Elementary Mechanics Vol.

1
Dr. W. A. Yahya

January 25, 2022

Abstract
Fundamental and derived units and dimensions. Vector addition and vector multiplication.
Expression of vectors in two or three dimensions. Rectilinear motion , projectile , relative motion.
Centripetal acceleration, periodicity of uniform circular motion, Newton’s law of universal gravi-
tation, gravitational, potential energy, motion of satellites escape speed. Newton’s laws of motion,
impulse and momentum, elastic and Inelastic collisions. Angular velocity and acceleration, linear
acceleration, kinetic energy of rotation and moment of Inertial. Torque and angular momentum.
Work, power and energy. Elastic potential energy, law of conservation of energy. The helical spring,
the simple pendulum, oscillation of liquid in U tube, potential and kinetic energy of oscillating sys-
tem. Angular simple harmonic motion. Stress and strain, elastic plastic deformation. Normal stress
and young’s modulus of elasticity , shear stress and shear modulus or rigidity, hydrostatics stress
and bulk modulus. Force constant. Density and specific gravity, pressure, buoyancy. Archimedes
Principle, surface tension and capillarity. Temperature, thermal expansion, heat capacity, change
of phase. Conduction, convection and Radiation. Zeroth law and First Law of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics processes. Heat engines. Second Law of thermodynamics.

Contents
1 Units and Measurements 1
1.1 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Measurement of volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Vectors 4
2.1 Addition of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.1 Scalar (or Dot) Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.2 Vector (or Cross) Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Motion in One Dimension 8

3.1 Motion with constant acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Freely falling bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Motion in a plane 13
4.1 Position and velocity vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Acceleration vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5 Newton’s Laws of Motion 16

5.1 Conservation of linear momentum: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 Coefficient of Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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6 Circular Motion 19
6.1 Centripetal force: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2 Motion around a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

7 Work and Energy 23

7.1 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

8 Potential energy and Conservation of energy 25

8.1 Potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2 Energy conservation and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.3 Potential energy of a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.4 Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

9 Rotational Motion 29

10 Statics and Elasticity 29

10.1 Rotational Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
10.2 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

11 Oscillations 31

12 Gravity 31
12.1 The law of gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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1 Units and Measurements
Physics is the study of all aspects of the universe. Physics is an experimental science as careful and
accurate measurement is usually required in Physics. Length, mass, and time play a fundamental role
in describing nature, and these are the three quantities on which we base our measurements. Length,
mass, and time are called dimensions. A unit has to be defined before any kind of measurement can
be made. The system of unit which has now gained universal acceptance is the Systeme International
d’Unites, usually called SI units or ’The metric system’. The definitions of the basic units of the metric
system have evolved over the years. Some of the definitions were cumbersome and hard to duplicate
precisely, and by international agreement they have been replaced with more refined definitions. In
this system, the unit of length is the meter (m), the unit of time is the second (s), and the unit of
mass is the kilogram (kg). Units for other quantities, such as force, energy, and power, are derived
from these basic units. Mass is a measure of how much ”stuff we have. It is proportional to the weight
of an object, but weight is a force and has a different meaning from mass.
Physical quantities are often divided into fundamental quantities and derived quantities. Corre-
spondingly, there are fundamental and derived units. The International System of units is based on
seven fundamental units; these are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Fundamental quantities and their units

Quantity Name of unit Abbreviation

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Current ampere A

Amount of substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

Derived units are products or quotients of fundamental units. Some examples are shown in the
table 2.

1.1 Time
In 1967, a new standard was adopted for the definition of the second (SI unit of time). It is based on
an atomic clock, which uses the energy difference between the two lowest energy states of the caesium
atom. When bombarded by microwaves of precisely the proper frequency, caesium atoms undergo
a transition from one of these states to the other. One second is defined as the time required for
9192631770 cycles of this microwave radiation. The time interval between two events is the difference
between the times when the events occurred. When the time interval is of the order of minutes or
hours, clocks and watches can be used. For shorter time intervals of the order of seconds, stop clocks
or stop watches are used. These have devices for starting and stopping as well as for setting them to
zero before timing is commenced. Fractions and multiples of the second are given below:

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 Table 2: Derived quantities and their units

Quantity Unit in basic form Name of unit Abbreviation

Frequency s−1 hertz Hz

Force kgms−2 newton N

Work or energy kgm2 s−2 joule J

Power kgm2 s−3 watt W

Potential difference kgm2 s−3 A−1 volt V

Resistance kgm2 s−3 A−2 ohm Ω

Capacitance A2 s4 kg −1 m−2 farad F

1 nanosecond = 1ns = 10−9 s (time for light to travel 0.3 m)

1 microsecond = 1µs = 10−6 s (time for an orbiting space shuttle to travel 8mm)
1 millisecond = 1ms = 10−3 s (time for sound to travel 0.35 m)

1.2 Length
The new definition of the meter was adopted in 1983 and the metre was defined as the distance that
light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds. Fractions and multiples of the metre are given
below:

1 nanometre = 1 nm = 10−9 m (a few times the size of the largest atom)

1 micrometre =1µm = 10−6 m (size of some bacteria and living cells)
1 millimetre = 1 mm = 10−3 m (diameter of the point of a ballpoint pen)
1 centimetre = 1 cm = 10−2 m (diameter of the little finger)
1 kilometre = 1 km = 103 m (a 10-minute walk)

The following instruments are used to measure length:

1. Metre rule: The metre rule is often used to measure distances of a few centimetres to some
metres, for example, the dimensions of a table or a room. When longer distances are involved, a
tape rule can be used. Both the metre rule and the tape rule are graduated in centimetres and
millimetres.

2. Vernier callipers: When measurements are required to accuracy greater than 1mm, the Vernier
scale may be used. Thus Vernier callipers are used in the measurement of the inner and outer

2
 diameters of a tube. The Vernier is a small scale which moves along the main scale. The function
of the Vernier is to enable measurements to be made to 1/10th part of the smallest divisions of
the main scale. Nine of the smallest divisions on the main scale are equal to ten divisions of the
Vernier, so that a Vernier division is shorter than a scale division by exactly one-tenth of a scale
division.

3. Micrometre screw gauge: This is another device for measuring small distances. It is capable of
measuring accurately to one-hundredth of a millimetre.

