Education and Propaganda in Communist China

Author(s): Theodore Hsi-En Chen

Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Sep., 1951,
Vol. 277, Report on China (Sep., 1951), pp. 135-145
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of
Political and Social Science

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1030259

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

and Sage Publications, Inc. are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access
to The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Education and Propaganda in Communist China
By THEODORE HSI-EN CHEN

MANY people make the mistake of is the opposite, it does not use compulsion,
thinking that a Communist but re- democratic methods, namely: it does
not compel them to do this or that, but
gime rests on force alone. They forget
uses democratic methods in educating and
that the propaganda machinery of the
persuading them.l
Communist state is actually as impor-
tant as the police and the firing squad,
True, the line of demarcation between
and that the Communist Party has al- and foe is so narrow and so vague
friend
ways depended on propaganda and in-many people live in fear that they
that
doctrination not only for the mainte-
may be branded reactionaries and "ene-
nance of morale and discipline within
mies of the people" and thus become fit
subjects
the party but also to win the support of for the harsh methods of the
the population at large. dictatorship. At the same time, the fact
PERSUASION AND IDEOLOGICAL
remains that whenever it is possible to
win support by the methods of per-
CONVERSION
suasion, the Communists have, as a rule,
The People's Republic of China is de-preferred to hold force and coercion in
clared to be "a state of the people's abeyance. In other words, education
democratic dictatorship." The govern- and propaganda are given a chance be-
ment is supposed to be dictatorial and fore the more direct methods of co-
democratic at the same time. The dic- ercion and punishment are employed.
tatorial power of the state is used to There is another reason why educa-
suppress the reactionaries and counter-
tion and propaganda are expected to
revolutionaries who obstruct the prog-
play a prominent role in Communist
ress of the proletarian-socialist revolu-
China. The Communists attach su-
preme importance to the ideological
tion, but demtocracy in certain approved
forms is granted to the people who arebasis of their revolution and of the new
accepted as active forces and supporters
regime they have established. They
of the revolution. The method of dic- claim that the fundamental nature of
tatorship is the method of force, of co-
the New Democracy, with such basic
ercion, of severe punishment, of violence
ideas as democratic dictatorship, demo-
and terrorism; the method of democ-
cratic centralism, anti-imperialism, and.
racy is the method of persuasion by
a transitional stage of capitalism before
means of indoctrination, propaganda,
the introduction of complete socialism,
and education. Said Mao Tse-tung: cannot be properly understood without
reference to the ideology of Marx,
The people's democratic dictatorship has Lenin, and Stalin as applied to Chinese
two methods. Toward the enemy, it uses
conditions. A loyal citizen of the Peo-
the method of dictatorship, namely: it does
ple's Republic must be familiar with
not allow them to take part in political
Marxism-Leninism in order to be able
activities for certain necessary periods; it
compels them to obey the law of the peo- to appreciate the significance of the
ple's government and compels them to 1Mao Tse-tung, "Report to the Party
work and to remold themselves into new
Plenum" (June 6, 1950), People's China, Vol.
men through labor. Toward the people,2,itNo. 1 (July 1, 1950), p. 25.
135

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
136 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

