a warmer; work must be expended to make
it do so. Maxwell envisioned two vessels containing gas at equal temperatures and joined by a small
hole. The hole could be opened or closed at will by “a being” to allow individual molecules of gas to pass
through. By passing only fast-moving molecules from vessel A to vessel B and only slow-moving ones
from B to A, the demon would bring about an effective flow from A to B of molecular kinetic energy. This
excess energy in B would be usable to perform work (e.g., by generating steam), and the system could be
a working perpetual motion machine. By allowing all molecules to pass only from A to B, an even more
readily useful difference in pressure would be created between the two vessels. About 1950 the French
physicist Léon Brillouin exorcised the demon by demonstrating that the decrease in entropy resulting
from the demon’s actions would be exceeded by the increase in entropy in choosing between the fast
and slow molecules.