1.3 Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter which an object contains. It is a scalar quantity. Weight is a force; it is
the gravitational pull of the earth on an object. SI unit of weight is thus newton. The standard unit
of mass is the kilogram. The kilogram is the mass of a particular cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy.
The cylinder is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris. Sub
multiples are:

1 microgram = 1µg = 10−6 g = 10−9 kg (mass of a very small dust particle)

1 milligram = 1mg = 10−6 kg (mass of a grain of salt)
1 gram = 1g = 10−3 kg (mass of a paper clip)

The mass of an object remains the same everywhere, but the weight of an object varies from place
to place across the surface of the earth. The weight of an object increases slightly as we go from the
equator to the poles. Weight also decreases as we go further away from the surface of the earth.
Chemical balance, lever balance and some direct reading balances are used to measure the mass
of an object. Spring balance is used to measure the weight of an object.

1.4 Measurement of volume

A graduated cylinder can be used for the measurement of volumes of liquids. It is accurate to the
nearest 1cm3. It can also be used in measuring the volume of irregularly shaped objects, for example,
stone, with the aid of the displacement or eureka can.

1.5 Dimensional Analysis

The dimensions of a physical quantity indicate how it is related to the fundamental quantities length
L, mass M, time T and current I. In every equation in physics the dimensions must be consistent in
every term in the equation. The dimension of distance is length (L), the dimension of mass is mass
(M ), and the dimension of time is time (T ). For example, consider the equation

Distance = speed × time (1)

The dimension of distance is length (L), the dimension of speed is length per time (L/T ), and the
dimension of time is time (T ). Examining the dimensions of each side of the equation shows

L
L= ×T (2)
T
Time cancels out on the right side, so both sides of the equation have the dimension of length. This
illustrates the fact that the units of each variable in an equation are to be included in the calculation.
They are multiplied and divided as though they are algebraic quantities. It is helpful to check the
units for each term in an equation, since any inconsistency indicates an error has been made, and you
are thereby alerted to search for it.
Note that the dimension of force is M L/T 2 , and for acceleration it is L/T 2 .

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2 Vectors
A scalar quantity is one that has nothing to do with spatial direction. Examples are length, time,
mass, temperature, density, charge, and volume etc; each has a scale or size, but no associated direc-
tion. Scalars are specified by ordinary numbers, and add and subtract in the usual way. Two cups in
a tray plus seven cups in another give nine cups in total.
A vector quantity is one that can only be specified completely by providing both its magnitude and
direction. Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum etc. A vector quantity
can be represented by an arrow drawn to scale. The length of the arrow indicates the magnitude of
the vector and the direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector.

The resultant of a number of vectors of a particular type is that single vector that would have the
same effect as all the original vectors taken together.

2.1 Addition of vectors

Two vectors can be added by using the parallelogram method. The two vectors are drawn as the sides
of the parallelogram and the resultant is its diagonal. The direction of the resultant (R) is away from
the origin of the two vectors. See figure 1.

Figure 1:

A component of a vector is its effective value in a given direction. A vector in two dimensions
may be resolved into two component vectors acting along two mutually perpendicular directions. For
example,

Figure 2:

|Rx | = |R| cos θ

|Ry | = |R| sin θ
Or equivalently
Rx = R cos θ, and Ry = R sin θ.
The angle of the resultant with the x-axis can be found from the relation
Ry
tan θ =
Rx

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Example 2.1

A child pulls on a rope attached to a sled with a force of 60 N. The rope makes an angle of 40◦
with the ground.
(a) Compute the effective value of the pull tending to move the sled along the ground.
(b) Compute the force tending to lift the sled vertically.
Solution

Figure 3:

Fx = 60 cos 40◦ = 46N

Fy = 60 sin 40◦ = 39N
Example 2.2
A cross-country skier skis 1.00 km North, then 2.00 km East, om a horizontal snow field. What is her
resultant displacement?
Solution

Figure 4:
p
R= 12 + 22 = 2.24km
2.00km
tan φ = , φ = 63.4◦ .
1.00km
The magnitude is 2.24km in the direction 63.4◦ East of North.

2.2 Relative velocity

If a boy A is in a bus travelling past a bus-stop platform on which another boy B is standing, there
is said to be relative motion or separation between boy A and boy B.
If two bodies A and B are moving on a straight line, the velocity of A relative to B is found by
adding the velocity of B reversed to the velocity of A.

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 For example, if a bus travelling on a straight road at 120km/hr passes a car going in the same
direction at 80km/hr, the velocity of the bus relative to the car is

[120 + (−80)] km/hr, in the direction of the bus.

2.3 Unit Vectors

They have a magnitude of one and are topped with a caret. The special unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ are
assigned to the x−, y−, and z− axes, respectively. A vector 3î represents a three unit vector in the
+x−direction, while 5k̂ represents a five unit vector in the ?z−direction. A vector R that has scalar
x−, y−, and z− components Rx , Ry , Rz , respectively, can be written as

R = Rx î + Ry ĵ + Rz k̂.

The magnitude of R is q
R= Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2 .

2.4 Vector Multiplication

2.4.1 Scalar (or Dot) Product
The scalar product of two vectors A and B is given by

A · B = AB cos φ,

where φ is the angle between A and B. Note that:

î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = (1)(1) cos 0◦ = 1
î · ĵ = î · k̂ = ĵ · k̂ = (1)(1) cos 90◦ = 0.
Therefore,
   
A · B = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ · Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz .

2.4.2 Vector (or Cross) Product

The vector product of two vectors A and B is given by

A × B = AB sin φ

A × B = (Ay Bz − Az By ) î + (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ĵ + (Ax By − Ay Bx ) k̂.

The vector product can also be expressed as a determinant:

î ĵ k̂
A × B = Ax Ay Az .
Bx By Bz

Example
If A = −12î + 25ĵ + 13k̂ and B = −3ĵ + 7k̂,
(a) Find the resultant when A is added to B .
(b) Find |3B − 2A|.
(c) Find A · B.
(d) Find A × B.
(e) Find the angle between the two vectors.
Solution

6
(a) A + B = −12î + 22ĵ + 20k̂.
p √
|A + B| (−12)2 + 222 + 202 = 1028 = 32.06.
(b)
3B − 2A = 24î − 59ĵ − 5k̂.
Therefore p √
|3B − 2A| = 242 + (−59)2 + (−5)2 = 4082 = 63.89.
(c)
A · B = −12(0) + 25(−3) + 13(7) = −75 + 91 = 16.
(d)
î ĵ k̂
A × B = −12 25 13 = î(175 + 39) − ĵ(−84 − 0) + k̂(36 − 0) = 214î + 84ĵ + 36k̂.
0 −3 7
(e) To obtain the angle between the two vectors, we make use of the relation

A · B = |A||B| cos φ
√ √
A · B = 16, |A| = 938, |B| = 58
16
cos φ = √ √ , φ = 86.1◦ .
938 58