class struggle at home and abroad, ministration,

so and the Publications Ad-
that he may become an enthusiastic ministration. When it is remembered
that "cultural affairs" include all the
fighter against the exploitation of feudal
reactionaries at home and the oppres-informal agencies of education, as well
sion of imperialist-capitalists abroad.
as art, literature, and amusement, it
can be seen that culture-education co-
This essential ideological orientation re-
quires "cleansing the mind" of feudal
ordinates under one integrated plan all
and bourgeois ideology in order to clear
the channels through which the mind
the way for the development of a new and thought of the people may be
revolutionary ideology. Neither mind- reached. This pattern of organization
cleansing nor the implanting of a new extends all the way down to local lev-
ideology can be accomplished by force els of government.
alone; the work must be done by theThe recognition of education, indoc-
trination, and propaganda as one and
process of education, indoctrination, and
propaganda. the same thing has been a characteristic
of Communist thinking since early years.
EDUCATION, INDOCTRINATION, AND
PROPAGANDA
In emphasizing the need of communi-
cating revolutionary ideas to the people,
It goes without saying that there is Mao Tse-tung said in 1942:
really no distinction between education,
indoctrination, and propaganda. All are Who is a propagandist? Not only is the
"methods of persuasion" employed to teacher a propagandist, the newspaper re-
win ideological converts and supporters porter a propagandist, the literary writer
of the People's Republic and its policies. a propagandist, but all our cadres in all
The school, the stage, the radio, the mu- kinds of work are also propagandists. Take
for example the military commander . . .
seum, the mass meetings, the parades when he talks with the soldiers and deals
and demonstrations, as well as various
with the people, what is he doing but
forms of art and literature, are expected carrying on propaganda work? Any per-
to pursue the same goals. All these son engaged in talking with another person
agencies through which the mind of the is engaged in propaganda .. .2
people may be reached and changed are
summarized under the term "culture Therefore, when speaking of education
and education." in Communist China, it is understood
The hyphenated term "culture-educa-that indoctrination and propaganda are
tion" is used to designate administra- included.
tive agencies of the government charged
AIMS OF EDUCATION
with the supervision and direction of all
propaganda and indoctrination activities Since education in all its varied forms
as well as the program of the schools. is an instrument of the state to enlist
One of the three over-all committees support of and co-operation in state
which direct the work of the various policies, it cannot be divorced from
ministries and bureaus of the State politics. In general terms, the primary
Administration Council of the Central aims of education in the People's Re-
People's Government is the Committee public are twofold: (a) to produce the
of Cultural and Educational Affairs, personnel, the readiness, and the de-
under which are placed the Ministry of sired attitudes to aid in the economic
Cultural Affairs, the Ministry of Edu- and material development of China, and
cation, the Ministry of Public Health, 2 Mao Tse-tung, "Opposing Party Formal-
the Academy of Sciences, the Press Ad- ism," Feb. 1942.

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA IN COMMUNIST CHINA 137

(b) to eradicate reactionary ideas and

POLITICAL EDUCATION
to indoctrinate a new ideology based on
Marxism-Leninism. Ideological indoctrination, under the
While these two fundamental aims name of political education, is an essen-
remain constant, the concrete policies of
tial feature of all educational programs;
the state emphasize different phases ofat times it constitutes the entire con-
the economic and political program at tent of the curriculum of the school or
different times. As the specific points training institute. Needless to say,
of emphasis shift in the policies of theMarxism as interpreted by Lenin and
state, the educational program reflects Stalin is the core of political education.
the changes in emphasis. For example, For the training of cadres, twelve books
in the months immediately following the have been selected as the officially ap-
establishment of the People's Republic, proved list of required readings which
indoctrination in the new ideology was every cadre must carefully study. Even
a casual look at the list would impress
the chief concern of political education,
while a new emphasis on production, one with the predominant Russian in-
science, and technology reflected the fluence on the ideology of the Chinese
importance attached to economic andCommunists. The twelve books are:
material reconstruction. As the agrarianThe Communist Manifesto, by Marx
reform program received the increasing and Engels; The Ideology and Method-
attention of the government, it devolvedology of Marx and Engels, compiled by
upon the schools and the indoctrinationthe Liberation Press; Socialism, Utopian
classes-called "learning sessions"-out- and Scientific, by Engels; The State and
Revolution, by Lenin; Imperialism, the
side the schools to teach the significance
of the proposed reform and to enlist Highest Stage of Capitalism, by Lenin;
widespread support of the program be-Left-Wing Communism, An Infantile
ing launched by the government. The Disorder, by Lenin; Foundations of
Korean war created a new demand for Leninism, by Stalin; Lenin and Stalin
integrating education with the needs ofon China, compiled by the Liberation
national defense. Throughout the win- Press; Short Course of the History of
ter of 1950 and the spring of 1951, as the Communist Party of the Soviet Un-
the campaign for opposing American ion, edited by the Central Committee
"aggression" and extending aid to Koreaof the CPSU; Political Economy, by
Leontiev; The History of Social De-
got into full swing, it became the major
duty of education to arouse public re- velopment, compiled by the Liberation
sentment and antagonism against the Press; and Lenin and Stalin on the So,
United States. "Learning sessions" incialistic Economy (two volumes), com-
schools and outside dealt with the his- piled by the Liberation Press.
tory, the nature, the menace, and the In the schools, the curriculum is
various manifestations of American "im- purged of all subject matter reflecting
perialism" not only in military aggres- the "feudal, compradore and fascist
sion but also in political domination, ideology" extant before the People's
economic exploitation, and cultural en- Republic. The study of Dr. Sun Yat-
slavement. Thus the objectives of edu- sen's "Three People's Principles" is
cation and the actual program of the banned. The new political education
schools and propaganda agencies are at includes not only the study of the
all times closely co-ordinated with the theory and practice of the New De-
long-range and immediate policies of mocracy and the organization of the
the state. People's Government, but also indoc-

