BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
TITLE: INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: ABOUT BIOLOGY
• Biology – study of living things
• Applied science – technology; scientific knowledge is
used for practical purposes
WORLD RENOWNED SCIENTISTS
• Aristotle – attempted to arrange organisms into
groups
• Galen – lungs added and removed something from
the blood
• Robert Hooke – cells
• Rene Dutrochet – organisms are made up of cells
• William Harvey – blood circulation
• Anton von Leeuwenhoek – designed lenses for
compound microscopes
• Rudolf Virchow – all cells come from living cells
• Matthias Schleiden – plant cells
• Theodor Schwann – animal cells
• Robert Brown – nucleus
• Gregor Mendel – basic principles of heredity
• Felix Dujardin – cells as full of jelly-like fluid
• William Beaumont – relationship between
structure and function in digestive system
• James Watson and Francis Crick – DNA as double-
helical
FILIPINO SCIENTISTS
• Marco Montaño – Philippine seaweeds
• Roberto Coronel – fruits and crops all year round
• Lilian Lee – found out cause of Recessive Dystonia
Parkinsonism in Panay
• Leoncio Amadore – devised a method of
forecasting tropical cyclone movement called
Amadore Method
• Rosalinda Solevilla – medicinal plants as
alternative medicines
• Fe del Mundo – promote health of children and
adolescents, world famous Filipina pediatrician,
bamboo incubator
• Priscilla Sanchez – discovered 2 species of
bacteria and made microbial contents of fermented
food products healthy and parasite-free
THE SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
(1) Posing a question – question about an observation
or a problem
(2) Formulating hypothesis – proposed answer to the
question posed, a statement that can be tested
(3) Designing an experiment – to test the hypothesis
▪ Manipulated variable – purposely changed to
test hypothesis; independent variable
▪ Responding variable – factor that may change
as a response to manipulated variable;
dependent variable
▪ Controlled experiment – experiment where
only one variable is manipulated
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▪ Operational definition – statement that
describes how to measure or define a
particular term
(4) Collecting and interpreting data – find patterns in
collected data; graphs
(5) Drawing conclusions – summary of what you have
learned from the experiment; support or reject
hypothesis
(6) Communicating the results – through writing and
speaking
▪ Scientific theory – well-tested explanation for
wide range of observations
▪ Scientific law – describes observed pattern in
nature without attempting to explain it
CHARACTERISITICS OF ORGANISMS
1. Organisms are made up of cells
▪ the cell is the structural and functional unit of
living things
2. Organisms are highly organized
▪ cell controls and regulates all of its activities
3. Organisms use energy constantly
▪ metabolism – chemical build up and
breakdown
4. Organisms grow and develop
5. Organisms have a life span
6. Organisms reproduce themselves
▪ reproduction – production of offspring
7. Organisms respond to stimuli
▪ irritability – ability to respond to all stimuli
like tropism in plants
8. Organisms adjust to their environment
▪ adaptation – change in organism that makes it
better suited to its environment
EQUIPMENTS USED BY BIOLOGISTS
• Light compound microscope – uses light and
lenses to enlarge the image of the specimen or
object being viewed
o mirror – reflects light upward to enhance the
image of the specimen
o iris diaphragm – controls the amount of light
o ocular lens – eyepiece; 10X–15X; contains
lenses to increase magnification
o objectives – (LPO 10X-5X)(HPO 15X-45X) oil
immersion types are lenses with highest
magnifications to enlarge images
o body tube – houses all the lenses
o revolving nosepiece – hold objects on rotating
disc to allow them to be shifted
o course adjustment knob – moves the body
tube to place objective in correct distance
from the object viewed
o fine adjustment knob – for focusing by moving
objectives slightly
o stage – supports a glass slide over the hole
o stage clip – holds glass slide in place
o inclination joint –tilt the microscope
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o arm – part where the microscope is held
o base – supports microscope’s weight
o magnification – increase size of an object
o resolution – increase the visible detail
• Stereomicroscope – used to study large and live
specimens
• Electron microscope – use beams of electrons to
create enlarged images
o Transmission electron microscope – TEM;
pass through the specimen; study the internal
structure of specimens
o Scanning electron microscope – SEM; go
across the specimen; study the surface
structure of specimens
• Microtome – used to cut thin slices of a specimen
• Centrifuge – separates fluids from solid matter by
spinning
• Micromanipulation – translates large movement of
hand into microscopic movements
• Micropipette – with tip much finer than human hair,
used to withdraw small quantities of fluids
• Computer – analyze data and create visual models
• Stains – chemicals to highlight parts
• Prions – cause mad cow disease; proteins that cause
disease by changing other proteins
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease – similar to mad cow
disease but affects humans; caused by prions
• Total magnification in a compound microscope
= magnification of objective lens X magnification of
eyepiece lens
CHAPTER 2: BIOSPHERE
• Biosphere – entire part of the earth where living
things exist
THE ECOSYSTEM
• Ecosystem – interactions of all organisms with
another and their environment
o Biotic – biological factors; living
o Abiotic – physical factors; nonliving
• Population – group of individuals of same species
• Community – different populations in a locality
• Habitat – part of an ecosystem where particular
species lives
• Ecological niche – way/role of life a species pursues
within its habitat; function, position
• Autotrophs – manufacture own food
• Heterotrophs – consume plants and are likewise
eaten by other species
FLOW OF MATERIALS AND ENERGY IN AN ECOSYSTEM
• Recycling – continuous movement of chemicals
throughout the ecosystem
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• Biogeochemical cycle – pathway through which a
chemical substance is recycled; water cycle,
nitrogen cycle, carbon dioxide cycle
• Trophic level – each level in system of feeding within
the ecosystem
• Herbivores – eat only plants
• Carnivores – eat only animals/meat
• Omnivores – eat both
• Scavengers – feed only on dead organisms
• Decomposers – break down tissues into small
molecules; bacteria and fungi
• Food chain – organisms in one trophic level feed
upon organisms at a lower trophic level
• Food web – network of food chains intertwined
• 10% of energy is available for use by organisms at
each trophic level
• Ecological pyramid – visualize the decrease in
available energy in an ecosystem
o Energy pyramid – amount of energy in calories
found in bodies of organisms
o Biomass pyramid – biomass of all organisms
o Pyramid of numbers – number of individuals
feeding at each trophic level
• If a toxin is introduced into an ecosystem, the
animals at the top of the pyramid are most likely to
be affected
• Flow of matter – cyclical pathway
• Flow of energy – single pathway
BIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
1. Competition – struggle among organisms for limited
resources
a. Intraspecific – compete with own species
b. Interspecific – compete with other species
2. Predation – hunt, kill, consumed; prey, predator
3. Symbiosis – permanent, close relationship between
different species that benefit at least one of them