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3 Motion in One Dimension
The study of motion without regard to the forces that influence the motion is called kinematics. If
an object is at position x1 at time t1 and at x2 at time t2 , the displacement vector ∆x = x2 − x1 .
The average velocity v is defined as
x2 − x1 ∆x
v= = .
t2 − t1 ∆t
If an object experiences a displacement x in a time t, its instantaneous velocity is:
∆x dx
vi = lim = .
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero; it
equals the instantaneous rate of change of position with time. Velocity is a vector and its magnitude
is speed. Speed and velocity are measured in metres per second (m/s or ms−1 ). Velocity is the slope
of a graph of displacement x versus time t.
Note:

The terms ’speed’ and ’velocity’ are used interchangeably in everyday language, but they have
distinct definitions in Physics. We use the terms speed to denote distance travelled divided by time,
on either an average or an instantaneous basis. Instantaneous speed measures how fast a particle is
moving; instantaneous velocity measures how fast and in what direction it’s moving. For example, a
particle with instantaneous velocity v = 25m/s and a second particle with v = −25m/s are moving in
opposite directions at the same instantaneous speed 25 m/s. Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity, and so instantaneous speed can never be negative. Note however that average
speed is not the magnitude of average velocity.
Example:
A moving particle passes point a (xa = 3m) at time ta = 4s, and point b (x = 7m) at time tb = 6s.
Find the magnitude of the average velocity of the particle
Solution:

7m − 3m 4
vav = = = 2m/s.
6s − 4s 2
Acceleration: When the velocity of a moving body changes with time, the body is said to have
acceleration. Acceleration describes the rate of change of velocity with time, and it is a vector quantity.
Average acceleration is defined as:
v2 − v1 ∆v
a= =
t2 − t1 ∆t
and instantaneous acceleration is defined as:
∆v dv
ax = lim = .
∆t→0 ∆t dt
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval ap-
proaches zero. The SI unit of acceleration is metre per second squared (m/s2 ). Acceleration is the
second derivative of displacement. The slope of a graph of velocity against time gives the average
acceleration. Also, on a graph of velocity as a function of time, the instantaneous acceleration at any
point is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point.
If a car accelerates from 15m/s to 35m/s in 5sec, then average acceleration
35 − 15
a= = 4m/s2 .
5
For motion on a straight line, the acceleration os in the direction of that line.

8
 Example:
Assume that v1 = −2.0m/s at time t1 = 1.0s, v2 = 1.0m/s at t2 = 2.0 s. Find the average acceleration.

Solution:

1.0m/s − (−2.0m/s)
aav = = 3m/s2 .
2.0s − 1.0s
Example:
Suppose the velocity v at any time t is given by

v(t) = 6.0m/s − (2.0 m/s2 )t.

Find the instantaneous acceleration at any time t.

Solution:

dv
a= = −2 m/s2 .
dt

3.1 Motion with constant acceleration

When the acceleration is constant, it is easy to derive equations for position x and velocity v as
functions of time. If we replace the average acceleration (from its definition) by the constant (instan-
taneous) acceleration, a, we have:
v2 − v1
a= .
t2 − t1
Now let t1 = 0 and let t2 be any arbitrary later time t. We use v0 for the velocity at the initial time
t = 0; the velocity at the later time t is v. Therefore,
v − v0
a=
t−0
or
v = v0 + at (3)
Suppose an object with a velocity v0 (at position x0 ) accelerates with a uniform acceleration a for a
time t and reaches a velocity v (at position x). The distance x − x0 travelled by the object in the time
t is given by:
x − x0 = average velocity × t
1
x − x0 = (v0 + v) × t (4)
2
Using v = v0 + at, we obtain
1
x − x0 = (v0 + v0 + at)t
2
and finally
1
x − x0 = v0 t + at2 . (5)
2
Furthermore, from t = (v − v0 )/a, so that

1 (v − v0 )
x − x0 = average velocity × t = (v0 + v) ×
2 a
v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 ). (6)
Equations (3 – 6) are the equations of motion for an object moving in a straight line with uniform
acceleration.

Example:
A truck having an initial velocity of 30 m/s accelerates uniformly at 3m/s2 . (i) How fast is it moving

9
after it has travelled 100m from the initial position? (ii) How long did it take to travel the 100 m?

Solution:

(i)
v 2 = v02 + 2ax
v 2 = 302 + 2(3)(100) = 1500
v = 38.73 m/s
(ii)
v = v0 + at
v − v0 38.73 − 30
t= = = 2.9 s.
a 3
•Example
An antelope moving with constant acceleration covers the distance between two points 70.0m apart
in 7.00s. Its speed as it passes the second point is 15.0m/s. (a) What is its speed at the first point?
(b) What is its acceleration?
•Solution
We make use of
1
x − x0 = (v0 + v)t
2
to calculate the initial speed.

x − x0 = 70.0m, t = 7.00s, v = 15.0m/s, v0 =?, a =?

v0 + 15.0
70.0 = 7.00,
2
v0 = 5.0m/s.
To obtain the acceleration, we make use of
v − v0
a=
t
15.0 − 5.0
a= = 1.43m/s2 .
7.00
•Example
A motorist travelling with constant velocity of 15m/s passes a school-crossing corner, where the speed
limit is 10 m/s. Just as the motorist passes, a police officer on a motorcycle stopped at the corner
starts off in pursuit with constant acceleration of 3.0m/s2 . (a) How much time elapses before the
officer catches up with the motorist? (b) What is the total distance each vehicle has travelled at that
point?
•Solution
(a) man: v0 = 15m/s, t =?, a = 0.
police: v0 = 0, a = 3.0m/s, t =?
Using
1
x − x0 = v0 t + at2 ,
2
we obtain:
for man: x − x0 = 15t + 0

⇒ x − x0 = 15t
for police: x − x0 = 0 + 21 (3)t2

⇒ x − x0 = 1.5t2

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Equating the last two equations gives:

15t = 1.5t2
and
t = 15/1.5 = 10sec
(b)
v = v0 + at = 0 + 3(10) = 30m/s
(c)
x − x0 = 15t = 15(10) = 150m.

Assignment A turtle crawls along a straight line. The equation for the turtle’s position as a function
of time is
x(t) = 50.0cm + (2.00cm/s)t − (0.0625cm/s2 )t2 .
(a) Find the turtle’s initial velcoity, initial position, and initial accelertion.
(b) At what time t is the velcoity of the turtle zero?
(c) How long after starting does it take the turtle to return to its starting point?
(d) At wht time t is the turtle a distance of 10.0cm from its starting point? [Answers: (a) 2.00cm/s,
50.0cm, −0.125cm/s2 , (b) 16.0sec, (c) 32.0sec, (d) 6.2sec or 25.8sec.]

3.2 Freely falling bodies

The most familiar example of motion with (nearly) constant acceleration is that of a body falling under
the influence of the earth’s gravitational attraction. Consider an object moving upward or downward
along a vertical axis under the influence of gravity. It has been found that all objects (large or small)
experience the same acceleration due to the force of gravity. This acceleration varies slightly with
altitude, but for objects near the surface of the earth, the acceleration is approximately constant. It
is always directed downward.

The value of the acceleration due to gravity g is approximately 9.80m/s2 . The value of g is slightly
reduced in the high mountains. On the surface of the moon, the acceleration due to gravity is 1.6m/s2 .
Near the surface of the sun, it is 270m/s2 .

For a body moving under gravity,

v = v0 + gt, (7)
1
y − y0 = v0 t + gt2 , (8)
2
and
v 2 = v02 + 2g(y − y0 ) (9)

Example: A rock is dropped from rest from the roof of a building 100 m high. (i) Find its velocity
just before it hits the ground. (ii) Find the time it takes to hit the ground.

Solution: (i)
v 2 = v02 + 2gy
v 2 = 0 + 2(9.8)(100)
v = 44.3 m/s
(ii)
v − v0 44.3
t= = = 4.52 s.
g 9.8

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Example A student throws a water balloon vertically downward from the top of a building. The
balloon leaves the thrower’s hand with a speed of 6.00m/s. Air resistance may be ignored, so the
water balloon is in free fall after it leaves the thrower’s hand.
(a) What is its speed after falling for 2.00s?
(b) How far does it fall in 2.00s?
(c) What is the magnitude of its velocity after falling 10.0m?

Solution We will take upward direction as positive and downward direction as negative. Since the
object is moving downward, v0 = −6.00m/s, t = 2.00s, g =?9.8m/s2 .
(a) Using v = v0 + gt,
v = −6.00 + (−9.8)2.00 = −25.6m/s.
Therefore the velocity is 25.6m/s directed
vertically downward (negative y-axis)
(b) We use y − y0 = v02+v t = −6.00−25.6


2 × 2 = −31.6.
Therefore the balloon will fall a distance of 31.6 m below the origin.
(c) We use v 2 = v02 + 2g(y − y0 )

v 2 = (−6.00)2 + 2(−9.80)(−10),

v = 15.2m/s.

Exercise A balloonist at an altitude of 800m drops a package. One second later, he drops a second
package.
(a) How far apart are the packages at the instant the second package is dropped?
(b) How far apart are the packages when the first package hits the ground?
(c) What is the time interval between when the two packages hit the ground?

12
4 Motion in a plane
4.1 Position and velocity vectors
To describe the motion of a particle in a plane, we first need to be able to describe the position of the
particle. Consider a particle that is at a point P at a certain instant. The position vector r of the
particle at this instant is a vector that goes from the origin of the coordinate system to the point P
(Figure 5).

Figure 5:

Using unit vectors, we can write

r = xî + y ĵ (10)
The average velocity vav is
r2 − r1 ∆r
vav = = (11)
t2 − t1 ∆t
The instantaneous velocity is defined as:
∆r dr
v = lim = , (12)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
so that
v = vx î + vy ĵ.
The magnitude of the vector at any instant is the speed v of the particle at that instant.
q
|v| = v = vx2 + vy2 . (13)

The direction of v at any instant is the same as the direction in which the particle is moving at that
instant. The direction of the instantaneous velocity is the given by the angle α in figure 6. We see
that
vy
tan α = . (14)
vx

Figure 6:

13
4.2 Acceleration vector
The average acceleration is defined as the particle moves from one point to another as
v2 − v1 ∆v
aav = = . (15)
t2 − t1 ∆t
The instantaneous acceleration is defined as
∆v dv
a = lim = , (16)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
so that
a = ax î + ay ĵ. (17)

Example The coordinates of a bird flying in the x − y plane are given by x(t) = αt and y(t) =
3.0m − βt2 , where α = 2.4m/s and β = 1.2m/s. (a) Calculate the velocity and acceleration vectors
of the bird as functions of time. (b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the bird’s velocity and
acceleration at t = 2.0s.

Solution (a) r = xî + y ĵ = αtî + (3.0 − βt2 )ĵ.

The velocity vector is
v = αî − 2βtĵ
and the acceleration vector is
a = −2β ĵ.
(b) The magnitude of the velocity is
p
v = 2.42 + (−2 × 1.2 × 2)2 = 5.4m/s.

To obtain the direction, we use

−4.8
tan α =
2.4
α = −63◦ .
The magnitude of the acceleration is
p
a= 02 + (−2 × 1.2)2 = 2.4m/s2 .

To obtain the direction, we use

−2.4
tan α =
0
◦
α = −90 .

4.3 Projectile Motion

A projectile is a body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined entirely
by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air resistance. A batted baseball, a thrown football, a
package dropped from an airplane, and a bullet shot from a rifle are all projectiles. The path followed
by a projectile is called its trajectory.
If air resistance is neglected, there is then no acceleration in the horizontal direction (ax = 0). The
acceleration in the y−direction is ay = −g. It is convenient to choose x0 = 0 and y0 = 0, and we
designate the initial speed of the projectile as v0 . If the projectile is launched at an angle θ above
horizontal, the initial velocity in the x−direction and y−direction can be expressed, respectively, as

v0x = v0 cos θ, v0y = v0 sin θ. (18)

14
The equations of motion then become

vx = v0 cos θ = constant, vy = v0 sin θ − gt. (19)

1
x = (v0 cos θ) t, y = v0 sin θ − gt2 . (20)
2
From the equation for x, we obtain
x
t= . (21)
v0 cos θ
Substituting this value of t in the equation for y, we have
 
g
y = (tan θ)x − 2 2
x2 . (22)
2v0 cos θ
This is the equation of a parabola that passes through the origin. A key feature of projectile motion
is that the horizontal motion is independent of the vertical motion.

Example A motorcycle stunt rider rides off the edge of a cliff. Just at the edge his velocity is
horizontal, with magnitude 9.0m/s. Find the motorcycle’s position, distance from the edge of the
cliff, and velocity after 0.50sec.

Solution For the position

x = v0x t = 9.0 × 0.50 = 4.5m
1 1
y = − gt2 = − × 9.8 × 0.502 = −1.2m
2 2
The negative value of y shows that at this time, the motorcycle is below its starting point.
The motorcycle’s distance from the edge of the cliff is
p p
r = x2 + y 2 = 4.52 + (−1.2)2 = 4.7m.

To calculate the velocity at time t = 0.50sec, we make use of equation 19:

vx = v0x = 9.0m/s

vy = 0 − gt = (−9.8)(0.50) = −4.9m/s.
Now
v = vx î + vy ĵ = (9.0)î + (−4.9)ĵ
q p
v = vx2 + vy2 = 9.02 + (−4.9)2 = 10.2m/s.
The angle α of the velocity vector is
   
−1 vy −1 −4.9
α = tan = tan = −29◦ .
vx 9.0
At this time the velocity is 29◦ below the horizontal.

Exercise
1. Two crickets, Chirpy and Milada, jump from the top of a vertical cliff. Chirpy jumps horizontally
and reaches the ground in 3.50sec. Milada jumps with an initial velocity of 95.0cm/s at an angle
of 32.0◦ above the horizontal. How far from the base of the cliff will Milada hit the ground?

2. A hunter, on sighting an animal, fires his bullet at an angle of 45◦ to the horizontal with a velocity
of 490m/s. (a) Calculate the time it will take to reach the highest point and the maximum height
reached. (b) If the bullet hits the animal, what is the horizontal distance between the hunter
and the animal?

15
5 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Dynamics, the study of how forces influence motion, is involved in understanding a wide range of
phenomena.

Newton’s first law of motion: An object at rest will remain at rest; an object in motion will
continue in motion with constant velocity, except acted upon by an external force. This tells us that
force is the cause of motion. The SI unit of force is in newtons.

Newton’s second law of motion: The change of momentum per second is proportional to the
applied force and the momentum change takes place in the direction of the force.
mv − mv0 momentum change
F = = (23)
t time
F = ma, (24)
where a is acceleration of the particle. The force of gravity acting on an object is called the weight of
the object. It can be written as
W = mg, (25)
where W is the weight in newtons, m is mass in kilogram, and g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 .
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is kgm/s. The
impulse (Force × time) is the ’time effect’ of a force on an object. Its SI unit is N s.

Newton’s third law of motion: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This
means that if a body A exerts a force (action) on a body B; then B will exert an equal and opposite
force (reaction) on A .

5.1 Conservation of linear momentum:

If the net external force acting on system of objects is zero, the vector sum of the momenta of the
objects will remain constant.
In collisions and explosions, the vector sum of the momenta just before the event equals the vector
sum of the momenta just after the event. The vector sum of the momenta of the objects involved does
not change during the collision or explosion. Thus when two bodies of masses m1 and m2 collide,

total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact

m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 , (26)
where u1 and u2 are the velocities before impact, and v1 and v2 are the velocities after impact.
A perfectly elastic collision is one in which the sum of the translational kinetic energies of the
objects is not changed during the collision. In the case of two bodies,
1 1 1 1
m1 u21 + m2 u22 = m1 v12 + m2 v22 . (27)
2 2 2 2

5.2 Coefficient of Restitution

For any collision between two bodies in which the bodies move only along a single straight line, a
coefficient of restitution e is defined. It is pure number given by
v2 − v1
e= . (28)
u1 − u2
Note that |u1 − u2 | is the relative speed of approach and |v2 − v1 | is the relative speed of recession.
For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1. For inelastic collisions, e < 1. If the two bodies stick together
after collision, e = 0.

16
5.3 Examples
1. A 20.0kg object that can move freely is subjected to a resultant force of 45.0N in the +x−direction.
Find the acceleration of the object.
Solution:

F 45N
a= = = 2.25m/s2 in the +x-direction.
m 20kg

2. A 5.0kg object is to be given an upward acceleration of 0.30m/s2 by a rope pulling straight

upward on it. What must be the tension in the rope?
Solution:

Figure 7:

T − mg = ma
T − 5(9.81) = 5(0.3)
T = 50.6N.

3. A horizontal force of 140N is needed to pull a 60.0kg box across the horizontal floor at constant
speed. What is the coefficient of friction between the floor and the box?
Solution:
The reaction R = mg = 60 × 9.81 = 588.6N .

Figure 8:

FA − fr = 0

17
 FA − µR = 0, ⇒ 140 − µ(588.6) = 0
140N
µ= = 0.238.
588.6N
4. A 200N wagon is to be pulled up a 30◦ incline at constant speed. How large a force parallel to
the incline is needed if friction effects are negligible?
Solution:

Figure 9:

FW = 200N
FN − FW cos 30◦ = 0
FN = 0.866 × 200
FN = 173.2N This is the normal force (Reaction)
Also
F − FW sin 30◦ = 0
F = 200 sin 30◦ = 100N ≡ 0.5FW .

5. A 2.0kg brick is moving at a speed of 6.0m/s. Calculate the force F needed to stop the brick in
a time of 7.0 × 10−4 sec.
Solution:

Impulse on brick = change in momentum of brick

F ∆t = mvf − mv0
F (7.0 × 10−4 sec) = 0 − (2.0kg)(6.0m/s)
F = −1.7 × 104 N.
The minus sign indicates that the force opposes the motion (i.e., a retarding force).

6. A 16g mass is moving in the +x−direction at 30cm/s while a 4.0g mass is moving in the
−x−direction at 50cm/s. They collide head on and stick together. Find their velocity after the
collision.
Solution:

m1 = 16g = 0.016kg, u1 = 30cm/s = 0.3m/s, v1 = v2 = v

m2 = 4.0g = 0.004kg, u2 = 50cm/s = −0.5m/s,

18
 m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
(0.016 × 0.3) + (0.004)(−0.50) = (0.016 + 0.004)
which gives
v = +0.14m/s
Their common velocity is in the +x−direction.

7. A 1.0 kg ball moving at 12 m/s collides head-on with a 2.0 kg ball moving in the opposite di-
rection at 24 m/s. Determine the motion of each after impact if (a) e = 2/3, (b) the balls stick
together, and (c) the collision is perfectly elastic.
Solution:

momentum before collision = momentum after collision

(1.0)(12) + (2.0)(−24) = (1.0)v1 + (2.0)v2
⇒ −36 = v1 + 2v2 (29)
(a) When e = 2/3,
v2 − v1 2 v2 − v1
e= ⇒ =
u1 − u2 3 12 − (−24)
⇒ 24 = v2 − v1 (30)
Solving equations (29) and (30), we obtain

v2 = −4.0m/s and v1 = −28m/s.

They will both move in the direction of the 2.0kg ball.

(b) In this case, v1 = v2 = v and so the momentum equation becomes:

3v = −36 ⇒ v = −12m/s.
v2 −v1
(c) Here, e = 1, so from e = u1 −u2 , we have

v2 − v1
1= (31)
12 − (−24)
Then
v2 − v1 = 36 (32)
Solving equations (29) and (32) gives

v2 = 0 and v1 = −36m/s.

6 Circular Motion
6.1 Centripetal force:
Whenever a moving object turns, its velocity changes direction. Since acceleration is a measure of
the rate of change of velocity, an object that turns is accelerating. This kind of acceleration, called
centripetal or radial acceleration, is related to v, the speed, and r, the radius of curvature of the turn,
by
v2
ac = . (33)
r
Radial acceleration is directed perpendicular to the velocity vector and points toward the centre of
the arc on which the object is moving. The amount of force needed to cause an object with speed v
to curve along an arc of radius r is
mv 2
Fc = mac = (34)
r

19
 Figure 10:

Note that centripetal force, Fc , is a wy of using a force, NOT a kind of force.

Suppose that an object makes f rev/s. The frequency of revolution is f . One revolution per second
is called 1 hertz. In one revolution, an object travels a distance 2πr. If it makes f rev/s, the distance
travelled in 1 sec is 2πrf . The distance travelled per second is the speed v, so

v = 2πrf. (35)

One revolution is 2π radians (rad). The number of radians swept out per second is called the angular
frequency or angular velocity (ω) and it is measured in radians per second. Thus

ω = 2πf and v = ωr. (36)

In terms of ω, the centripetal force can be written as

mv 2
Fc = = mω 2 r. (37)
r
Suppose a particle describing a circle, with centre O and radius R, occupies positions A and B
respectively over a time interval ∆t. The length s, of the arc AB is given by

s = r∆θ (38)

where ∆θ is AOB in radians. The magnitude of the velocity (speed) of the particle is given by
distance r∆θ
v= = . (39)
time ∆t
∆θ
∆t is called the angular velocity ω of the particle about O. Thus

angular displacement
angular velocity = (40)
time
and v = rω. The SI unit of angular speed is radian per second.
In one complete revolution, the radius sweeps through an angle of 2π radians. The time taken is
called the period, T , of the motion, and is given by
angle described 2π
T = = . (41)
angular speed ω
The number of revolutions per unit time is the frequency, f , of the motion and is given by:
1 1 ω
f= = = (42)
period T 2π
so that ω = 2πf .

20
6.2 Motion around a curve
Consider a vehicle going round a bend on a road. If the road is smooth, the frictional force may not
be large enough to provide the centripetal force needed and the vehicle may skid. In order to prevent
skidding and also to reduce the lateral force of friction on the tyres and hence reduce wear of the
tyres, the roadway is often tilted towards the curve. This is known as banking. If the angle of banking
is properly chosen, the force exerted by the roadway is perpendicular to its surface and no frictional
force is necessary to provide the centripetal acceleration. In that case, the resultant of the two forces,
F and W , is the centripetal force, Fc . From figures 11 and 12 ,

Figure 11:

Figure 12:

Fc mv 2 /r v2
tan θ = = = , (43)
W mg rg
where r is the radius of curvature of the road at the bend.

Example: A particle describes a circular path of radius 0.45 m at the rate of 1200 rev/min. Deter-
mine its frequency, period, and acceleration.
Solution:
The angular speed, ω = 1200rev/60s = 20rev/s.

ω = 20 × 2πrad/s = 40πrad/s.
ω
Let f represent the frequency and T , the period of oscillation. Then from f = 2π
40π
f= Hz = 20Hz
2π

21
 1 1
Period T = = s = 0.05s
f 20
acceleration, a = rω 2 = 0.45m × (40π)2 s−2 = 7.11 × 103 m/s2 .

Example: A ball of mass 0.15 kg slides with negligible friction on a horizontal plane. The ball is
attached to a pivot by means of a string 0.60 m long. The ball moves around a circle at 10 rev/sec.
What is the tension in the string?
Solution: The tension in the string is the centripetal force:

Fc = T = mω 2 r = 0.15 × 0.60 × (2π10)2 = 355.3N.

Example: On a level roadway the coefficient of friction between the tyres of a car and the asphalt
is 0.80. What is the maximum speed at which a car can round a turn of radius 25 m if the car is not
to slip? (g = 9.8m/s2 .)
Solution:
The force of friction provides the needed turning force Fc . Thus

mv 2
Ff = µN = µmg =
r
⇒ v 2 = µrg = 0.8 × 25 × 9.8
v = 14m/s

Example: A car travelling an a free-way goes around a curve of radius r at speed v. The roadway
is banked to provide the necessary inward centripetal force in order for the car to stay in its lane. At
what angle should the roadway be banked if the car is not to utilize friction to make the turn?
Solution:
The car is not accelerating in the vertical direction, so

Figure 13:

Fup = Fdown , and N cos θ = mg.

The horizontal component of the normal force N provides the needed centripetal force.

mv 2
N sin θ =
r
N sin θ mv 2
=
N cos θ mgr
v2
tan θ =
rg
θ is called the banking angle.

22
Example: A curve on a highway forms an arc of a circle whose radius is 50 m. The road bed is 10
m wide and its outer edge is 1.0 m higher than the inner edge. Determine the (i) angle at which the
road is banked, and (ii) the speed at which the banking is just right. (g = 9.8m/s2 ).
Solution:
1.0m
(i) tan θ = 10.0m = 0.10 .
The banking angle θ is then obtained as

θ = tan−1 0.10 = 5.71◦ .

(ii) radius of the circular path, r = 50m. If v is the speed for which banking is just right, then
v2
tan θ =
rg
v 2 = rg tan θ
p
v = 50m × 9.8m/s2 × 0.10 = 7.0m/s.

7 Work and Energy

Suppose a constant force Fx acts in the +x−direction and causes an object to move a distance of ∆x.
The work-done by the force is defined as

W = fx ∆x.

The SI unit of work is joule (i.e., 1 newton-metre). If the force makes an angle θ with the direction of
motion (the x-axis here), the work-done by F is

W = Fx ∆x = F cos θ∆x.

Example: A man drags a heavy log across level ground by attaching a cable from the log to a bull-
dozer. The cable is inclined upward from horizontal at an angle of 20◦ . The cable exerts a constant
force of 2000 N while pulling the log 16 m. How much work is done in dragging the log?
Solution:

W = F cos θ∆x = (2000)(cos 20◦ )(16) = 3.0 × 104 J.

Note:
1. If the displacement ∆x is written as a vector, we can write:

W = F · ∆x (44)

2. The area of a force-displacement graph gives the workdone by the force.

An important example of a non-constant force is the force exerted by a spring or a rubber band.
Suppose a mass is attached to one end of a spring and placed on a frictionless horizontal surface. The
other end of the spring is attached to a fixed point. If the mass is then displaced an amount x from
its equilibrium position, the spring exerts a force F on it, where

F = −kx, (45)

where k is the spring constant. The minus sign indicates that this spring force is a restoring force.
The workdone in stretching a spring distance x is
Z x Z x
W = F dx = kx dx
0 0

1
W = kx2 . (46)
2

23
Example: A force of 120 N will stretch a spring 2 cm. What is the spring constant of the spring?
If the spring were cut in half, what would then be the spring constant?
Solution:

F 120
F = −kx; k = = = 6000N/m.
x 0.02
If the entire spring is stretched by 2 cm, half of its length is stretched by 1 cm. The force constant is
therefore
120
k= = 12, 000N/m.
0.01

Example: How much work must be done to stretch a spring by 2 cm if the spring constant is 640
N/m?
Solution:
1 1
W = kx2 = (640)(0.02)2 = 0.128J
2 2

7.1 Kinetic Energy

Suppose that a single constant force F acts on a particle in its direction of motion and causes it to
accelerate, increasing in speed from an initial value v0 up to a final value v. Substituting a = F/m in
the equation of motion v 2 = v02 + 2ax, we have

2F x
v 2 = v02 + . (47)
m
The workdone by the force is W = F x, so
1 1
W = mv 2 − mv02 . (48)
2 2
This is the work-energy theorem. It says that the work done on a particle is equal to the increase in
the kinetic energy of the particle. The work-energy theorem is valid even if the force is varying.
The kinetic energy of an object of mass m with speed v is defined as
1
K.E = mv 2 (49)
2
It is also measured in joules (unit of work done).

Definition: Energy of a system is a measure of its ability to do work.

Example: Calculate the kinetic energy of the earth orbiting the sun at a speed of 2.98 × 104 m/s.
(mass of earth is 5.98 × 1024 kg).
Solution:
1 1
K.E = mv 2 = × 5.98 × 1024 × (2.98 × 104 )2 = 2.66 × 1033 J.
2 2

7.2 Power
Power is the rate of doing work or of transferring energy.
dW dE
P = = . (50)
dt dt
It is measured in watt (1 watt = 1 joule/sec ). Power can also be written as

P = F · v. (51)

24
Example: Consider a car travelling at a speed of 60 km/h (16.7 m/s). It encounters a frictional
force (rolling and air drag) of 520 N. At what power level does the engine deliver energy to the wheels?
Solution:
P = F v = 520 × 16.7 = 8.68kW.

Example: A car going 15 m/s is brought to rest in a distance of 2.0 m as it strikes a pile of dirt.
How large an average force is exerted by seat belts on a 90 kg passenger as the car is stopped?
Solution:
We make use of the work-energy theorem.
1 1
work done = F cos θ × ∆x = mvf2 − mvi2
2 2
1
0 − (90)(15)2 = F (−1)(2.0)
2
F = 5.1kN.
Note that cos θ = −1 because the restraining force on the passenger is opposite in direction to the
displacement .

8 Potential energy and Conservation of energy

8.1 Potential energy
This is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position. It is a scalar function associated with
a conservative force. The potentials energy U (x, y, z) depends only on the position of an object. Its
SI unit is joule.
If the potential energy at y = 0 is 0, then the potential energy at any height y is
U (y) = mgy. (52)
For a conservative one-dimensional force F (x), the work done in moving from x1 to x2 is
Z x2
W (x1 , x2 ) = F (x)dx = U (x1 ) − U (x2 ) = −[U (x2 ) − U (x1 )]. (53)
x1
This requires that
dU
F (x) = − (54)
dx
From the work-energy theorem,
1 1
W (x1 , x2 ) = mv22 − mv12 , (55)
2 2
we then have that
1 1
U (x1 ) + mv12 = U (x2 ) + mv 2 . (56)
2 2 2
1 2
This is the law of conservation of energy. It shows that U + 2 mv = E stays constant. This quantity
is called the total mechanical energy of the object
1
E = U + mv 2 = constant. (57)
2

Example: A skier passes over the crest of a small hill at a speed of 3.6 m/s. How fast will she be
moving when she has dropped to a point 5.6 m lower than the crest of the hill? Neglect friction and
take g to be 9.8 m/s2 .
Solution:
P.E1 + K.E1 = P.E2 + K.E2
1 1
mgh1 + mv12 = mgh2 + mv22
2 2
q p
v2 = v12 + 2g(h1 − h2 ) = 3.62 + 2(9.8)(5.6) = 11.1m/s.

25
8.2 Energy conservation and friction
If a system does work against friction, then

initial energy − energy lost to friction = final energy

E1 − Wf = E2 (58)
1 1
U1 + mv12 − Wf = U2 + mv22 . (59)
2 2

8.3 Potential energy of a spring

The force kx exerted by a spring is a conservative force. The work done in compressing or stretching
a spring is stored as potential energy and can be used later to do work. The work done in stretching
or compressing a spring of spring constant k by a distance x is 12 kx2 . Thus the potential energy (U )
of a spring is
1
U = kx2 . (60)
2

Example: If a mass m resting on a frictionless horizontal table is attached to the end of a spring of
spring constant k. The other end of the spring is fixed. The mass is displaced a distance A from its
equilibrium position and released from rest. What is the maximum speed of the mass as it oscillates?
Note: If a mass m is attached to the end of a spring and then allowed to oscillate back and forth,
the energy of the system will remain constant.
1 2 1
kx + mv 2 = E = constant.
2 2
Solution: The total energy of the system is constant, so the kinetic energy will be greatest when the
potential energy is a minimum, and this occurs when x = 0 . Thus

E = U1 + K.E1 = U2 + K.E2
1 2 1
kA + 0 = 0 + mv 2
2 2
r
k
v= A
m

Example: An archery bow exerts a Hooke’s law force kx on an arrow when the string is pulled back
a distance x. Suppose that an archer exerts a force of 220 N in drawing back an arrow a distance of
64 cm. What is the spring constant of the bow? With what speed will an arrow of mass 24 k leave
the bow?
Solution:
F 220
k= = = 343.75N/m
x 0.64
P.E1 + K.E1 = P.E2 + K.E2
1 2 1
kx + 0 = 0 + mv 2
2 2
r
k
v= x
m
r
343.75
v= (0.64) = 76.59m/s
0.024

26
8.4 Machines
A simple machine is a device used to magnify a force or to change a small displacement into a large
one. Common machines are a lever, an inclined plane, a block and tackle, a hydraulic jack, or a
combination of gears. If friction is negligible,

Work input (W1 ) = work output(W2 ).

d1
F1 d1 = F2 d2 or F2 = F1 .
d2
The mechanical advantage of the machine is defined as
F2
M.A = ,
F1
distance moved by input force
velocity ratio = .
distance moved by output force
Work output Mechanical advantage
Efficiency = =
Work input Velocity ratio

Example: A workman pushes a packing crate of weight W a distance s up a plane ramp inclined
at an angle θ above horizontal. How much work does he do? He pushes parallel to the plane. What
force must he exert? What is the mechanical advantage of this simple machine?
Solution:
h = s sin θ
So
W ork = F × s = W h = W s sin θ
and
F = W sin θ
W 1
M.A = =
F sin θ

Example: For the lever below, determine the vertical force F1 required to support the load FW =
90N. Neglect the weight of the lever. Also find the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, and efficiency
for the system.
Solution:
Taking moment about O
clockwise torque = anticlockwise torque
FW × 1 = F1 × 3
90 × 1 = F1 × 3
F1 = 30N.

90
Mechanical advantage = = 3.0.
30
3.0
velocity ratio = =3
1.0
3
Efficiency = = 1.0 = 100%
3

27
 Figure 14:

Figure 15:

Example: Using the wheel and axle shown in figure below, a 400 N load can be raised by a force of
50 N applied to the rim of the wheel. The radii of the wheel and axle are 85cm and 6.0cm, respectively.
Determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, and efficiency of the machine. Solution:
400N
Mechanical advantage = = 8.0
50N
distance moved by F 2πR 85cm
velocity ratio = = = = 14.2
distance moved by FW 2πr 6.0cm
8.0
Efficiency = = 0.56 = 56%.
14.2

Example: The inclined plane shown below is 15m long and rises 3.0m. (a) What force F parallel
to the plane is required to slide a 20kg box up the plane if friction is neglected? (b) What is the
velocity ratio of the plane? (c) Find the mechanical advantage and efficiency if a 64N force is actually
required. [ g = 9.8m/s2 ].
Solution:
(a)  
3
F = mg sin θ = F = (20)(9.81) = 39.2N.
15
(b)
distance moved by F 15m
velocity ratio = = = 5.0
distance FW is lifted 3.0m

28
 Figure 16:

(c)
FW 196N
Mechanical advantage (force ratio) = = = 3.06.
F 64N
3.06
Efficiency = = 0.61 = 61%.
5.0

9 Rotational Motion

10 Statics and Elasticity

10.1 Rotational Equilibrium
If the angular velocity of a rigid body is not to change, no net external torque (τ ) can act on the
object, since
X dL dω
τi = =I , (61)
dt dt
where L is the angular momentum and I is the moment of inertia. The complete conditions for the
equilibrium of a rigid body are as follows:

X
The resultant external force is zero: F = 0.

X
The resultant external torque is zero about any origin: τ = 0.
For statics, the object is at rest and not translating or rotating. When dealing with an object
whose mass is distributed, treat all of the mass as if it is concentrated at the centre of mass (CM).
The gravity force exerts no torque about the centre of mass point.
Example: Abe and Mary carry a uniform log of length 6 cm and weight 150 N. Abe is 1m from one
end and Mary is 2 m from the other end. What weight does each person support?
Solution: If we imagine a pivot at Abe’s position, and take a counter-clockwise torque as positive,
then

G × 3 = 150 × 2
150 × 2
G= = 100N
3

Now, F + G = 150N
F = 150N − G = 150N − 100N = 50N

29
 Figure 17:

10.2 Elasticity
Real materials are not perfectly rigid. When subjected to forces, they deform. If a substance deforms
when subjected to a force, but returns to its initial shape when the force is removed, the substance is
elastic.

Consider a material of length L and cross-sectional area A. If a force F is applied along the axis
of the material, and this causes a change in length ∆L of the cylinder, then we define the following:

• Stress: This is the external force acting on an object per unit cross-sectional area. The result of
a stress is strain.
F
Stress =
A
• Strain: This is a measure of the degree of deformation.
∆L
Strain =
L

In a weak material, a small stress produces a large strain. For sufficiently small stresses, stress and
strain are proportional. The constant of proportionality depends on the kind of material and on the
nature of the deformation. The ratio of stress to strain is the elastic modulus.
Stress
Elastic modulus = .
Stress
Suppose you pull or push on a cylinder of length L and cross-sectional area A with a force F directed
along the axis. The material is subject to a tensile stress. Young modulus is defined as:

Tensile strength F/A

Y = = .
Tensile strain ∆L/L

If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material does not return to its original shape when the stress
is removed.

The shear modulus measures a material’s ability to resist changes in its shape. Suppose a piece of
material in the form of a rectangular block (like a brick) has one face fixed and a face F applied to
the opposite face of area A. Imagine F applied parallel to the face, like the friction force. If the two
faces are separated by distance h, and the sheared face moves ∆x, the shear modulus is

Shear stress F/A

S= = . (62)
Shear strain ∆x/h

30
 Figure 18:

Bulk modulus B is defined as

Volume Stress F/A P
B= =− =− (63)
V olumeStrain ∆V /V ∆V /V
The negative sign is inserted so that B is a positive number because ∆V is negative due to a positive
pressure. The inverse of bulk modulus is called the compressibility. A large bulk modulus means it
is difficult to compress the material, whereas a large compressibility means it is easy to compress the
material.
Example: A steel beam used in the construction of a bridge is 10.2 m long with a cross-sectional area
of 0.12 m2 . It is mounted between two concrete abutments with no room for expansion. When the
temperature rises to 10◦ C, such a beam will expand in length by 1.2 mm if it is free to do so. What
force must be exerted by the concrete to keep this expansion from happening? Young’s modulus for
steel is 2.0 × 1011 N/m2 .

Solution: Imagine that the steel expands and then the concrete exerts a compressional force to
return it to its original length.

1.2 × 10−3
   
∆L 11
F =Y A = 2 × 10 (0.12) = 2.8 × 106 N.
L 10.2

11 Oscillations

12 Gravity
Gravity is one of the fundamental forces of nature. Gravity is a weak force unless the objects involved
are large, like planets or stars. The electric force between two protons is much stronger than the
gravitational force between them. Most of what we know about gravity came from studies of the
motion of the moon and the planets.

12.1 The law of gravity

Isaac Newton deduced that two particles of masses m1 and m2 , separated by a distance r, will attract
each other with a force:
m1 m2
F =G 2 . (64)
r
This is the Newton’s law of universal gravitation. The same law applies to two spherically symmetric
masses, when the mass is treated as if it were all concentrated at the center of the sphere. The
universal gravity constant G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 /kg 2 .

31