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
138 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

trination in Marxism-Leninism and a for study and report, the topics rang-
new reorientation of thinking in termsing from "the reactionary character of
of dialectical materialism. Among new American education" to "how the United
subjects of the curriculum in secondaryStates helped the corrupt Manchu dy-
and higher schools are "dialectical ma- nasty suppress the Taiping Rebellion."
terialism," "history of social develop- Political education not only goes on
ment," and "political economy." His-in the schools but is brought to the en-
tory is studied from the standpoint of tire population through the radio, the
the class struggle, the contributions ofdrama, parades and demonstrations,
labor, and the conflict between feudal- posters and cartoons, slogans and songs.
ism and socialism. To develop the To create a receptive attitude toward
"scientific point of view," the concept the indoctrination and propaganda spon-
of human evolution is given special em-sored by the governmental and semi-
phasis. "From ape to man" is a topic governmental agencies, the population is
which appears in all outlines and syllabi urged to join a nation-wide movement
for political education. of "learning." The "learning move-
An important outcome of politicalment" is to reach all classes of the popu-
education is to produce an ardent ad-lation. Government employees and fac-
miration of the Soviet Union. A good tory workers are expected to attend
citizen of the People's Republic is sup-
weekly "learning sessions" for the study
posed to be enthusiastic in his adora- of Marxist materialism and such topics
tion of the progress and high level of of immediate interest as the land re-
culture of the Soviet Union, and ever form and the fight against American
ready to accept the leadership of theimperialism. The slogan is to "learn,
first socialist state in the history oflearn, and again learn."
mankind. He should banish from his To "learn" is to realize the necessity
mind any doubt or skepticism in of re-eradicating all reactionary and feudal
gard to the pure friendship and un- ideas. It is to become a devout fol-
lower of Marxism-Leninism. It is to be
selfish helpfulness of the Soviet Union.
At the same time, his thinking is con-
unalterably opposed to the Kuomintang
sidered progressive in the degree to Imperialist America. It is to ap-
and
which he recognizes the menace preciate
of the greatness of the Soviet Un-
ion. It is to co-operate and help in
American imperialism and rebels against
the decadent, corrupt, and exploitative
whatever tasks the People's Government
capitalism that the United States is sup-
sets as the important goal of the day,
posed to represent. As the Korean be
warit the purchase of victory bonds or
became more intense and the national
the increase of production or enlistment
movement for "Opposing American Im-
in the army.
perialism and Aiding Korea" gathered
OTHER CHANGES IN SCHOOL PROGRAM
momentum, it became almost the exclu-
sive concern of political education to The Common Program of the Peo-
arouse popular sentiment against "Im- ple's Republic stipulates in Article 42
perialist America." In many schoolsthat education shall promote "love of
and colleges, regular studies were sus-
the fatherland, love of the people, love
pended to make way for the intensive of labor, love of science, and care of
study of American imperialism in its the public property." These five traits
varied aspects. In the Normal Univer- have been called the "five loves" that
education must strive to cultivate. Be-
sity in Peking, for example, faculty and
students were assigned specific topicssides political indoctrination, education