a. Mutualism – mutual benefit
b. Commensalism – one benefits, other unharmed
c. Parasitism – one benefits, other harmed
• Biological rhythm – naturally recurring phenomena
by undergoing physiological changes
o Circadian rhythm – pattern of changes that
occurs every 24 hours
▪ Nocturnal – active during the night
▪ Diurnal – active during the day
▪ Biological clock – controls circadian
rhythms
o Annual rhythm – pattern of physiological
changes that occurs once a year; flowering,
egg-laying, seed germination
▪ Estivation – reduction of activity during
summer
▪ Hibernation – reduction of activity during
winter
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BIOMES
- large geographical area that has the same kind of
flora (plant life) and fauna (animal life)
- type of vegetation, geography of the region,
temperature, amount and pattern of rainfall, and
light intensity
• TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
o Tundra – cold regions; long severe winters; polar
bears; small plants; treeless
o Boreal forests – taiga; evergreen trees; summer
short, winter long
o Deciduous forests – temperate forest; tress shed
leaves every year
o Grasslands – prairie, steppe, veldt, pampas,
▪ Savannah – a special kind of grassland in
tropical and subtropical regions
▪ Serengeti Plain of East Africa – largest and
most famous savannah
o Tropical rain forests – in equatorial areas
o Desert – arid, sandy regions
• AQUATIC BIOMES – divided based on salinity
o Marine biome – 3.5% salt content
LIFE FORMS
a. Planktons – float near water surface; tiny
animals and algae
b. Nektons – swim freely; marlins and sharks
c. Benthos – live in the bottom; sponges and
oysters
ZONES
a. Intertidal zone – part of seashore between
high and low tide zones
b. Neritic zone – open water to the shore;
water is shallow compared to deep seas;
light can penetrate
c. Open sea zone – largest zone; three regions:
› Photosynthetic region – light penetrates
from ocean surface to 200m depth
› Bathyal region – underwater twilight;
200m to 2000m depth; fish produce
light through bioluminescence
› Abyssal region – no light; below
2000m depth
o Freshwater biome – little salt; lakes, ponds,
rivers, and creeks
▪ Lake – large body of water, quite deep
▪ Pond – small, shallow depression in land
filled with water
› Oligotrophic – supports little life
› Eutrophic – abundant nutrients;
supports more organisms
o Estuaries – where rivers and ocean meet;
salinity between sea and freshwater
EFFECTS OF MAN’S ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT
1. Greenhouse effect – the increase of atmospheric
concentration of CO2 increases the earth’s
temperature
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2. Ozone depletion – due to chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs); ozone protects earth surface from
excessive ultraviolet radiation
3. Deforestation – forests are denuded; erosions,
flood, changes in weather patterns can occur
4. Acid rain – sulfur oxide and nitrogen lowered pH
of rain
5. Desertification – overgrazing; turn grasslands
into deserts
6. Pollution - presence or introduction of harmful
substances or contaminants into the natural
environment
7. Reduction in species diversity – become extinct
as their habitats are destroyed
• Demographers – study the size, growth, density, and
distribution of human populations
CHAPTER 3: CELL: THE STRUCTURAL AND
FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE
CELL STRUCTURES – divided into three:
• Nucleus – the control center
• Cell membrane – the outer boundary
• Cytoplasm – materials that are between nucleus
and cell membrane
• Cytoplasmic streaming – flow of the cytoplasm;
allows movement of materials within the cell
BASIC PARTS OF A CELL
A.In the Nuclear Region
• Nucleus – controls cell activities and transmits
hereditary material
• Nuclear membrane – two-layered membrane of
lipids and proteins; forms boundary with the
cytoplasm
• Nuclear pores – allows some materials to pass
between nucleus and cytoplasm
• Nucleolus – makes proteins and site of ribosome
production
B.In the Cytoplasmic Region
• Cell membrane – outer boundary of proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates; encloses cell; controls
movement of materials into and out of cell
• Golgi Apparatus – collecting & packaging center
• Endoplasmic reticulum – transport system
• Ribosome – carry out protein synthesis
• Mitochondrion – synthesizes ATP
• Lysosome – aid in the disintegration of injured or
dead cells; garbage can
• Vacuole – contains water, food, and wastes
• Centriole – function in cell division on animals;
organize microtubules
• Microtubule – gives cell its shape
• Cell wall – outside plant cell membrane; protect
and support
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• Plastid – in plants, contains food and pigments
• eukaryotes – true nucleus
• prokaryotes – lacks nucleus and have little internal
organization
o prokaryotic cell – no nucleus, no nuclear
membrane, single chromosomes, no membrane-
bound organelles, no cytoplasmic streaming
ORGANIC MOLECULES
- made up of carbon atoms and other atoms bonded
together; carbon-based molecules; have four
important types: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and
nucleic acids
• monomers – individual units in macromolecules
• polymer – large molecule made from many small
monomers
• dehydration synthesis – putting monomers
together by removing water
• hydrolysis – break down of macromolecules into
monomers by use of water
1. Carbohydrates – main source of energy; sugar
molecules; CnH2nOn
o Monosaccharides – simple sugars; source of
energy for the cell
▪ Fructose – fruits and honey
▪ Glucose – source of energy for plants and
animals
▪ Galactose – milk and yogurt
› Structural isomers – same molecular formula
but different structural formula
o Disaccharide – two monosaccharides together
▪ Maltose – glucose + glucose
▪ Lactose – galactose + glucose
▪ Sucrose – glucose + fructose ; table sugar;
sugar cane and sugar beet roots
o Polysaccharide – repeated units of simple sugars
▪ Starch – in plants stored in plastids
▪ Glycogen – in animal liver and muscle cells;
main storage of glucose
▪ Cellulose – cell wall; provides structure;
indigestible part of plants
2. Lipids - for energy storage and for insulation; CHO;
fats, phospholipids, and steroids
o Fats – are triglycerides; stored energy or fuel
reserve
▪ Triglycerides – glycerol + 3 fatty acids
THREE KINDS OF FATTY ACIDS
▪ Saturated fatty acid – no double carbon
bonds and have max hydrogen atoms; stays
solid in room temperature; butter; bad fat
▪ Unsaturated fatty acid – double or triple
carbon bond and have less than max
hydrogen atoms; stays liquid in room
temperature; vegetable oil; good fat
› Trans fat – unsaturated fat that is
changed into saturated fat; used to
increase stability or long life of foods
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▪ Polyunsaturated fatty acid – many double
and triple carbon bonds
o Phospholipids – glycerol + 2 fatty acids +
phosphate group ; can form lipid bilayer and made
up cell membrane
o Steroids – contains four attached carbon rings;
cholesterol, vit D, and hormones
▪ estrogen and testosterone are steroids
created from cholesterol
3. Proteins – build and repair body tissues
o Amino acids – monomers of proteins; CHON;
building blocks of life
– consists of an alpha carbon atom attached to
hydrogen atom, amino group; carboxyl group
(acid), and a specific “R” group that
determines its special properties
o Hemoglobin – an iron-containing protein in red
blood cells that helps transport oxygen
o Enzyme – brings about chemical reactions
o Peptide – two or more amino acids
o Polypeptide – several amino acids join into a string
o 9 essential amino acids – body cannot synthesize;
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
threonine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, valine;
(HILL MaTaPaT Va)
4. Nucleic acids – information storage molecules; info to
make proteins
o DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; contains genes, the
hereditary blueprints for life; double nucleotide
strand
▪ Genes – sections of DNA; determine amino
acids sequence in proteins
o RNA – ribonucleic acid; translate genetic code in
DNA; essential for protein synthesis; single
nucleotide strand
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN AND OUT OF CELL
• Brownian movement – constant random movement
of molecules in all substances
• Passive transport – takes place without use of
energy; moves from higher concentration to low
concentration
o Diffusion – random movement of molecules to
regions of low concentration and distribute it
uniformly; by gases and solute substances
o Osmosis – diffusion of water through the
membrane
▪ Selectively permeable – cell membrane;
only certain substances can pass through
▪ In isotonic solution – same concentration;
no net movement, cell remains same
▪ In hypotonic solution –water moves into
the cell; swell
▪ In hypertonic solution – water diffuses out
of the cell; shrink
o Facilitated diffusion – similar to simple diffusion
but uses carrier molecules to speed up process
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▪ Carrier molecules – proteins in plasma
membrane that transport large molecules
and don’t dissolve in lipids
• Active transport – uses energy to move molecules
from lower concentration to higher concentration
o Bulk transport methods – allow droplets of fluid
or particles of food to move in or out of cell
without passing through the plasma membrane
o Endocytosis – bulk passage of materials into
the cell
▪ Phagocytosis – movement of solid or
large particles into the cell; to eat
▪ Pinocytosis – movement of liquids with
solutes and small particles into the cell;
to drink
o Exocytosis – bulk passage of materials out of
the cell
KINGDOM FUNGI
CHAPTER 4: CELL: BACTERIA, ARCHAEA,
PROTISTS, FUNGI, AND VIRUSES
DOMAIN BACTERIA
- prokaryotes; unicellular
THREE BASIC SHAPES
▪ Spherical – coccus; ex. Staphylococcus aureus
found in skin
▪ Rod-shaped – bacillus; ex. Escherichia coli
found in intestines
▪ Spiral-shaped – spirilla; ex. Borrelia
burgdorferi that cause relapsing fever
• Binary fission – asexual process; one cell divides
form two identical cells
• Conjugation – sexual process; one bacterium
transfer some of its genetic material to another
through thin threadlike bridge that joins them
• Endospore – tough, protective coat surrounding
the nuclear material inside bacterial cell; resist
freezing, heating, and drying, aid bacteria to
survive in harsh conditions
• Rhizobium sp. – nitrogen-fixing bacteria
VIRUSES
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
- prokaryotes; unicellular; ancient; live in extreme
and harsh living conditions
DOMAIN EUKARYA: KINGDOM PROTISTA
- eukaryotes; unicellular or multicellular
• Animal-like Protists
o Mastigophora – euglena; one or more flagella
o Sarcodina – foraminifera and amoeba;
pseudopodia (false feet); secrete shells to
protect soft bodies
o Ciliophoran – paramecium; use cilia to propel
themselves
o Sporozoa – plasmodium; internal parasites;
carried by ticks, flies, and mosquitoes;
Plasmodium vivax causes malaria
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• Fungus-like Protists
o Myxomycota – plasmodial slime molds; engulf
prey and digest food in food vacuoles
o Acrasiomycota – cellular slime molds;
individual cells separated by cell membranes
o Oomycote – water molds; Phytophthora
infestans ruined potato crops
• Plant-like Protists
o Chrysophyta – diatoms; golden algae
o Pyrrophyta – dinoflagellates; fire algae;
bioluminescence; red tides
o Chlorophyta – volvox and ulva; green algae
o Phaeophyta – kelps; brown algae; form
extensive underwater forest
o Rhodophyta – red algae; usually sessile or
stationary
- eukaryotes; unicellular or multicellular
- nonmotile; obtain food by decomposing organic
matter (heterotrophic)
• chitin – composed fungi’s cell wall
• fruiting body – spore-producing structure
• Phylum Zygomycota – bread mold (R. stolonifer)
o Terrestrial fungi – live in soil
o Sporangium – specialized hyphae that produce
tiny spores
• Phylum Basidiomycota – mushroom, bracket fungi,
and puff balls
o Club fungi – spores are stored in club-shaped
basidia; forest floors
• Phylum Ascomycota – yeast
o Sac fungi – asexually produce spores in an
ascus or little sac
• Phylum Deuteromycota – penicillin
o Imperfect fungi – sexual life cycles have not
been observed
▪ Cyclosporine – suppresses the body’s
rejection of a transplanted organ
- acellular, nonliving
- contain protein and nucleic acid
- can be solidified into crystals, don’t respire, don’t
grow, don’t respond to stimuli, and reproduce only
within a living cell (host)
• Filoviruses – don’t have uniform shapes; Ebola
viruses; have loop at one end
• Polervirus – potato leafroll virus; damage potato
crops worldwide
• Adenoviruses – one of many causes of common cold
• REPRODUCE IN TWO WAYS:
(1) Lytic cycle – production of many new viruses and
destruction of host cells
(2) Lysogenic cycle – nucleic acid fuses with host
DNA and replicated during cell division
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• Transduction – virus carry its genetic information
from one host cell to another and alter the genetic
code of a host cell
• Pathogens – disease-causing viruses
• HUMAN BODY DEFENSE VS VIRUSES
(1) First line of defense – pathogens cannot enter
the skin except through cuts and bites of
animals
(2) Second line of defense – antigen will trigger
the body to produce antibodies
o Antibodies – destroy viruses completely
or make it easier for phagocytes engulf
them
o Active immunity – body produces
antibodies in response to pathogen
o Passive immunity – antibodies are
produced in response to an injection of a
vaccine
▪ Vaccine – a solution of weakened or
killed pathogens produced in another
body/animal that developed immunity
(3) Third line of defense – production of interferon
that helps cell to recognize the specific virus
as a foreign body
• Epidemiologist – studies patterns of diseases or
health risks in population
CHAPTER 5: PLANTS
• Green algae – ancestor of today’s land plants;
pioneer population on land
TWO MAIN GROUPS
(1) Bryophytes – nonvascular plants; transport water
and nutrients by means of osmosis and diffusion
- small and grow close to ground
- no true roots, stems, or leaves
- anchored to ground by root-like structures
called rhizoids
- exhibits alternation of generation – life
cycle involving the alternating haploid
(gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte)
stages
- gametophyte stage is dominant
- mosses; first plants to settle in barren and
inhospitable areas
(2) Tracheophytes – vascular plants; transport water
and nutrient by vascular tissues
A.Seedless vascular plants – ferns, whisk ferns,
club mosses, and horsetails
- reproduce asexually; flagellated sperms
need water to swim to the egg
- sporophyte stage is dominant
B.Seed plants – reproduce by forming seeds;
plant embryo is contained in a seed; seeds have
cotyledon/s as food supply to developing
embryo; sporophyte stage is dominant
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o Gymnosperms – seeds in cones; leaves
are kept all year long; cycads, pine trees,
and gingkoes
o Angiosperms – seeds enclosed in fruits;
flowering plants
▪ Monocot – one cotyledon; flower
parts in 3s, parallel veins, vascular
bundles scattered, and diffuse root
system
▪ Dicot – two cotyledons; flower parts
in 4s or 5s, netted veins, vascular
bundles in circle, taproot system
SEED STRUCTURE
• Embryo – young plant that develops from zygote
• Cotyledon – contains the stored food
• Seed coat – outer covering; protects the embryo and
its food
• Germination – embryo begins to grow again and
pushes out of the seed
ROOTS
- secure or anchor plant in ground, absorb water
and minerals, and sometimes store food
▪ fibrous root system – made up of many similarly
sized roots; in onions and corns
▪ taproot system – has one, thick main root; hard to
pull; carrots
ROOT STRUCTURE
• root cap – protects root from injury as it grows
• area of dividing cells – behind root cap; to form
new root cells
• root hairs – enter spaces between soil
particles; absorb water and minerals; anchor
the plant to ground
• xylem – transport water and mineral
• phloem – transport food
STEMS
- carry substances between roots and leaves
- provide support and hold leaves; some store food
• woody stems – hard and rigid; narra tree
• herbaceous stems – no wood, often soft; banana
• layers of xylem – form annual rings that can reveal
age of tree and its experienced growing conditions
o rainy years – annual rings are wide
o dry years – annual rings are narrow
• PARTS OF A STEM
o outer bark or cork – protects cells inside
o cortex – stores food
o phloem – transports food
o cambium – forms new phloem and xylem cells
o xylem – transports water and nutrients
o pith – stores food
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LEAVES
- carry out photosynthesis
• stomata – leaf openings or pores; controls gases
that enter and exit the leaf; takes in CO2 and takes
out water and oxygen; closed to retain water
• chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll that traps sun’s
energy needed for photosynthesis
• transpiration – water evaporates from leaves
• cuticle – waterproof coating; helps control water
loss
• Blue light – encourage plant growth
• Red light – promote flowering and fruiting
• Horticulture – science of plant cultivation; gardening
on a smaller scale
• Agriculture – large-scale cultivation of crops
CHAPTER 6: ANIMALS
• Body symmetry – arrangement of body parts around
a center point or line
o Spherical symmetry – round form; no front or
back, no left or right side; protozoans
o Radial symmetry – arranged around a central
axis; sea star
o Bilateral symmetry – half of its body is a mirror
image of its other half; butterfly
▪ dorsal – top surface
▪ ventral – bottom surface
▪ anterior – front
▪ posterior – back
• Vertebrates – animals with backbone or spine
THE INVERTEBRATES
- animals without a backbone; 97% of the animal
kingdom
1) Phylum Porifera – sponges; simple animals
without symmetry; does not move;
› hermaphrodite – organism that produces both
sperm and egg
› regenerates not only parts but its entire body
even from small fragments
2) Phylum Cnidaria – coelenterates; hollow gut;
radial symmetry; jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones,
and corals
› cnidocytes – stinging cells
› vase-shaped body – hydra
› bell-shaped body - jellyfish
3) Phylum Platyhelminthes – flatworms; bilateral
symmetry; has only one opening for receiving
food and expelling waste
› free-living – planaria
› parasitic – flukes and tapeworms
4) Phylum Nematoda – roundworms; round bodies;
bilateral symmetry; ascaris and hookworms;
parasitic
› mouth – anterior opening
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› anus – posterior opening
5) Phylum Annelida – segmented worms; little rings;
bilateral symmetry; has true coelom, a tube within
a tube body plan; earthworms and leeches
6) Phylum Mollusca – mollusks; soft body with shell;
clams, snails, slugs, squids, and octopuses
› Head – contains mouth and sensory organs
› Visceral mass – contains digestive, excretory,
and reproductive systems
› Foot – muscular; for burrowing into sand
7) Phylum Echinodermata – spiny-skinned animals;
have endoskeletons; radial symmetry; sea stars,
sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers
8) Phylum Arthropoda – jointed legged animals,
segmented body; exoskeleton made of chitin
› molting – exoskeleton shed and replaced
periodically to grow bigger
o Class Insecta – 6 legs; only invertebrates that
can fly; grasshopper, butterfly
▪ metamorphosis – transforms immature
form into an adult insect
› incomplete metamorphosis – 3 stages;
egg → nymph → adult ; grasshopper
› complete metamorphosis – 4 stages;
egg → larva → pupa → adult ; butterfly
o Class Arachnida – 8 legs; spiders and scorpions
› cephalothorax – head and thorax
› chelicerae – claw-like fangs; inject poison
› pedipalp – for feeding and sensory organ
› 12 simple eyes – detect light but do not form
images
o Class Crustacea – 10 legs; lobsters, crabs
› mandibles – chewing jaws
o Class Chilopoda – centipedes; flat body; one
pair of legs per body segment
o Class Diplopoda – millipedes; round body; two
pairs of legs per body segment
THE VERTEBRATES
– animals with backbone or spine; make up the
largest group of Phylum Chordata
• cephalization – main sense organs are located in
their head
• endoskeleton – made of bones and/or cartilages
• notochord – long firm rod at the back; replaced by
backbone in adult stage
• nerve cord – hollow tube that runs the dorsal
length of the animal
• gill slits – paired openings in throat region
• tail – surrounds the posterior end of animal’s
skeleton
1) Class Agnatha – jawless fish; only parasitic
vertebrates; ex. Lamprey
2) Class Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous fish; sharks
and rays
3) Class Osteichthyes – bony fish; bangus
4) Class Amphibia – amphibians; double life; in water
and on land; 3-chambered heart
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› Adults breathe mainly through sac-like lung
and supplement their breathing with their
moist skin
5)Class Reptilia – reptiles; have hard waterproof skin
o Amniotic egg – fluid-filled sac enclosed by a
protective porous shell
o Ancient reptiles – dinosaurs
o Modern reptiles – crocodiles, lizards
6) Class Aves – birds; feathered vertebrates
› bones are lightweight and filled with air
› air sacs are found throughout the body
› lack teeth; horny beak
› four-chambered heart
7) Class Mammalia – mammals; mammary glands
secrete milk
› hair insulate body and protects skin
› viviparous – born after developing inside
mother’s body
› exhibit parental care
› well-developed brains
› only animals with outer ear
› have diaphragm
• Inbreeding – breeding of closely related animals to
get the desired traits and remove the unwanted
CHAPTER 7: CHANGE THROUGH TIME
• Species – members resemble one another, have
capacity to mate and produce fertile offspring
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
• Lamarck’ Theory – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,
Zoological Philosophy; not accepted
› Law of use and disuse - use it or lose it;
organisms possess certain traits because they
constantly use them
• Theory of Natural Selection – Charles Darwin,
Origin of Species; aboard HMS Beagle to explore
around the world
› Each species produce more offspring that can
survive, they compete for limited resources,
and the offspring with the most favorable traits
are most likely to survive
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• Biogeography – study the distribution of flora
(plants) and fauna (animals)
• Paleontology – study of fossils
• Embryology – study the development of an
organism
• Comparative anatomy – study physical features of
various animals
o Homologous structures – same structure,
different function; have same ancestry
o Analogous structures – same function,
different structure; not same ancestry
TOP THE LEPT!
LEPT GENERAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
• Molecular biology – closely related organisms have
more common genetic sequences than distantly
related species
• Random mutation – foundation of evolution
TYPES OF SELECTION
• Directional selection – one extreme trait is favored
than other extreme traits
• Stabilizing selection – favors common traits and
eliminates extreme traits
• Disruptive selection – favors extreme traits and
against common traits
• Artificial selection – breeder chooses which trait to
favor
SPECIATION
• Speciation – emergence of new species
o Allopatric speciation – alone; population is
separated from the rest of the species by a
geographical barrier that it can’t interbreed
o Sympatric speciation – same area; new
species form without geographic barrier
PATTERN OF EVOLUTION
• Divergent evolution – closely related species with
different behaviors and traits
• Convergent evolution – two unrelated and
dissimilar species come to have similar traits
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
– relative frequencies of genotypes in a population
would prevail over time
– a population will be in genetic equilibrium if it has
large population, no mutations, no migration, has
random mutation, and no natural selection
EARLY HUMAN EVOLUTION
• Austrolopithecus afarensis – thrusting jaw,
receding forehead, no chin
• Austolopithecus africanus – back teeth had thick
enamel for grinding and small front teeth for slicing
• Homo habilis – made first stone tools
• Homo erectus – upright human; used simple stone
tools; use fire
• Gene pool – alleles of all genes of an organism in a
population
• Genetic drift – change in the number of genes in a
small population due to the effects of random mating
• Genetic equilibrium – relative stability of the genetic
makeup of a population
• Genetic variability – inherited differences among
offspring
• Industrial melanism – process undergone by
organisms where their light-colored skin becomes
dark as a result of natural selection
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CHAPTER 8: ENERGY FOR LIFE Photosynthesis Respiration Fermentation

Energy source Light energy Glucose Glucose
Energy release Glucose ATP ATP
• Adenosine triphosphate – ATP; chief energy currency Occurs in Chloroplasts
Cytoplasm and
Cytoplasm
mitochondria
of all organisms; contains a base (adenine), sugar Glucose and
Reactants CO2 and H2O Glucose
(ribose), and chain of 3 phosphates Oxygen
Glucose and Ethyl or Lactic
Products oxygen (waste)
CO2 , H2O, ATP
and ATP
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- food-making process in plants; use water and CO2 • Erythropoietin – tells body to make new red blood
6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O 2 + 6H 2 O cells; hormone released by kidneys
• Green plants reflect green light and absorb others
• Violet, blue, and red light - provides the most CHAPTER 9: COORDINATION IN AN ORGANISM
energy for photosynthesis
• Pigments – substances that absorb light • Tissue – group of similar cells that work together to do
o Chlorophyll – green pigment one job
o Xantophyll – yellow pigment • Organ – two or more different types of tissues work
o Carotene – orange pigment together
• Light reactions – photosynthesis’ phase which • System – group of organs that cooperate and work
requires light; light energy is trapped and water is together to perform series of related functions
split into hydrogen and oxygen; oxygen leaves plant
• Homeostasis – tendency to keep an internal balance
• Dark reactions – aka Calvin cycle; products from • Stress – body reaction to events that are challenging,
light reactions are used to combine carbon dioxide threatening, or disturbing
and hydrogen to make glucose
• Glucose – used for life processes of plant; stored as PLANT TISSUES
starch; form sucrose; stored as cellulose
• Meristems – in plants; undergo division
• Cuticle – thick waxy layer that cover epidermal o Apical meristem – near the tips of roots and
cells to prevent water loss stems; produce the most growth
• Trichomes – outgrowths of epidermis; control loss • Differentiation – process of specialization; cells
of water and regularity of temperature of plants produced by meristems become specialized and
• Xylem – water-conducting tissue carry out particular functions
1) Epidermis – outermost layer, protective tissue;
CELLULAR RESPIRATION secretes cutin, a waxy layer that helps slow down
- break down chemical bonds of food molecules and transpiration and protects plant from parasite
releases energy (ATP) necessary for cells; in invasion
mitochondrion; use glucose and oxygen 2) Vascular tissue – tubelike xylem (transport water
• Glycolysis – first step; in cytoplasm; anaerobic (no and minerals) and phloem (transport food)
oxygen needed); pyruvic acid is further broken 3) Ground tissue – unspecialized and protects
down through aerobic respiration vascular tissues; stores food and water; supports
Glucose → Pyruvic acid + 2ATP the vascular system
• Fermentation – anaerobic process; in cytoplasm;
removes hydrogen atoms and breaks down pyruvic ANIMAL TISSUES
acid into either ethyl alcohol or lactic acid • Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm – tt=here
o Alcoholic fermentation – break down hydrogen fundamental embryonic tissues
and pyruvic acid to produce ethyl alcohol and 1) Epithelial tissue – protect all internal and external
gives off CO2 as byproduct body surfaces
Pyruvic acid + H atoms → ethyl alcohol + CO2 • Squamous epithelia – flat, irregularly shaped;
o Lactic acid fermentation – muscle cells are top layers of skin, covering of heart and lungs,
forced to use lactic acid fermentation in lining of blood vessels
response to decreased oxygen concentration • Cuboidal epithelia – cube-shaped; in kidney,
during strenuous exercise; muscle soreness middle air, and brain
• Aerobic respiration – in mitochondria; requires • Columnar epithelia – long, narrow, and tightly
oxygen; gain max of 38 ATP; water and CO2 are packed; in digestive and respiratory tract
byproducts 2) Connective tissues – joins, supports, and protects
other types of tissues
• Dense connective tissue -cartilage and bones
• Loose connective tissue – found under skin
around the nerves, blood vessels, heart, and
the lungs

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• Liquid connective tissue – form the blood and
lymph
• Fat tissues – large droplets of fat are stored
3) Muscle tissues – contract and produce movement
• Skeletal muscle – attached to bones and move
the skeleton
• Smooth muscles – internal organs, digestive
• Cardiac muscles – in heart
4) Nervous tissue – transmit messages; in brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs
• Stem cells – blank cells; can potentially be turned into
any type of body tissues
CHAPTER 10: THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
System Functions
Skeletal and muscular For standing and moving
Digestive, respiratory, For energy and waste and
cardiovascular, and disposal
excretory
Nervous and endocrine For coordination and control
Reproductive For producing new life
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
– Body framework to stand upright; protects delicate
organs; muscles attached to bones allows
movement
• Bone marrow – makes red blood cells and some
white blood cells
• Bones – living tissue; store minerals like calcium
and phosphorus
• Skull – 29 bones
• Spine – 26 bones called vertebrae
• Ribs and breastbone – 25 bones
• Shoulders, arms, and hands – 64 bones
• Pelvis, legs, and feet – 62 bones
• Joints – occurs where two bones meet; allows to
bend, turn or twist
o Ball and socket joint – hip and upper arm
o Pivot joint – neck
o Hinge joint – elbow, knee, and ankle
• Femur – thighbone; largest bone in human body
• Stapes – in middle ear; smallest bone
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Gluteus maximus – buttock; largest skeletal muscle
• THREE KINDS OF MUSCLES
1) Skeletal muscles – striated (striped); moves
joints; voluntary
2) Cardiac muscles – heart; striated (striped);
involuntary; contract and relax between 60-
100 times per minute
3) Smooth muscles – not striated; in internal
organs; involuntary
• Sarcomere – where contraction of skeletal muscles
takes place; tiny unit that comprises the bands in
striated muscles; contains actin and myosin
• Nerve impulses – makes muscles cell contract
• Neurotransmitter – stimulate the cell to contract
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
– break down food into molecules the body can use
and absorb digested food into blood vessels
• Alimentary canal – digestive tract; where digestion
takes place
• MOUTH – cut and chew food into smaller pieces
o Ptyalin – salivary amylase; digest some starch
into maltose
o Bolus – small ball of partly digested food
• ESOPHAGUS – no digestion
o Peristalsis – wave of contraction; carry food
from throat to stomach in 10 seconds
• STOMACH – elastic bag, holds 1.2 liters of food; food
stays for 2-4 hours
o Pepsin – gastric juice; enzyme; digest proteins
into peptones
o Chyme – semi-fluid mass of food; acidic
• SMALL INTESTINE – acidic chyme is neutralized by
secretion of bile and pancreatic juices;
complete/end of food digestion
o Pancreatic amylase – convert starch to
maltose
o Lipase – convert fats into fatty acids + glycerol
o Trypsin – convert proteins into peptide
o Maltase – convert maltose into
monosaccharides
o Peptidase – convert peptide into amino acids
o Lining of small intestine – absorbs amino acid,
monosaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, and
minerals
o Villi – tiny hair-like, pick up nutrients passing
• LARGE INTESTINE – where most of water and
mineral salts are reabsorbed
o Feces – not digested and absorbed food;
stored in rectum, expelled through anus
• Glucose – energy source for cells
• Amino acid – repair and replace cells, enzymes,
hormones, and make new cells for growth
• Fats – form cell membrane and nuclear membrane;
stored as adipose tissue; reserved source of energy
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
– transport materials, regulate temperature, remove
wastes, and fight diseases
• blood carries wastes products away from the cells
to disposal units like liver, lungs, and kidneys
• In cool day, blood vessels constrict
• In warm day, blood vessels dilate
• HEART – four-chambered (2 atria and 2 ventricles)
muscular organs that pumps blood around the body
o Atria – receiving chambers (left and right)
o Ventricles – pumping chambers (left and right)
o Septum – separates left side of heart from the
right side; prevents mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood

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o Valves – trapdoors; ensures blood flow in one
direction; prevents blood from flowing
backward
o Pacemaker – controls muscular contraction of
the heart
o Electro Cardiogram – ECG; records the activity
of the pacemaker
• BLOOD VESSEL – network of tubes which carries
blood around the body
o Artery – carries blood away from the heart
o Vein – carries blood back to the heart
o Capillary – carry blood to body cells; exchange
blood and cells
• BLOOD – life-sustaining liquid; 6 liters; 55% plasma,
44% RBC, 1% WBC and platelets
o Plasma – straw-colored liquid part of blood;
91% water; carry digested food; transport
hormones and antibodies; transport wastes
o Red blood cell – RBC; oxygen carrier;
erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles
› contains hemoglobin, iron-containing
› biconcave, no nucleus
› life span of 80-120 days
▪ oxygenated blood – bright red
▪ deoxygenated blood – dark red
o White blood cell – WBC; defense team;
leukocytes or white blood corpuscles
› colorless, have nucleus
› life span of 3 days
› larger in size, less in number than RBC
▪ phagocytes – kill bacteria by engulfing
and digesting it
▪ lymphocytes – produce antibodies; to kill
bacteria or make it harmless
o Platelets – blood clotter; thrombocytes; pieces
of broken-down cytoplasm
› no nucleus, half-size of RBC
› clot wounds, prevent excessive blood loss
and entry of bacteria
› fibrin – traps RBC and forms a solid mass
• Blood types – discovered by Karl Landsteiner; four
blood types: A, B, AB, and O
o Marker molecules – protein in RBC,
determines blood type
o Clumping proteins – in plasma, recognize RBC
with ‘alien’ markers and those cells clump
together
o Type A – can receive Type A and Type O
o Type B – can receive Type B and type O
o Type AB – universal recipient; receive all types
o Type O – universal donor; receive only Type O
• Pulmonary circulation – pathway of blood from the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart
• Systemic circulation – pathway of blood from the
body and back to the heart
• Pulmonary artery – carries blood from the heart to
the lungs
TOP THE LEPT!
LEPT GENERAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
• Pulmonary vein – returns blood from the lungs to
the heart
• Right atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from
the body
• Right ventricle – pumps blood to the lungs
• Left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs
• Left ventricle – pumps blood to the rest of the body
• Vena cava – main vein; returns blood to the heart
• Aorta – main artery; carries blood away from heart
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
– cleanses the blood and regulates amount of water
in the body
• Kidneys – filters blood; 11 cm long, 5cm wide
o Glomerulus – filters blood plasma
o Ureter – tube that connect the kidneys to the
bladder; where urine flows
o Bladder – collapsible bag, holds urine
o Urethra – tube that leads outside the body
• Skin – largest organ in the body; gets rid of wastes
and excess salts through perspiration
• Inferior vena cava – takes filtered blood to the heart
• Aorta – brings unfiltered blood from the heart
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
– supplies oxygen to the body
• Inhalation – air pressure in lungs is lowered;
diaphragm contracts
• Exhalation – air pressure in lungs is raised;
diaphragm relaxes
• Air always moves from an area of high pressure to
an area of low pressure
• Alveoli – air sacs; carry out gaseous exchange
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
– controls the actions and sensation of all body parts
as well as thoughts, emotions, and memories
• Neurons – working unit; made up of a cell body and
branches called dendrites and axons
o Dendrites – receive messages and send them
to cell body
o Axon – carries messages away from the
neuron cell body
o Impulse – message carried by a neuron; travel
from sensory neuron to interneurons in brain
and spinal cord to motor neurons
o THREE TYPES OF NEURONS
▪ Sensory neurons – receive information
and send impulses to spinal cord or brain
▪ Motor neurons – conduct impulses from
brain or spinal cord to muscles and
glands in the body
▪ Interneurons – throughout the brain and
spinal cord, relay impulses from sensory
neurons to motor neurons
• Synapse – site of communication between neurons
• TWO MAJOR DIVISIONS
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1) Central Nervous System – made up of brain and
spinal cord
o Brain – 100B neurons
▪ Cerebrum – advanced thinking; largest
part; interpret senses, store memory;
control voluntary muscles
▪ Cerebellum – coordinate voluntary
muscle movements; balance and
muscle tone
▪ Brain stem – control homeostasis of
heartbeat, breathing, and blood
pressure
▪ Hypothalamus – coordinates nervous
and endocrine systems for sending
instruction in the body
▪ Thalamus – relay station, sorting and
routing sensory messages
o Spinal cord – extension of the brainstem;
carry impulse from body parts to brain and
from brain to body parts
2) Peripheral Nervous System – made up of 12
pairs of cranial nerves (from brain) and 31 pairs
of spinal nerves (from spinal cord)
o Cranial nerves – connect the brain to sense
organs, heart, and other internal organs
o Spinal nerves – carry impulses between
spinal cord and skeletal muscles
o Somatic Nervous System -voluntary;
controls body’s relationship to the external
environment
o Autonomic Nervous System – involuntary;
controls body’s internal environment
• Cervical nerves – 8 pairs; neck and arms
• Thoracic nerves – 12 pairs; chest cavity (thorax)
• Lumbar nerves – 5 pairs; legs and feet
• Sacrum and coccyx nerves – 6 pairs; pelvic organs
and buttock muscles
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- controls many body functions through hormones
• Exocrine glands – produce sweat, saliva, mucus,
and digestive juices
• Endocrine glands – ductless gland; pour hormones
into the bloodstream
• HORMONES
o Follicle stimulating hormone – activity in
ovaries and testes
o Luteinizing hormone – release of ovum and
produce testosterone
o Growth hormone – bone and muscle growth
o Prolactin – milk secretion
o Oxytocin – to contract uterus
o Vasopressin – cause kidney to reabsorb water
o Thyroid hormone – metabolic rate
o Calcitonin – lowers blood calcium levels
o Parathyroid hormone – increases blood calcium
TOP THE LEPT!
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o Aldosterone – increases sodium and water
reabsorption in kidney
o Epinephrine/norepinephrine – increases blood
glucose level and heart rate
o Insulin – decreases blood sugar concentration
o Glucagon – increase blood sugar concentration
o Estrogen – promote female secondary sex
characteristics
o Progesterone – thickens uterine lining
o Testosterone – promote male secondary sex
characteristics
• Hypothalamus – regulates hormone production
• Pituitary gland – master gland; produces “master”
hormones which stimulates another endocrine
gland to produce its own hormone
• Adult stem cells – can repair and maintain tissue
• Embryonic stem cells – can form nerve, blood, muscle
and other various other cell types
CHAPTER 11: CONTINUITY
• Adolescence – period of active growth and
development
• Cell cycle – series of events that happen from one cell
division to another; in humans, it takes about 16 hours
to complete; for growth, replace cell, and produce new
organisms.
• Interphase – DNA is copied; chromosomes duplicate
• Mitosis – division of a nucleus; produce 2 identical
daughter cells; in somatic cells
o Prophase – chromatid pairs visible; spindle forms
o Metaphase – chromatid pairs lined up in center
o Anaphase – chromosomes separate and in poles
o Telophase – cytoplasm separate
• Meiosis – division of nucleus; produce 4 new haploid
daughter cells; in sex cells; chromosome number is
reduced to half
o Haploid – sex cell; gametes; have only one
member of the pair of chromosomes
PLANT REPRODUCTION
• Asexual Plant Reproduction – offspring are
genetically identical; plant can grow from leaf, stem,
or root
• Sexual Plant Reproduction – offspring are
genetically different from either parent
o Fertilization – sperm and egg combine and
produce zygote
o Gametophyte stage – cells in reproductive
organs undergo meiosis and produce haploid
cells called spores
o Sporophyte stage – when haploid sex cells
unite, cells formed into diploid
o Pollen grain – plant sperm
o Pollination – transfer of pollen grain to the
female part of the flower
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o Seed – consists of embryo, stored food, and • Fertilization – sperm and egg unite forming a zygote
protective seed coat • Fraternal twins – develop from two different eggs
o Gymnosperms – seeds in cones; naked seed fertilized by two different eggs; can be two girls,
o Angiosperms – seeds develop in flowers, fruits two boys, or a boy and a girl
• Essential flower parts – flower parts produce • Identical twins – zygote divides into two separate
gametes and carry out sexual reproduction zygotes; have same hereditary information; either
o Stamen – male parts; AFP two boys or two girls
▪ Anther – oblong structure; where pollen • Development before Birth
is produced Time Event
▪ Filament – thin, stem-like portion After Zygote moves along the oviduct (FT) to the
fertilization uterus; it divides and form into ball of cells
▪ Pollen – produce sperm
After 7 days Zygote attaches to uterus
o Pistil – female parts; SOSO After zygote
Become embryo; umbilical cord is developed
▪ Style – slender middle part attaches
▪ Ovary – swollen base Fully developed amniotic sac – cushion and
3rd week
stores nutrient and wastes
▪ Stigma – sticky substance where pollen 5th week Embryo have head with eyes, nose, mouth
become attached 6 to 7th week
th
Fingers and toes
▪ Ovules – within ovary, produce eggs 8th week Fetus; body organs
3rd month Suck thumb; move; facial expressions
• Nonessential flower parts – protect and adorn 4th month Determine sex
essential parts 5th month Hair on head
o Receptacle – base of a flower 6th month
Possible to live outside mother’s body with
aid of respirator
o Sepals – encloses the flower before it blooms
7 - 8th month
th
Great increase in size and weight
o Calyx – collective form of sepals, protect ovary 9th month Head-down position
o Petals – protect pistil and stamen; fragrant and
brightly-colored • In vitro fertilization – IVF; egg cells are fertilized by
o Corolla – collective form of petals sperm outside the womb; within the glass; test tube
babies
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM • Louise Brown – first test tube baby, 1978
• Pituitary gland – produce hormones that control the
male and female reproductive systems
• Male reproductive system – specialized to produce CHAPTER 12: THE CODE FOR LIFE
sperm and testosterone; testes, scrotum, and penis
o Testes – in scrotum, produce sperm and • Heredity – passing of traits from parent to offspring
testosterone • Alleles – different form of a trait that a gene may have
o Sperm cell -male gamete; head contains
hereditary information; tail moves the sperm; MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT
produced in greater number at lower - Gregor Mendel, use garden peas
temperature • Principle of Dominance – one factor (gene) in a pair
o Semen – mixture of sperm cells and fluid; fluid of alleles may prevent other factor (gene) on the
provides environment for sperm to swim and pair from being expressed
contains nutrients as energy o Dominant alleles – prevailed over other form;
o Urethra – tube in the penis through which expressed trait
semen travels and urine leaves o Recessive alleles – seemed to disappear; not
• Female reproductive system – to produce eggs, expressed trait
nourish the developing baby until birth; ovaries, o Homozygous – two alleles are same (GG,gg)
fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina o Heterozygous – two different alleles (Gg)
o Ovaries – produce the eggs and estrogen • Principle of Segregation – each pair of genes
o Ovulation – once a month, mature egg is separate or segregate when gametes are formed;
released from an ovary explains how traits can disappear and reappear in a
o Fallopian tube – where fertilization takes place certain pattern
o Uterus – where fertilized egg is attached and • Principle of Independent Assortment – two or more
develop into human fetus pairs of genes segregate independently from one
o Cervix – allows menstrual blood to flow out of another during the formation of gametes
the uterus and through the vagina, if egg is left • Gene – unit of heredity
unfertilized • Genotype – pair of alleles in the cell of an organism
• Menstrual cycle – monthly change in female (GG, gg, Gg)
reproductive system; average 28 days • Phenotype – expressed traits; appearance
• Menopause – the period wherein ovaries stop
producing mature eggs

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• Punnett square – tool used to predict results in
Mendelian genetics
• Digestion process – ingestion of food, absorption of
BEYOND MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
• Codominance – equal expression of both alleles
• Incomplete dominance – intermediate traits is
expressed; traits will blend; parents are white and
red, offspring is pink
• Multiple alleles – many different alleles occupy a
specific gene locus; like Type A and Type B are co-
dominant over recessive Type O
• Polygenic inheritance – trait results from
interaction of many genes; height, skin color, weight
• Sex-linked traits – traits are determined by genes
only on X chromosome
• Pedigree – a record that shows how a trait is inherited
over several generations
CHEMICAL BASIS OF GENETICS
• Chromosomes – composed of long strand of DNA
wrapped around proteins
• James Watson and Francis Crick – DNA is double
helix
• DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; consists of sugar
deoxyribose, phosphate group, and nitrogenous
bases (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine)
• Adenine pairs with Thymine and Guanine pairs with
Cytosine (A-T, G-C)
• Replication – DNA copies itself
MAKING PROTEINS
• Proteins – build cells and tissues or work as
enzymes
• Gene – contains instructions for making specific
proteins; a section of DNA in a chromosome;
determines the order of amino acids in a protein
• RNA – ribonucleic acid; consists of sugar ribose,
phosphate group, and nitrogen bases A, G, C, and U
for Uracil; carry the code for making proteins from
nucleus to ribosomes
o messenger RNA – mRNA; carries sequences of
nucleotides that code for protein from nucleus
to ribosomes
o transfer RNA – tRNA; picks up individual amino
acids in cytoplasm and carry them to
ribosomes; translates
o ribosomal RNA – rRNA; bind mRNA and tRNA
during protein synthesis
• Protein synthesis – (1) genetic code of DNA is
transferred to mRNA, (2) mRNA moves into
cytoplasm, and (3) ribosomes attach to mRNA and
carry out the formation of protein
• Karyotype – picture of chromosomes from an
individual cell
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CHAPTER 13: HUMAN NUTRITION
nutrients, and elimination of waste products
COMPONENTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Mouth – mechanically breaks down food, mixes with
saliva
• Salivary glands – moisten food; start
polysaccharide break down; buffer acidic foods in
mouth
• Esophagus – muscular walls push bolus of food
down the stomach
• Stomach – stores, mixes, dissolves food, kills
microorganisms, starts protein breakdown
• Small intestine – digests and absorbs nutrients
• Pancreas – secretes enzymes to breaks down all
major food molecules, buffers hydrochloric acid
• Liver – secretes bile for fat absorption, bicarbonate
buffers hydrochloric acid from stomach
• Gallbladder – stores bile from liver
• Large intestine – stores undigested matter and
absorb water and salts
• Rectum – controls elimination of wastes
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS, VITAMINS, AND MINERALS
1) Go foods - energy giving; supply energy;
carbohydrates and fats
o 1g of Carbohydrates = 4cal
o 1g of Fat = 9cal
2) Grow foods – body building; for growth and
development of body cells; proteins
o 1g of Proteins = 4cal
3) Glow foods – body regulating; ensure normal body
functions and repair worn out tissues; vitamins and
minerals
o Fredrick Hopkins – introduce Vitamins
o Cashmir Funk – coined the term Vitamin
o Fat soluble vitamin – stored within fatty
tissues; best taken in the evening; ADEK
▪ Vitamin A – night blindness, poor growth,
rough skin
▪ Vitamin D – rickets
▪ Vitamin E – formation of RBC and tissues
▪ Vitamin K – for blood clotting; bleeding
o Water soluble vitamin – not stored in the body;
used up daily; eliminated through urine and
perspiration; best taken in the morning
▪ Vitamin B1 – thiamin; beriberi
▪ Vitamin B2 – riboflavin; skin disorder;
eyes sensitive to light
▪ Vitamin B3 – niacin; pellagra
▪ Vitamin B6 – pyridoxine; anemia;
convulsions
▪ Vitamin B12 – cobalamin; pernicious
anemia
▪ Folacin – folic acid; anemia; enlarged
blood cells
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▪ Vitamin B5 – panthotenic acid; formation

of hormones
▪ Vitamin C – ascorbic acid; scurvy
o Minerals – for metabolic functions
▪ Calcium – for bones; osteoporosis
▪ Phosphorus – appetite loss, fatigue
▪ Magnesium – irregular heartbeat
▪ Sodium – muscle cramps
▪ Potassium – abnormal heart action
▪ Chloride – upsets acid base balance
▪ Iron – RBC; anemia, fatigue
▪ Iodine – goiter
▪ Fluoride – excess dental decay
▪ Zinc – stunted growth, delayed wound
healing, loss of taste

EATING DISORDERS
• Anorexia nervosa – obsessive dieting
• Bulimia – excessive eating followed by forced vomit
to lose weight
• Obesity – excessive weight due to fat deposits; may
be due to heredity, dietary, physical activity, and /or
psychological factor

• Humans have 32 teeth

o Incisors – chisel-shaped; bite food
o Cuspids – canine; cone-shaped; tear food
o Molars – flat-topped; grind food
• Chew food at least 36 counts before swallowing to
prevent stomachaches

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