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA IN COMMUNIST CHINA 139

must make direct contributions to the from the ivory tower of the past and
material and economic reconstruction of make themselves available for the serv-
the nation. To this end, the schools ice of the people. They are no longer
must not only teach the pupils to ap- allowed to live as privileged members of
preciate the importance of labor and a white-collar class, but are expected to
production, but also provide for their be ready to soil their hands in labor and
participation in labor and productive productive activities. Schools of all lev-
activities. In the higher schools, science els are encouraged to establish intimate
and technology are given precedence connections with farms, factories, and
over studies which do not have direct business enterprises, so that the subject
bearing on the practical problems of
matter of the curriculum may be drawn
material and economic reconstruction. from the productive enterprises and ap-
plied to the solution of actual problems
This means a utilitarian type of educa-
in production. The unification of theory
tion and the inevitable neglect of studies
which are known in the West as the and practice has become a cardinal
liberal arts. The new regime aims principleto of education from the lower
transform China as quickly as possible schools all the way up to the universi-
into an industrial nation, and expects ties.
the schools and colleges to produce the The accent on politics and collectivi-
trained personnel needed for all phases zation has produced marked changes in
of the industrialization program. school life. Teachers as well as stu-
The Communists insist that Marxism dents must attend frequent meetings
is not a dogma, but a guide to action. devoted to the discussion of political
They have no use for theory that is not events and the "learning" of the new
directly applicable to practice. Their ideology. The leaders of the new re-
emphasis on the unity of thought and gime declare that such meetings and
action means for education a new meth- public gatherings are not only an ex-
odology which tries to bridge the gap pression of collective living but also of
between theory and practice. It is spe- democratic living,'for they provide an
cifically stated in Article 46 of the Com- opportunity for individuals to express
mon Program that "the method of edu- their views and for public opinion to
cation of the People's Republic of China become crystallized. Schools and col-
shall be the unification of theory and leges are asked to adopt "democratic
practice." Classroom study, it is urged, methods of administration." Institu-
must be closely linked with the actual tions of higher learning must provide
conditions and problems in Chinese so- for administrative councils in which not
ciety. Knowledge is useful only when only faculty and student representatives
it can be used for the solution of prac- share the authority and responsibility
tical problems of production, industry, in the formulation of academic policies,
and national defense. To keep in close but workers and janitors are also repre-
touch with realities, teachers are urged sented.
to take their students on field trips to Actually, this "democratic adminis-
visit farms, factories, mines, and other tration" by the participation of student
business enterprises and social institu- and worker representatives has proved
tions. Students and teachers in the to be a very effective means of con-
technical subjects are urged to learntrolling
the the educational institutions.
actual use of tools and machinery inWith
ad- trained cadres and Communist
dition to book learning. Educated Party
peo- members strategically placed
ple are told that they must come among
down students and workers and lead-

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
140 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ing them in demanding that educational lic confessions and pledging his deter-
policies follow closely the directives of mination to mend his ways.
the new government, the administrative The Communists consider this method
councils have become agencies for the another application of their democratic
implementation of state policies. principle. They claim that criticism in
The earlier talk of "democratization" meetings and through newspapers gives
led some schools to experiment with all people an opportunity to express
democratic methods of student partici- their thoughts and even to point out the
pation in the preparation of examina- mistakes of cadres, Communist Party
tion questions and the evaluation of members, and government personnel.
achievement, but such "progressive" The objective observer, however, sees
methods are now considered impracti- in the method of criticism a most
cable. Group study instead of indi- astute method of discipline and control.
vidual study is still advocated in some In such meetings are discovered "devia-
institutions as good practice in collec- tions" in thought and action which can
tive living, but the proposal of allowing be quickly dealt with. Each person is
study groups to elect representatives to not only given a chance to speak; he is
take examinations for the groups repre- expected to do so. To remain silent is
sented has not met with official favor. "to isolate one's self from the group"
There is, however, no abatement in offi-and to expose one's self to the criticism
cial interest in group meetings of allof being unco-operative and to the suspi-
kinds, ranging from "learning sessions" cion of harboring reactionary thoughts.
to mass meetings for the incitement andWith meetings well supervised and di-
demonstration of mass emotions. rected by trained cadres, every partici-
pant feels the pressure to talk, and in
CRITICISM AND SELF-CRITICISM talking, he reveals his thoughts and his
viewpoints and subjects them to the
A method of education and indoc- criticism of the group. To earn a place
trination highly valued by the Commu- among the ranks of the progressive,
nists is that of criticism and self-criti- participants vie with one another in
cism. Originally adopted from the So- turning the searchlight of criticism on
viet Union and extensively used within their own past actions and those of
the Chinese Communist Party as a other people.
means of enforcing party discipline and The most common faults criticized
ideological unity, the method has now and confessed are those of exploiting
been extended to the entire population fellow human beings, misguided distrust
and adopted not only in the schools but of the Communist Party, subservience
also in factories, government offices, vil- to the Kuomintang and Imperialist
lages, and other places. In a meeting America, and blind adherence to feudal
of criticism and self-criticism, individu- ideas and practices. For example, in a
als are encouraged to criticize one an- meeting for criticism and self-criticism
other and to point out errors in thought held in connection with a teacher's in-
and action. Each person is called upon stitute in Shao-Kuan, Kwangtung, a
not only to make criticisms of other middle-school dean confessed that he
people but to express his own ideas on had been cruel to his students and over-
various issues, to accept humbly the bearing in the exercise of discipline; a
criticisms made by other people, and to teacher confessed his guilt in having
acknowledge his errors by making pub- served as a secret police agent of the

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA IN COMMUNIST CHINA 141

Kuomintang; and a woman teacher con- above criticism. Criticizing the minor
fessed that she had spent too much timefunctionaries is encouraged not only to
currying favor with the wives of Kuo-re-enforce the claim to democracy but
mintang officials. also to keep party and government per-
It is evident that such public criti-sonnel on their toes so that they will be
cisms and confessions exert a powerfulalways watching their steps and reli-
pressure on individuals. Once a persongiously following the straight and nar-
has confessed his past mistakes and row line drawn by the party and the
publicly declared his intention to fol-state.
low the ways of the New Democracy,
NEW AGENCIES
he feels compelled by group pressure to
bring his overt actions in line with his Besides introducing changes in the es-
declarations. The watchful eyes of fel-tablished schools, the new regime has
low men can at times be a more effec- set up new institutions to meet the spe-
tive force of control than the secret cific needs of the state. Schools for
police. Here, as in many other in-
cadres train young men and women for
specific tasks in connection with the
stances, the Communists have found
that instead of direct coercion by force
land reform, the collection of taxes, and
the
or the action of the police state, it is execution of other state policies.
Short-term courses and institutes pro-
better to use the more indirect pressure
of the group and apply the pressureduce,
in within the short period of a few
the name of democracy and public opin- months, political workers or technical
ion. Democracy, they say, means that personnel who in their course of study
the minority must obey the majority, are given intensive political indoctrina-
and the individual must conform to the tion to make them enthusiastic support-
group. ers of the People's Republie. In many
It must be remembered that whenever cases, free tuition, room, and board in
the Communists speak of democracy, the schools and institutes are offered to
they mean controlled democracy. They induce capable young people to offer
are in favor of giving the people the their services to the state.
right to criticize cadres, party mem- An outstanding example of the new
bers, and government officials, but they institutions is the Chinese People's Uni-
frankly say that the fundamental poli- versity inaugurated in Peking in March
cies of the state are above criticism. 1950. It offers courses in various
When it comes to such basic issues as
branches of industry and economic re-
accepting the leadership of the Soviet
construction, in trade, law, foreign af-
Union, waging war against Imperialist
fairs, education, and other fields. Full
America, carrying out the land reform, courses are two to four years in length,
but courses of six months' duration are
or executing any program officially spon-
sored by the government, there is only also available. Of the initial enroll-
the freedom of agreement and the free- ment of some 1,600 students, nearly
dom of supporting the state. To ques- half were cadres who had had some
tion any of such policies is to court the
years of experience in revolutionary ac-
danger of being branded a counterrevo- tivities, some 200 students were ad-
vanced industrial workers who were now
lutionary. In regard to the criticism of
party and government personnel, itgiven
is the unprecedented opportunity
clearly understood that top leaders like
of higher education, and the rest were
Mao Tse-tung and Liu Shao-ch'i are young intellectuals ready to undergo a

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
142 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

"reconstruction of their thinking." Thethan for their academic qualifications,

study of Marxism-Leninism is naturally it is necessary for the schools to adopt
the core of every course of study. So- new methods of instruction emphasizing
the practical and the concrete, and
viet influence is evident in all direc-
tions: Russian professors and experts avoiding the academic and the theo-
have been invited to join the faculty;retical. By such special provisions for
the study of the Russian language theisbenefit of workers, peasants, and
cadres who have proved to be loyal
given great emphasis; and in all courses,
teachers and students constantly referfighters for the proletarian cause, the
to the progressive methods andCommunists ad- hope to turn out "a new
vanced culture of the Soviet Union as intelligentsia from among the workers
models to pattern after. and peasants."
For the sake of the proletarian revo-
THE LITERACY MOVEMENT
lution, the Communists have set out to
change the class composition of the Much attention is given to the liqui-
school population, in order to producedation of illiteracy. In order that
more educated leaders who spring from propaganda and indoctrination may be
the peasantry and the working class. more effective, many people must be
They have ordered the middle schools taught to read and to learn the new
vocabulary of the New Democracy.
and the universities to open their doors
to workers and peasants and to admit They must be enabled to read the post-
ers, the banners used in parades, the
them in spite of deficiency in academic
preparation. In addition, they havepropaganda
es- leaflets, the handbills, the
tablished special schools of secondarywords on the cartoons, and so forth.
grade to provide abbreviated middle- Literacy classes are increasing rapidly.
A significant development in this field
school courses for workers and peasants.
The first school of this type opened is in
what is known as "spare-time educa-
Peking in April 1950 with 116 studentstion of workers." Factories, mines, and
ranging in age from 16 to 30. The stu-business enterprises are ordered to make
dents were workers and peasants who specific provision to enable their work-
ers to take out a few hours each week to
had had three to thirteen years of "ex-
perience in revolutionary work." Theirattend classes either for "cultural learn-
academic background was varied; many ing" (which actually means reading,
had had no formal schooling. writing, and arithmetic) or for political
It is the plan of the government education
to and the study of current
establish such short-term worker-peas-events. With workers released from
ant schools all over the country. The work to attend classes at regular hours,
schools try to condense six yearsthe of Ministry of Education has issued
secondary education into three years, regulations providing for graduated
and students who wish to go on for courses of study with planned progress
higher study may, upon completionfrom of one level to another.
the three-year course, be admitted intoThe literacy movement is promoted
the higher institutions. The condensa-in the rural areas also. Peasants have
tion of secondary education into threebeen encouraged to join "reading cir-
years requires new textbooks and new cles"
or- and "spare-time schools." In the
winter of 1949-50 a "winter-study
ganization of teaching materials. Since
the students are more noted for their movement" was launched to get peas-
"practical revolutionary experience" ants all over the country to take time

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA IN COMMUNIST CHINA 143

in the winter months to join literacyand are willing to fight actively for th
classes of various levels. The authori- cause of the New Democratic Revolu-
tion." 3 The main function of the
ties expressed satisfaction with initial
success in the movement, and are nowcorps is
recommending that the winter classes
and winter schools be extended wherever to study systematically Marxism-Leninism;
to constantly educate its members and the
possible to become continuous all-year
mass of youth by means of revolutionary
projects. practice; and to organize, in the spirit of
NEW YOUTH ORGANIZATIONS Marxism-Leninism, the broad mass of
youth to take part in the various move-
The Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts ments called for by the party or the Peo-
have been banned on account of their ple's Government.
bourgeois-feudal flavor. The new youth
PRIVATE EDUCATION
organizations enlist young people for
service to the People's Republic. TheTheoretically speaking, private educa-
tion is not only permitted but even
three most influential organizations are
the All-China Federation of Democratic encouraged. Official spokesmen repeat-
Youth, the China New Democratic edly declare that the new government is
Youth Corps, and the Young Pioneer not yet able to provide all the schools
Corps for boys and girls under the ageneeded in the country, and consequently
of 14. Organized in 1949, the federa- will encourage the private schools to
tion had a total membership of sevencontinue. There is no question, how-
million in July 1950, and the Youth ever, that private education is to be as
Corps membership had exceeded threestrictly controlled and as closely dove-
million by June 1950. A continuous tailed with the state program as public
drive is maintained to recruit new mem- education, and that the only difference
bers for the organizations. between private and public education is
The All-China Federation of Demo- to be found in the sources of financial
cratic Youth is an association of all the support. All that has been said in
youth organizations in the country. Its regard to political indoctrination and
object is "to unite all the democratic propaganda applies to private schools
youth to fight for the complete victoryas much as to public schools. The
of the democratic revolution and to finance of private schools is subject to
unite with the democratic youth of the government supervision, and all per-
world in fighting for a lasting world sonnel must be officially approved.
peace and people's democracy." It In speaking of private education in
maintains a close connection with youth China, one thinks immediately of the
movements in other People's Democ- Christian schools and colleges. From
racies. The China New Democratic the beginning, the new authorities de-
Youth Corps was established in clared 1949 that the principle of religious
by a resolution of the Central Com- freedom must be strictly observed and
mittee of the Chinese Communist any Party.
form of religious compulsion must
Its members are found in schools, fac-
be avoided. At first, the Chinese Chris-
tories, farms, and offices, in rural tian educators and many of the mis-
as well
as urban areas. Eligible for member- sionaries were hopeful that, after com-
ship are "all boys and girls from the with the ruling in regard to re-
plying
age of 14 to 25 who support the pro-
ligion and after purging the curriculum
gram of the Communist Party of China, 3 Provision of the constitution of the corps.

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
144 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

made a government university in Oc-

of subjects definitely identified with
tober 1950. The ultimate fate of the
Kuomintang rule, they might be able to
carry on their program without tooProtestant institutions came sooner than
much disruption. Few were naive expected, and was hastened by the de-
enough to think that the Christianterioration of political relations between
schools could be free from governmentthe People's Republic of China and the
United States. -In retaliation against
control, but most people hoped that the
control would not be too severe. The the freezing of the assets of Communist
Christian educators were not free from China in the United States by order of
misgivings with respect to the tendencythe United States government, the Cen-
of the Communists to interpret freedom tral People's Government issued an or-
of religion as freedom from religion,der on December 29, 1950 to freeze
and to the fundamental incongruity be- American assets and seize American
tween Christianity and the Marxist property in China. After this, events
materialism that all schools were now moved quickly. Cut off from American
required to teach; but they were sosupport,
de- the Christian schools and col-
termined to continue their schools and leges had to turn to the Chinese govern-
ment for subsidies. It then remained
so eager to prove their readiness to con-
tribute to any constructive program for of the propaganda machinery to create
building a better China that they were in each of the schools and colleges a
willing to make all necessary adjust- "popular demand" for the government
ments in order to keep alive Christian to take over the institutions. At the
education, even though it had to be time of this writing 4 most of the Chris-
done under severe restrictions. tian schools and colleges have become
As the anti-American campaign in- governmental or semigovernmental in-
tensified with the continuation of the stitutions.
Korean war, the Christian schools and
SOVIET INFLUENCE
colleges found themselves in a rapidly
deteriorating situation. The position of For several decades the United States
the missionaries became more and more has exerted the dominant influence on
Chinese education and culture. The
untenable. The Chinese personnel were
constantly being challenged to prove
rapid elimination of American influence
their devotion to the New Democracyfrom China today is matched by the
increase of Soviet influence. All the
by repudiating Imperialist America and
its infernal schemes of cultural ex- propaganda facilities at the command
ploitation and enslavement. Students of the government and the party are
and faculty were instigated to hold being
mass used to convince the people that
meetings to denounce American im- the United States is China's most dan-
perialism. "Progressive" persons ingerousthe foe, and that the Soviet Union
Christian churches and schools were is China's best friend and trustworthy
demanding that the Chinese Christian leader. Soviet teachers and cultural
movement sever all ties with Western representatives are arriving in increas-
imperialism and become a self-support-ing numbers. The Russian language is
ing and self-government movement. being given more emphasis than Eng-
From the beginning, relations between
lish. Soviet scholarship is glorified. So-
the new government and the Catholic viet theories and Soviet viewpoints guide
Church were more hostile than those the study of economics, sociology, his-
with the Protestant groups. The Catho- tory, politics, and all other fields. So-
lic Fu Jen University in Peking was4 May 1951.

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA IN COMMUNIST CHINA 145

.viet art, Soviet literature, Soviet films, ventions are considered f

and Soviet exhibits are being popu- vanced and progressive than anything
larized. Even in the biological and that the capitalist countries can offer.
natural sciences, the contents are be- It is too early yet to tell what lasting
ing reorganized to conform with So- effects this influx of Russian ideas and
viet theories. In biology, the Michurin- influence will have on Chinese culture,
Lysenko theories have replaced Mendel- but there is little doubt today that the
ism and Western studies of heredity and influence of Soviet Russia on Chinese
genetics. In farming, industry, and en- education and culture is increasing by
gineering, the Soviet techniques and in- leaps and bounds.

Theodore Hsi-En Chen, Ph.D., Los Angeles, California, is professor and head of th
Department of Asiatic Studies at the University of Southern California, where he h
taught international relations and comparative education since 1938. He had his ea
education in China and graduate study in the United States. On leave from the Univ
sity of Southern California in 1946-47, he served as acting president of Fukien Christ
University in Foochow, China. He is author of Developing Patterns of the College Cu
riculum in the U. S. (1940) and Elementary Chinese Reader and Grammar (1945), an
of articles in Chinese and American journals.

This content downloaded from

109.68.126.147 on Fri, 10 Mar 2023 08:18:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms