Theory and Calculation of Electric Circuits

NI ) CLAJ
TFI I ENOURI ( AJ . LCflUT LAUI WK

DI J
E L E C T R I C CI R CU I T S
BY
C H A R L E S P R OT E U S ST E I N M E T Z ,
A . M .
,
PB . D .
D
F ms r E I T I ON
'
S IX T H I M PR SS I O N
E
M cG R A H I L L B OOK C OM PA N Y, I N C
W- .
N E W YOR K: 3 7 0 SE V E N T H A V E N U E
L ON D O N : ; 8 B O U V E R I E ST
6 a .
, E . c . 4
191 7
C O PYR I G HT , 19 17, BY T HE
M CG R A W —
HI L L BOO K C O M PA N Y , I Nc .
PR IN T E D IN T HE U NIT E D ST A T E S Ol '
A ME R I CA
T H E MA P L E P R E S . YO R K PA
PR E F A C E
I n the t wenty years s ince the firs t edition Of T heory and

C a l cu l ation Of A l ternating C urrent Ph enomena appeared ,
el ectrica l engin eering has risen from a s ma l l b eginning to th e
world s greates t indus try ; electricity h as found i ts fiel d as the

’
,
means Of uni vers al energy trans miss ion dis tribution and s uppl y , ,
and our knowledge Of electrophys ics and electrical engineering

h as increas ed many fol d so that s ubj ects which twenty years
, ,
ag o cou l d b e dis miss ed with a few pages di s cu ss ion now ha ve ex ,
p a n d e d and re q uire an e x te n s i v e know l edge by ev e ry e l ectrica l

engi n ee r .
I n th e fol lowing vol ume I ha ve dis cu ss ed th e mos t important

characteris tics Of the fundam ental conc eption Of el ectrical engi
n eer i n g s uch as el ectric conduction magn eti s m wave s hape the
, , , ,
m eaning Of reactance and simil ar terms the problems Of s tabil ity ,
an d in s tabil ity Of el ectric s ys t em s et c and al s o hav e giv en a more

,
.
,
e x tend ed app l ication Of th e m ethod Of compl ex q uantit ies which ,
t h e ex p erienc e Of these twen ty years h as shown to b e th e mos t

powerful tool in deal ing with al ternating current ph enomena .
I n s om e res pects the foll owi ng work and i ts companion

, ,
vo l ume T heory and C al cul ation Of E l ectrical A pparatus

,
“ ”
,
may b e cons idered as continuations or rather as parts Of T he ,

“
ory and C al cul ation O f A l ternating C urrent Ph enom ena

”
W ith .
t h e 4th edition which appeared nin e years ag o A l te rnat ing

“
, ,
C urrent Ph enomena had reach ed about the l arges t practical

”
bul k and when rewriting it for the 5 th edition it became neces

, ,
s ary to s ubdivide it into three v o l um es to inc l ud e at leas t the ,
mos t necessary structural el ements Of our knowl edge Of el ectrical

e n ginee ring T h e subj ect matter thu s h as b een dis tributed
.
in to three volumes : A l ternating C urrent Phenomena

“ ”
E l ectric ,
“
”
C ircuits and E lectrical A pparatus “ ”
, .
C HA R L ES PR OT E U S ST E I N ME T Z .
SC H E N E CT A D Y ,
Ja nua ry , 19 17 .
P RE F A CE
S E CT I O N I
CHA PTE R I . E L E CT RI C CON D U CT I O N . S O LI D A ND L IQ U I D C oN D U CT O R s
1 .
— —
R es is tanc e I nd u ctanc e C ap ac i ty
Metal li c Conductors
2 .
—
D efini t ion R a n — —
ge Cons t ncy Po i tive Temper tu re C O a s a
efii ci ent — —
Pu re M etal s All oys
3 . Ind us tri al I mport nc e an d Caus e A s u med Con t ncy
— a s s a
U s e in Temp er atu re M easu r ements

E lectrol yti c Conductors
t
4 Defini i on b
. y Ch emi c l a — — —
Action M aterials R ange Nega .
t iv T mp r atu r C oeffi i nt
e e e— V l t mp r Ch r ct ri ti c
e c e o -
a e e a a e s
Limi tation .
5 C h mi c al A ct i on
. e — Far d y L w En rgy T r n form tion
— a a
’
s a e a s a
e a — —
Pot nti l D ifi n : Di r ction Con tancy Batt ry El c
'
ere —
ce e s e e
t rol yti C ll — S tor g Batt y

c e a e er
6 Pol ari ti on
. za — —
C ll V It mp re Ch r ct ri ti c Di ff u i n
e O -
a e a a e s s o
—
Cu rr nt Tr n i nt Cu rr nt
e a s e e
. a —
7 C p ac i ty Of P l ari ati on C ll E ffi n y Appl ic t ion Of i t
i —o z e c e c a
A l umi nu m C ell .
Pyroelectri c Conductors
8 . Defini tion b y D ropping Vol t pr -
am e e —
Characteris tic M axi
mu m and M ini mu m Vol tag Poin t — R an g — Limi t tion e s es a s .
9 . Propo tion Of R ang

r — —
M at ri l I n ul t i a Py oeles e a s s a o s
'
s r ec
t ri
es — S il ic on n d M gn ti t Ch r ct ri ti c
a a e e a a e s s
10 . e r o —
U s f o V l t ag Li mi t t i on E fi t Of T r n i n t Vol t g
e a
'
ec a s e a e
e es —
Thre Val u Of Cu rrent fo th e m Vol t g St b il i ty nd r sa e a e a a
I n tab ili ty Condition

s s
W d R a g Of Pyro ctr c C du ct r Th i r I ndu tri l U

.
11 i l i —
—Cau Of it—I ts Limit tion
. e n e n e e o o s e s a se
se a s
12 . Un qu al Cu rr nt Di tribu tion n d Lu minou Str k Condu

e e s a s ea e
t i on — I t Con d i tion
s — P rm n nt I ncr Of R i t nc nd
s e a e eas e es s a e a
Coh r r Action
e e
13 . S t b il i ty b y S ri es R i t nc
a e es s a e
14 . Tru Pyro l ctri c Condu ctor nd C n t ct R i t nc C n

e e e s a o a es s a e o
ductors
Carbon
15 . Indus trial I mportan c e Types :
— M tal li c Carb
e on , Amor
phons Carb on Anthrac i t ,
e
v ii i CON T ENT S
PA GE
I ns ul ator s
16 . D efini o —
t n Quan i
i t t t v Dis tin ct
a i e ion —
from Condu ctors Nega
ti v T
e mp eratu re Coeffici ent— Cond u ct ion
e at High Temp r e a
Des troyed
t u re, i f no t
.
—
1 7 Des tru ct i on b y Hi gh Temp eratu r e Leak ag e Cu rren t A p
—
parent Posi tive Temperatu re Coefficien t b y M ois tu re Condu e
tion
C H A P T E R II . E LE C T R IC CO ND U C TI O N . GA s A ND VA PO R C oN D U CT O R s
18 .
—
Lu mi nes c enc e D ropping Vol t ampere Charac teris ti c - an d
I ns tab i li —
Cl a es Spa rk Condu ction A rc Condu e
ty Three ss .
,
t i on El ctroni c Cond u cti on— Di ru pt iv

, e Condu cti on s e
19 . Spark Streamer Corona G ei l r Tub e Gl ow Di c on

, ,
— , ss e s
t i nu ou s an d Dis ru pti ve D ue to S teep D rop of Vol t— am p r e e

—
,
Characteri ti c Small Cu rr nt an d High Vol tag S ri es

s — e e e
—
Capac i ty Termi nal Drop and Stream Vol tag of G i l r e e ss e
— —
Tub Vol tage G radi ent and R es is t vi ty Arc Co ndu ction
e i
20 .
—
Cathod e Spot En rgy R equ red to S ta rt M an of
i — e e s
i n —
S tart g A rc Continuou Condu ction s
21 . L aw of A rc Cond u cti on : Uni di r ct i onal Cond u ct ion R cti fi

— e e
— —
c ati on Al t rn tin g A rc Arc an d Sp rk Vol tage nd
e a s a a
R ecti fyi n g R a nge .
22 .
—
Equati ons Of A rc Condu ctor Carb on A c r
S tabi l i ty Curve
23 E fi ect
.
— e —
Of S ri R esi tanc e Stab ili ty Li mi t St b il i ty Cu rv
es s a es
and a Ch ract i tic Of A rc er s s
24 . Vacuum Arc nd Th i r Ch ract ri tic s a e a e s s
25 . Vol t g G r di nt nd R esis tivi ty

a e a e a
E lectroni c Conducti on
26 . Col d I nc and c nt an d es e —
Termi nals Un idi rectional C o n du c
t ion and R cti fic ati on e .
2 7 To tal Vol t amp r Ch a ract r i t i c

.
- e e e s of Gas and V p r Cond u
a o e
t ion .
28 . M agn i tu d Of R e es is tivity Of D i fi nt Typ of Condu ctor ere es s
R el tion Of S tr
a eak Co ndu cti on Of Py o l ctri c nd Punctu r r e e a e
of I n u l at o rs s
C HA PT E R III . MA GN E T Is mz R E LU C T IV T I Y
Froh l ich nd K nn ll y L w ’
s a e e
’
8 a s
T h e C ri t i c l Poi n ts o B n d an th R l u ct ivi ty Li n f C om r e s I e e e O
m ial M at ri l
erc e a s
Unhomog n i ty Of th M t ri l a C u f th B nd in th
e e e a e a s a se o e e s e
R el u ct ivi ty Li ne
R el u ct ivi ty at L o w Fi l d t h I n w r d B nd nd th R i i ng e s, e a e ,
a e s
M gn tic Ch r ct ri ti c p rt of n Un y mm tric al Hy t
a e a a e s as a a s e s e re
i Cy l
s s c e .
CON T ENT S ix
PA GE
33 . I ndefini tenes s Of th e B H R el at ion-— T h e A l t erna t i n g M gn tica e
C ha racter is i —
t c I ns tab il i ty
C reepage an d
34 .
—
T h e A rea Of B H R el ation I ns tab il i ty Of ex treme V al u es
-
G rad u al A pproach t o th e S tab l e M ag n eti z at ion C u rve .
35 . Produ ction Of Stabl e Val u es b y Sup er pos ition Of Al terna ting -
F i el d —T h e Li nea r R el u ctivi ty L aw of th e S tab l e M agn eti c

C haracteris ti c
C HAP R I V
T E . MA O N E T I SMz H Y S R SI S
T E E
M ol cul a r M gn tic Frict i n nd Hy t r i — M agn tic

e a e o a s e es s e
C r p ge
ee a
A r a Of Hy ter i C yc l
e M u r of Lo
s es s e as ea s e ss
P rc n t g Lo o I n fii i n y Of M gn tic Cycl
e e a e ss r e c e c a e e
Hy t r i L w
s e es s a
P rob bl e Caus Of th I ncr

a of H y t r
e i Lo t H i gh e eas e s e es s ss a
D n i ti s
e s e
Hy t r i at L O
s e es s W Mg n ti c D n i ti a e e s es
m
V riation Of 7and n
a 1
T h Sl op e O f th Log r i th i c Cu rv
e e a e
Dis c u ion Of Ex pon nt n

ss e
Un y mm tric al Hy t r i Cycl n El ctr ic l App r tu

s e s e es s es 1 e a a a s
E qu tions and C l cul t ion of Un ymm tric l Hy t r i

a a a s e a s e es s
Cycl s e
CH AP R V MA G N
T E . ET I SM ! MA GN E T I C C O N ST A S NT
47 T h e
. F rrom gn tic M t l nd Th i r G n r l Ch r ct ri ti c
e a e e a s a e e e a a a e s s
48 . I ron I t Al l y M ix tu r n d Compou nd
,
s o s, es a s .
49 . Cob l t N ic k l M ng n
a ,
n d C hr miu m
e , a a es e a o
50 . T bl Of Con t n t nd Cu rve of M gn tic Ch r ct ri ti c

a e s a s a s a e a a e s s
CH AP R VI MA
T E . GN E T I SM . M C HA E N IC A L F o R C E s
I ndu trial I mpo rtanc Of M ch nic al Forc in M agn ti c

s e e a es e
i
e l — i —
F d Th e r D tru ctiv Eff ct G n r l E qu ati n es e e s e e a o s
T h e C ta t c rr t El ctromagn t I t E qu t i n
on n u n s - — e nd e e s a o s a
C l c u l at i n
a o s
T h e Al t rnat ing c u rr nt El ctr magn t I t Equ t i n I t

e —
- — e e o e s a o s s
E ffi i n y— D i c u ion
c e c s ss
T h e Con tan t pot n ti l A l t rn ti ng c u rr n t El ctr m g n t

s -
e a e a -
e e o a e
a nd I t C l cul ti n
s a a o s
S h ort i rc u i t S tr
-c i n Al t rn t in g c u rr n t T r n form r
es s es e a -
e a s e s
C c t
a l u l i n aof o —
Forc R l tion t L k g R act nc e e a o ea a e e a e
Nu m ri c l I ns t nc e
e a a
R l a t ion Of L k g e R act n c Of T r n f r m r t o Sh ort i

e ea a e a e a s o e -
c r
c t F rc
u i — oC h ng b y R rrang m n t of T r n form r Coi l
es a e e- a e e a s e
G rou p s
x C ON T ENT S
PA GE
57 R . p b tw n Condu ctor nd R tu rn Con du ctor Of

e u ls ion e ee a e
El ctr c C i rc u i t C l c ul tion u nd r Sho rt c i rcu i t Cond i t ion

e i — a a s e -
s
— I n t nc s a e
58 . G n r l E qu t ion Of M ch ni c l Fo rc
e e a a m M g n t i c Fi l d
s e a a es a e e s
Di cu ion
s ss
S E CT I O N II
CH AP R VI I
T E . S HAPI N G OF W A V E s : G E N E RA L
r l A dv nt g Of th Sin W v
T h e G en e a a a e e e a e
Eff ct of Fi l d Fl u x Di trib u tion on Wav Sh pe—Odda

e e nd s e a
Ev n H rmoni c
e a s
R du ction and E l i minat on Of H rmon c

e b y Di tribu t d l a i s s e
Win d i ng
El i min tion Of Harmoni c by Fraction l Pi tch t
a s a , e c
R l tiv Ob j ct ion Of H rmoni c

e a e n d Sp c i fic at ion
e Of Sin a s, a e s e
W v b y Cu rr nt m Cond n r R i t nc
a e e e se es s a e .
Som Typ ic l Cas r qu i ri ng Wav Sh p Di tort ion

e a es e e a e s
CH AP R VIII
T E . S HAPI N G OF W AV E S BY MA N G ET I C S AT U R AT I O N
Cu rr ent Waves Satu r t d Cl o d M g ti c C irc u i t w i th

in
n
a e se a e ,
Sin W v Of I mpr d Vol t g es s e a e
Vol t g W v Of a S tu r t d Cl o d Mgn t ic C i rc ui t
e a e
a e a es a a e se a e
Tr v r d b y Sin Wav Of Cu r n t an d th i r E xc iv
a e se a e e re , e es s e
P ak s
e
Diff r nt V l u Of R act nc Of Cl o d M gn ti c Ci rc u it on
e e a es e a e se a e ,
Con t nt Pot nti l Con t n t Cu rr n t nd P ak Val u s

s a e a ,
s a e a e e
C l c ul t ion f P k V l u nd Form Factor Of Di tort d

a a O ea a e a s e
Wav n Cl o d M gn tic Circ ui t

e I se a e
C l c ul tion Of th Co ffic i nt Of th P k d Vol t g Wv Of

a a e e e s e ea e a e a e
t h C l o d M gn t i c C i rc u i t R
e se ct nc a e ea a e
. Cal c ul ation Of Num ri c l V l u Of th Fou ri r S n Of t h e a a es e e e es e
P ak d Vol t g W v Of a Cl o d M agn ti c Ci rcui t R actor

e e a e a e se e e
R d u ct i on Of Vol t g P aks in Sat u r at d M ag n t i c C i rc u i t

e a e e e e
b y Limi t d Su ppl y Vol tage e
Eff ct Of A i G p in R du c ing S tu r tion P k Of Vol t g in

e r a e a a ea a e
Cl os d M gn ti c C ircu i t
e a e
M gn ti c Ci rc ui t w i th Bri dg d o Parti l A i G p
a e e r a r a
. Cal cul tion Of th Vol t g P ak Of th Brid g d G p nd I t

a e a e e e e a ,
a s
R du ct ion b y a Smal l Unb r i d g d G p

e e a
. Po ibl Dang r and Indu tri l U Of High Vol t g P ak

ss e e s a se a e e s
Th i r Limi t d Pow r Char ct ri ti cs

e e e a e s
C HAPT R I X
E . W AV E S C R E E N S . E VE N H A RM O NIC S
76 R
. du ction Of W v D is tortion b y Wav Scr
e a e e eens — R eac t
anc W v Scr n
e as a e ee
CON T ENT S xi
PA GE
77 . T -conn ec tion o R e onating Ci rcu i t W v Scr n— Num r

r s as a e ee e
i c al I n tan c es s
78 . Wav Scr n S par ti ng (o Comb in in g ) Dir ct Cu rr n t nd

e ee e a r e e a
—
A l te rnat in g Cu rr n t Wav Scr n S p ar ting Compl x e e ee e a e
A l t rn t in g Wav i n to i t H rmoni c
e a e s a s
79 . P odu ction Of Ev n H rmoni c n Cl o ed M agntic C i rcu i t

r e a s I s e
80 . Con cl u ion s s
CH APTE R X I N sT
. A R I L I T x OF CI R CU I T s : T HE A R C
A . Gener al
81 T h e
. Thr ee M a in Typ Of In tab ili ty Of El ctri c Ci rcui ts
es s e
82 . T an i nts
r s e
83 . Un t b l El ctric E qu ili b r u m T h G n ral Condi tion Of

s a e i —e e e e s
s il i —
I n tab ty Of a Sy t m T h Thr D ifi nt Forms Of Ins ta s e e ee
'
ere
b ili ty Of El ctri c C i rc u i t e s
84 . Ci rc u i t El m n ts T n ding to Produ c In tabili ty—T h A rc

e e e e s e
Induction nd Synchronou M otor a s s .
85 . e a e — n i i s a —
P rm n n t I n t b il ity Co d t on Of i t Exi tenc Cumul a s s e
t iv Os c ill tion and Sus t in ed Os cill ations

e a s a .
B T he A
. rc as U ns tab l e Conductor .
86 D ropp g V t mp r Ch ar ct ris ti c Of A an d I ts E qu ti on
. in ol -
a e e a e re a
—S ri es R i t nc and Con di tions Of Stabi l i ty—S tab ili ty
e es s a e
Ch aract ri t i c nd I t E qu tion
e s a s 1 67 a
87 Con d i t i on Of S tab il i ty Of C i rc u i t and S tab ili ty Coe ffi c i n t

. s 1 69 a , e
88 S tab ili ty Con d i ti ons Of A rc on Cons tant Vol tag

. Suppl y e
throu gh S ri R i tanc e e es es s
89 S tab il i ty Cond i t ion Of A re on Con t nt Cu rr nt Su ppl y w i th

. s s a e
S hu n t d R i t nc e es s a e .
90 Par all l O p r t ion Of A rc

. e — Condi tions Of Stab ili ty w i th
e a s
Seri R i t nc es es s a e
9 1 I nv t i g ti on Of t h E fi t Of Shu nt d Capaci ty on a Ci rc ui t
'
. es a e ec e
Trav r d b y Continuou Cu r nt
e se s re
92 C ap c i ty in Shu nt to n A c A ff cting Stabili ty—R esi s tanc e

. a a r ,
e
in S ri s t o C p ci ty
e e a a
93 I nv ti gati on Of th St b il i ty Cond i ti ons Of an A c Shun ted

. es e a r
b y Cap c i ty a
94 Con t i nu d C l c ul t ion
. e nd I nv t i g ti on of Stabili ty Li mi t
a a s a es a
.
95 C ap ac i ty I nd u ct n c
. nd R
,
i tance i n Shunt to Di r ct
a e a es s
e
c u n t Ci rcui t
rre
96 Prod u ction Of O c il l t ion b y Capaci ty I nductance and

s a s
Shunting Di r ct c u rr nt A rc—A rc as Generator

.
,
R es is t an c e e -
e
e —
Of A l t rnatin g c u rr nt Pow r Cumulative Oflcillati ons
- e e
—
Sin gin g Arc R pin g Arc as .
97 I ns t an c
.
— Limi ting R e i t n c Of A c O
e sigil ig fi m : s s a e r
98 T an i nt A c C h r ct ri t i c — C ondi tion Of
i 0
. r s e r
M l lat ion
a a e s s
Limi t t ion Of A mpl itud Of O ci l l tion

99 C l c ul ti on Of Tran si n t A c Cha acteR ati o—
a e s a
101
.
. a a
quan tae e r r
xi i CON T ENT S
PA GE
1 00 . I n tanc Of St b il ity Of Tran mi ion System due to A rc in g

s e a s ss
G rou nd — Conti nuou S ri s Of Su cc iv D i ch a rges s e e ess e s .
10 1 . C umul tive Osc il l t ion in H igh p oten tial Trans form

a a s - e rs
CHAP R XI I N S T E . T AB ILI T Y or C I R CU I T s : I ND UC T I O N A ND S Y C H RO O U S
N N
M O O RST
C . I ns tab i l i ty of I nducti on Motors

1 02 . I t
ns abi li ty Of E ctri c Ci rcui ts by N on el ctri cal C uses
le - e a
I nst bi l i ty Caused b y Sp d torqu Cu rv Of M otor in

a ee - e e
l i —
R e at on t o Load Ins tan c s e
1 03 . Stabil i ty Cond iti ons Of Indu ction M otor on Con tant Torqu s e
—
Lo d Overl oad Cond itions
a
1 04 . Inst bili ty Of In du c ti on M otor s Function Of th Spe d

a a e e
—
Ch a racteri ti c Of th e Load Lo d R qui ring Torq u P o
s a e e r
portion l to Spe d a e
1 05 . Load R equi rin g Torqu Propo rtion l to Sq uar of Sp d e a e ee
F an and P rop l l r e e
D . H u nti ng of S ynchron ou s M achi nes

1 06 O c il l tory Inst bil ity Typi c l Of Synchronou M ch in s
. s a a a s a e
Oscil l atory R ead j ustm nt Of Syn chronou M ach in w i th e s e
Ch ang s of Load s e
1 0 7 I nv t i g t i on Of t h O c il l at i on Of Syn chron ou M ach i n

. es a e s s es
e —
Caus s Of th D mping Cumul tive E fi ct D u to L ag Of
e a a e e
Synchroni ing Forc B hind Po ition z e e s .
1 08 M ath mat i c al Cal c ul at i on s Of Syn chron i in g Pow r n d Of

. e z e a
Condi tions of I nstab il ity Of Synchronous M achine

C H A PTE R XI I . R E AC A N CT E OF I N D UC TI O N A PPAR A T U S
1 09 . I nd u ctan c a Con tant Of Ev ry El ctri c C i rc ui t— M rging

e s s e e e
Of M gn ti c Fi l d Of Ind u ctan ce w i th oth r M gn ti c Fi l d

a e e e a e e s
an d I t s I n d u trial I mp ort an c e R eg a rdi n g Losses

s tc ,
e .
L eakag e F l ux of A l ternati ng- cu rr ent T ra ns or f mer

1 10 . M u tu l M agn ti c Fl u x and Le k ge o R ct nc Fl ux Of
a e a a r ea a e
a —
T r n f orm r R l tion Of Th i r R el u ct nc s
s e e a e a e
111 . V ctor Di gr m Of Tr n form r I n cl udin g M utu l nd

e a a a s e a a
L k g F ux
ea l —
a e Combin tion Of Th Fl uxes a ese es
1 12 . T h C omp on n t M gn ti c Fl u x
e Of th T r n form r nd
e a e es e a s e a
Th i r R e ul t n t Fl ux
e —s M gn ti c Di tri buti on i n Tr n
a es a e s a s
form r at Diff nt Point Of t h Wav

e ere s e e .
1 13 . Symb oli c R pr ntation Of R l tion b tw n M gn ti c

e ese e a e ee a e
Fl ux nd Vol t g in Tr n form r
es a a es a s e
1 14 . A rb i tr ry Divi i on Of T r n form r R
a ct nc into P ri m ry
s a s e ea a e a
a nd S c ond ry — eSubd ivi ion Of R act n c b y A umpti on

a s e a es ss
Of Cor Lo b ing Giv n b y M utu l Fl ux

e ss e e a
1 15 . A u mpt i n Of E q u l ity Of Pri m ry nd S cond a

ss o ry Le k g
a a a e a a e
CON T ENT S x i ii
PA GE
—
Fl ux Cas es Of Inequal i ty Of Primary and S c ond ary R eact e
an c e — Divi sion Of Total R actan ce in Propo tion Of Leakage

e r
Fl u x es
1 16 . i s —
Sub d vi i on Of R eactan c b y T t I mped nc T t and I ts e es a e es
e —
M anin g Pri mary and S c onda y I mp dan c T st and e r e e e
Subd ivi ion Of T otal R ct n c b y I t

s ea a e
M ag neti c Ci rcu i ts of I nducti on M otor

1 1 7 M u tu al Fl u x and R esul tan t Se c ond ary
.
—
Fl ux True I nd uced
V ol t g nd Ra e a es i s tanc e D rop
Fl ux nd Vol tages— M agneti c es a
Of I nd u ction M otor
1 18 . Appl i c tion Of M thod Of T ru I nduced Vol tag and R e
a e e e,
s ul t n t M gn t i c Fl u xes to S ymb ol i c Cal c ul ati on O f Pol y

a a e ,
p ha Indu cti on M otor

se
C H A PT E R X III . R E AC A NC E
T OF S Y C H RO N O S MAC H I E S
N U N
1 19 r
A ma u e R ea an et r ct i el d F x Ar t r F x
lu , ma u e lu—
c Fand
t t F x—
.
R esu l an lu g t t
I ts E fi ects : Dema ne i z a ion and D is tor
'
t ion, i n D ifi erent R el a i e tv P t i
osi ons — C rr p
o es on d in M mfg . .
C t
omb in a i ons : M m f Of F d
i el and Coun e
. tr. . f O
A r m tu r a — Eff ect on R ul t n t and on Le k g Fl ux
e es a a a e
1 20 Corr pondin g Th ori : Th t Of S ynchronou R act nce and

es e es a s e a
—
.
th at of A rm tur R action Di cus ion Of Advant ges and Of

a e e s s a
Limitat ion Of Synchronous R eactance and of A rmat u r e
R e ct ion Con c ept i on

a .
121 . Tru S l f ind uctiv Fl ux Of A rmature and M u tu l Inductiv

e e -
e a e
Fl ux w ith Fi l d Circuit —Con tancy Of M u tual Indu ctiv

,
e s e
Fl ux in Pol yph se M achin in St tionary Cond ition Of Load

a e a
E fi t Of M u tual Fl u x on Fi l d C i rcui t i n Tran i n t Con d i t i on

ec e s e
—
Of Load Ov r s h ooting Of C u r nt at Sudd n Change and
e - re e ,
M om nt ry Sh ort c i rc ui t Cu rr nt
e a ~
e
Subd ivi ion Of A rmature R actanc in Sel f ind u ctive and

s e e -
M utu l I nductiv R act n c Necess ry in Tr nsi ent

a e e a e a a s,
R epr n t i n g I ns t ant an ou an d G radual Eff ect

es e — Numeri cal
e s s
i —
Proport ons Squi rr l C g e a e
Tr a n i n s e n —
t R cta ce Eff ct Of Const nt Of Fi l d Ci rcu i t
ea e a s e
on A rm at u r Ci rcui t d u ring T ran i nt—T ransi ent R eact

e s e
an c e i n H u n t ing Of Synchron ou M a ch ines s
Doubl Fr q u nc y Pul s tion Of Fi l d i n Sin gl ph M ach in

e e e a e e- as e e,
o rPo yph
l ase —
M ach ine on Unbal anc d Lo d Thi rd Ha e a r
moni c Vol t g P rod u c ed b y M u tual R eact n c

a e a e
125 . Cal cul ation Of Ph a e Vol t g nd T rminal Vol tag Wav Of

s a e a e e es
Thr ph ee-
a M c hine at
a se B l n c ed Load — C n c l l ation Of a a a e
Th ird H rmoni c a s
126 . Cal c ul tion Of Ph a e Vol t g nd T rminal Vol t g W v Of

a s a e a e a e a es
Thr ph e M achine at Unb l nc d Load App r nc Of

ee- as — a a e ea a e
Th ird H rmonic in Oppo i tion to Each Oth r i n L o d d nd

a s s e a e a
U nl d d Ph ea e —E qu l t o Fund m ntal t Sh ort C irc u i t

ases a a e a
x iv CON T ENT S
PA GE
S E CT I O N III
CH AP R XI V
T E . C O N ST AN T POT E NT I A L C O N ST AN T C U RR E N T T RAN S
F ORMA I O N
T
Constant C urrent i n A re t o Con s tan t —

Li ghting Tend en cy
Cu rrent in Line R egul ati on
Constan t Cu rrent b y Ind uct ive R eactan ce N on ind u ctive ,
-
R ec eive r C i rc u i t
Const ant Cu rrent by In du ctive R eactance Ind uctive ,
R c v r Ci rcui t
e ei e
Con t nt Cu rr nt b y V ri bl I n
s a d u ctiv R ct nce
e a a e e ea a
Con t n t Cu rr nt b y Seri C p c i ty w i th Ind u cti C i

s a e es a a ,
ve r
cui t
Con tant Cu rr nt by R on n c
s e es a e
T C on n ct i on
-
e
M on ocyc l ic Squ r a e
T Con n cti on o R
- on t i n g C i rc u i t : G n r l E q u t i on
e r es a e e a a
E x mpl a e
App r tu Economy Of t h D vi c
a a s e e e .
En rgy Lo
e n th R ct n c ss es I e ea a es
E x mp la e .
Eff ct of V riation Of Fr qu n cy
e a e e
Monocycl i c Squ r : G n ral E qu tion a e e e a s
Pow r nd A pp ratu Ec onomy

e a a s
Ex mpl a e
Pow r Lo en R eact n c ss es l a es
Ex mpl a e
G n r l Di c u i on : C
e e a h r cter Of T ran form tion by Pow r
s ss a a s a e
Stor g n R actanc
a e l e es
R l t ion Of Pow r S torag t o App r t u Econ omy Of D i f

e a e e a a s
f et cn t Comb in t i on a s
. In rti on Of Pol yph

se m f an d I n cr Of App r tu
ase e . . s . eas e a a s
Economy
Probl m and Sy t m fo Inv tig tion
e s s e s r es a
Som Fu rth r Probl m

e e e s
Eff ct Of Di tort ion Of Impr d Vol t g W v

e s ess e a e a e
Di to rt d Vol t g on T Conn ction

s e a e -
e s .
Di torted Vol t g on M onocycl ic S qu r

s a e a e
G n ral Con cl u ion

e e nd P robl m s s a e s .
C HAP R XV C O N S
T E . T A NT A
POTE N TI L S E RI E S O P RA I O
E T N
155 Cond ition Of S ries Op ration R eactor Sh unt Protect iv

. e e . as e
Devi ce St t Li ghtin g . ree .
1 56 Con t nt R ea ctan c Of Sh un t d R ea ctor n d I t L i mi t t i ons

. s a e e ,
a s a
1 5 7 R e g ul at i on by S t u rat i on Of Sh u n t d R a ct or
. a e e .
1 5 8 Di c uss i on
. s
CON T E N T ‘s XV
1 59 . Cal cul ation Of I nstance

1 60
—
Approximation Of E fi ct Of Lin I mpedan ce nd Leakag
'
. e e a e
R ea ct an c e I nst an c e
161 . Cal cul ation Of Eff ect of Lin I mpedanc e and L akag e e e
R e ct an c e
a
E fi t Of Wave Sh a p Di s tort i on b y Satu ration Of R eacto r

'
1 62 . ec e
on R egul at i on— I nst an c e
CH AP R XV I
T E . L O A D BA L A NC E OF PO L Y PHAS E SYS T E M S
Continuous and A l ternatin g Comp onen t of Fl ow Of Pow er

E fi ect Of A l ternat in g Compon en t on R egul at ion and E ffi
cien cy— Bal an c e by Energy St orin g Devi c es
Pow er E quation Of Sin gle phase Ci rcui t -
Pow er Equation Of Pol yphase Ci rcui t

Bal an c e O f Ci rcui t b y R eact or in C i rc ui t Of Compen s at i n g
Vol t ge a
Bal n c b y Capac i ty in Comp n t i n g Ci rc u i t

a e e sa
—
.
I t c e Of Qua t p
n a
s n h Syst m G n ral Equ tion nd
r er ase e e e a s a
N on in du ctive Load
-
Qu t rph ase Sy t m : Ph e Of Compen at ing V ol t g

ar e s e tas s a e a
I ndu ctive Load and Pow r F ct or Of Sys t m

,
e a e
Q u t p h
a r er
as e S y t m : T w o C om p
s en at in g V ol t g of e s a es
Fi x d Ph ase A n gl e
e
B l n c Of Three ph a
a a e —
Sy t m C oeffi i nt Of Unb l n c ing
- se s e c e a a
a t Con t nt Ph ase A n gl Of Comp n sati n g Vol ta g

s a e e e 3 26
CH AP R XV II CI RC UI TS W I
T E . T H D I ST R I B U TE D LE K A AG E
Indus trial Existence of Condu ctor w ith Dis tribut d Leakag e s e
—
Leaky M ain Condu ctor C u rren ts I ndu ced i n Lead Armor
s s
— C on d uct ors Travers d b y S tray R il w ay Cu rren ts
e a
Gen ral E quat ions Of Di r ct Cu rr n t in Leak y Con du ctor

e e e
I n fin i t l y Long Leak y Con du ct or and I ts E quival nt R

e i t e es s
a c
n — e e —
Op n C i rc uited L ak y Cond uctor Ground d C on e e
—
du ctor Leak y Condu ctor Cl osed by R esistance
A tt n uat i on Constant Of Leak y Con d u ct or—Out fl ow in g an d
e
R et u rn Cu rrent —R efl e t i on at E nd of Leak y C ond u ct or

c
I ns tan c e O f Pr ot ct ive G round Wi re Of Transmi i on Lines

e ss
- —
Leak y A l ternatin g c u rr nt Con du ctor General E qu ati ons
e
Of Cu rren t i n Leak y Condu ctor Having I mpr ss d and e e
I ndu c d A l ternating Vol tage

e
E quations Of Leak age Cu r ent in Condu ctor D ue to I nd uc d r e
Al tern ting Vol tag : L ad A rmor Of Sin gl e Condu ctor A I

a e e
t m at ing c u rrent C abl

e - — Sp cial C as s e e e .
In t nce O f G rounded L ad Armor Of Al t rnating c u r n t

s a e e - re
Cab l e
Grou nd ed Cond u ct or C rry in g R ail w ay Stray Cu rr n t
a e s
Ins tan ce
CON T E N T S
CH APT R XVIII
E . OS CI L L A I NG
T C U RR E NT S
In troducti on
Gen ral E quati ons
e
Pol ar CoO di nat s r e
L od romi c Spi ral
I mped an ce and A d mi ttan c e
Indu ctance
C p aci ty
a
Imp dan c
e e
A d mi tt n c e
a
Condu ct nc and Susc pt n c

a e e a e .
Ci rc ui t Of Z ro I mp d nc
s e e a e
Contin u d e
Ori gin Of O cil l ting Cu rr nt

s a e s
Oscil l ating Di ch rg s a e .
I ND Ex
T H E O R Y A N D CA L CU L A T I O N O F
E L E CT R I C C I R CU I T S
S E C T I ON I
C HA PT E R I
E L E CT R I C C O ND U CT I O N S OL ID . A ND L I Q U I D
C O ND U CT O R S
1 . W h en electric power flows through a circuit , find phe we

nomen a takin g plac e out sid e Of t h e conductor which directs th e
fl ow Of power and als o in sid e thereof

, T he ph enomena out sid e
.
Of th e conductor are conditions Of stress in space which are called

t h e el ectric field the tw o main compon ents Of the el ectric field
,
b e ing the electromagn etic compon ent characterized by th e cir

,
c uit con s tant inductanc e L and the electrostatic compon ent

, , ,
c haract eriz ed by the el ectric circ u it con s tant capacity C I n si d e , .
O f t h e conductor w e fi nd a conv ers ion Of en ergy into heat ; th at is ,
e le ctric pow er i s con s umed in the conductor b y what may b e
co ns id ered as a kind Of r es is tanc e Of th e conductor to the fl ow Of
e l e ctric power and so w e s p eak Of res i s tanc e of th e conductor as

,
a n el ectric q uantity repres e nting t h e power con sumption in t h e

,
c o nductor .
E le ctric conductors have b een cl assi fi ed and divid ed into dis

t i nct groups We must real ize howev er that th ere are no dis
.
, ,
t i n ct cl asses in nature b ut a gradual tran sition from typ e to typ e

, .
M etall i c Conductor s
2 . fi rs t class Of conductors are the metallic conductors
T he .
—
T hey can b es t b e characteriz ed by a n egative stat em ent that is ,
metallic conductors are tho se conductors in which th e conduction

O f th e electric current conv ert s en ergy i nto no oth er form but h eat .
T hat is a con sumption of power tak es plac e in the metallic con

,
2 E LE C T R I C CI R C U I T S
ductors by convers ion i nto hea t and in to heat onl y I ndirectl y

,
.
,
w e may g et light if the hea t p roduced raises th e te m pe rat ure

,
h igh enough to g et vis i ble radi at i on as i n th e i ncan des cent l am p

filament but thi s radiati on is produced from hea t and dire ctl y
, ,
the convers i on Of electric energy ta kes plac e into h eat M os t .
Of the m etall ic conduct o rs cov er as regar ds thei r s pe cific res is t

,
ance a rather narrow ran ge betw een about

, , microh m cm -
.
X ,
—
for copper to about 1 00 microh m c m for cast iron .
,
mercury high res is tance all oys etc T hey therefore cov er a
,
-
,
.
, ,
range Of less than 1 to 1 00 .
FI G . 1 .
A characteristic of m etallic conductors i s that the resi stance

i s appro x imat ely con stant varying onl y sl ightly with th e tem
,
p erat u re and,
thi s variation i s a ri se of r es is tanc e with incr ea se
—
Of temperature that i s th ey have a positive temp erature co
,
effici ent . I n t he pure m etals th e resi stanc e appar entl y i s ap

,
proximately proportional to the absolute temperature that is —

,
the t emp erature co effici ent Of res istanc e is con s tant and s uch that
the resis tanc e plott ed as function O f the t emp erature i s a s tra i ght
line which points toward the absolute z ero of temperature or , ,
i n oth er word s which prolonged backward toward fall ing tem

, ,
4 E LEC T R I C CI R C U I T S
nin e times i ts cold res is t an ce i n the vac u um l amp twelve times in ,
the g as fil l ed l amp
-
.
T hus th e m etallic conductors are th e mo st important T he y .
requi re li ttle dis cussion due to th eir constancy and absence Of

,
se condary en ergy tran s formation .
I ron makes an ex c eption among th e pure m etals in that it h as ,
an abnormall y high temperature coefficient about 30 per cent , .
h igh er than other pure metals and at red h eat when approaching, ,
th e t emp erature wh ere th e iron c eases t o b e magn etizabl e t h e ,
temperature coefficient b ecom es stil l high er until the t emperature ,
i s reach ed wh ere t h e iron c eases to b e magn etic A t t h is poi n t .
i ts t emp erature co efficient becomes that Of oth er pure metal s .
—
I ron wire us ually mount ed in hydrogen to keep it from o x i dizin g
thus find s a u se as seri es resi stance for current limi tation i n
vacuum arc circuits etc ,
.
E l ectr ol yti c Conductors
4 T he
. conductors of the second cl ass are the electrol yt ic
conductors T h ei r characteristi c i s that the conduct i on i s ac
.
compani ed by ch emi cal action T he s pecific resistance Of elec .
t rol yt i c conductors in gen eral i s about a million tim es high er than

that of the metallic conductors T h ey are eith er fused compounds
.
,
or s ol ution s Of compound s in solv ent s ranging in res is tivity from ,
O h m cm -
in 30 per c ent nitric acid and still lower in fused
.
, .
,
s alt s t o about
, Ohm cm in pure river water and from there
-
.
,
up to infinity (di still ed water al cohol O il s ,

T h ey are all
, ,
li quid s and when frozen b ecome in sul ators

,
.
C haract eristic Of th e el ectrolyt i c conductors i s th e n egative tem

p e rat u r e coefi ci ent O f res i s tanc e ; t h e res i s tanc e d e cr ea s es with i n
creas i ng temperaturc not i n a strai ght but in a curved l in e as

b
, ,
i llustrat ed by curv es I I I in F i g 1 . .
Wh en d ealing wi th el ectrical res is tances in many cas es it i s ,
more conveni ent and gives a b etter ins ight into th e character Of
t h e conductor by not con s id erin g th e res i stanc e as a function Of
,
the t emp erature but t he vol tage con sum ed by t h e conductor as a

,
functi on Of the current und er s tationary condition I n th i s case .

,
with increas ing current and so increas ing power con s umption
, ,
the t emperature als o rises and th e curv e Of vol tage for increas i n g
,
current so ill ustrates the el ectri cal eff ect of i ncreasing tempera
ture T h e advantage Of thi s m ethod i s that in many cases w e g et
.
ELEC T R I C CON D U CT I ON 5
a bett er v iew Of the action Of the con ductor in an electri c circuit

by el i minatin g the temperature and relating only electrical q uan
,
t ities with each other S uch volt ampere characteristics Of elec

.
-
t ric conductors can eas ily and very accurately b e determined ,
and if d es ired by the radiation law appro x imat e values of the

, ,
tempe rat ure b e d erived and th erefrom th e temperature resis t

,
-
anc e curv e calculated while a direct meas urem ent of the res is t
,
FI G . 2 .
c
an e o e v r a very wide range of temperature i s ex tremely di ffic ult ,
a nd Oft en no more accurate .
I n F i g 2 th erefore are shown s uch vo l t amp ere charact eri s tic s

.
, ,
-
O f conductors . T he dotted s traight lin e is th e curve of ab solutel y

c ons tan t res is tanc e which does not ex i st
, C urves I and I I s how
.
c ha ract eris tic s Of m etall ic conductors curve I I I Of electrolytic

,
c onducto rs . A s seen for high er currents I and I I ri se fa ster and

, ,
I I I sl ow er than for l ow current s .

It must b e real ized however that the volt ampere character

, ,
-
i sti c d ep end s not onl y on th e mat eri al Of th e conductor as th e ,
t emperature resis tivity curve but al so on the si ze and s hape Of

-
,
the conductor and i ts s urround i ngs ,

F or a long and thin con .
ductor in horizontal position in air it woul d b e materially di ff er ,
ent num erically from that Of a s hort and thick conductor in di f
f er ent position at di ff erent s urrounding t emp erature H ow eve r .

,
qual itativel y it would have the s ame characteris tic s th e s ame ,
characteristic d eviati on from s traight lin e etc m erel y s hi ft ed in ,

.
,
th eir num erical values T hus it charact erizes th e gen eral nature
.
of the conductor but w h ere compari son s b etween diff erent con
,
ductor material s are required ei th er th ey have to b e used in th e ,
s am e s hape and po sition when d etermining their volt ampere ,

-
characteristics or the volt ampere characteri stics have to b e r e

,
-
du ced to th e res i stivity t emperature characteris tic s T h e volt

-
;
ampere characteristic s b ecome Of s pecial importanc e with those

conductors to whi ch the term resistivity is not physi cal ly app l i
,
cabl e and therefore th e eff ective resi stivity i s Of littl e m eani ng

, ,
as in g as and vapor conduction (arc s ,
5 T h e electrolyt ic conductor i s charact eriz ed by ch e mical

.
action accompanying the conduction T his ch emical action .
fol lows F araday s law : ’
T he mount of chem
a i ca l acti on i s prop orti ona l to the cu rr en t and
to the chemi cal equ i valent of the reacti on .
T he product of the reaction appears at th e termi nal s or elec

trodes between th e electrol ytic conductor or electrol yte
,
“ ”
,
and th e metall i c conductors A pproxi matel y mg of hydro .

,
.
g en ar e prod u c e d p er coulomb or amp e r e se cond F rom th i s -

.
el ectroch emical equival ent Of hydrogen all oth er ch emical r eac ,
tions can eas il y b e cal culated from atomic w eight and val ency .
F or in s tanc e copper with atomic w eight 63 and val ency 2 h as

, , ,
the equival ent and copper th erefore i s d epo sited at

the n egative t erminal or cathod e or dissol ved at th e positive ,
termi nal or anode at th e rate Of

“
mg per ampere s econd ;
,
.
-
al u minum atomic weight 28 and valency 3 at the rate Of

, ,
mg per ampere second etc

.
-
,
.
T he ch emical reaction at the el ectrod es represent s an en ergy

transformation b et w een electri cal and ch emical en ergy and as ,
the rate Of el ectrical en ergy s upp l y i s gi ven by current tim es v ol

tage it fol lows that a vol tage drop or potent ial di ff erence occu rs
,
at the electrod es in th e electrolyte T h is is i n oppo si ti on to the .

E LE C T R I C CON D U C T I ON 7
u nt or a cou nter
c rre ,
th e c ounter e m f Of electrochem . . .
ical pola riz ati on and thus cons umes energy if th e ch emi cal
, ,
—
reaction req uires energy as the d eposition Of copper from a s olu
tion Of a copper sal t I t is in the same direction as the current
.
,
thus producing electric en ergy if the chemical reaction produces ,
e n ergy as th e d i ss olution Of coppe r from t h e anod e

,
.
A s th e ch emical reaction and th erefore t he energy req uired for ,
i t is proportional to th e current th e pot ential drop at th e elec

, ,
t rod es is ind epend ent Oi the current d en s ity or con s tant for the ,
s am e ch emical reaction and t emperature ex c ept in s o far as sec ,
on da ry reaction s int e rfere I t can b e calculat ed from th e chem

.
ical en ergy Of the reaction and the amount Of chemical reaction ,
as g iv en b y F araday s law F or in s tance : 1 amp s ec d epo si ts

’
-
. .
mg copper T he voltage drop e or pol arization vol tage

. .
, , ,
t hus mus t b e s uch that e vol ts t i m es 1 amp sec or e watt sec or .

-
. .
- .
j o ul es ,eq ual s t h e ch emical r eaction en ergy o f mg copp er i n .
c om b in in g to th e compound from which it i s d epo s it ed i n t h e
el ectrolyt e .
I f th e tw o electrod es are th e s am e and in th e same electrolyt e

a t t h e s am e t emp erature and no secondary react i on occurs th e
, ,
r eaction s are th e s am e but i n oppo si t e direct i on at th e two el ec
t rod es as d epos ition Of copp er from a c opp er s ulphate s olution

,
a t th e cathod e s ol ution Of copp er at th e anod e

,
I n this cas e th e .
,
t w o potential diff erences are equal and Oppos ite th eir res ultant ,
t h us z ero and it is said that no polarization occurs

“
.
,
I f th e tw o reaction s at th e anod e and cathod e are diff erent as ,
t h e diss olution of zinc at th e anod e th e d epos ition Of copp er at ,
t he cathode or the production Of o x ygen at th e (carbon ) anode

, ,
a nd the d eposition O f z i nc at th e cathod e th en the t w o pot ential ,
d ifi erences are un equal and a resul tant remain s T his may b e .
i n the sa m e dire ction as th e current producing el ectric en ergy or , ,
i n the oppos ite d i r ection con s umin g electric en ergy , I n th e firs t .
c as e copper d epos ition and z i nc d i ss ol ution t h e ch emical en ergy

, ,
set free by th e d i ss ol ution Of t h e zinc and th e voltage produc ed by
it is greater than th e ch emical en ergy cons um ed in th e d eposition

,
Of the copper and the vol tage con s um ed by it and the resultant
, ,
Of th e tw o potential diff erenc es at the electrodes thus i s in the

same dire ction as t he current h enc e may produc e t hi s current ,
.
Such a d ev ic e th en tran sform s ch em i cal en ergy into el ectri cal

, ,
en ergy and i s call ed a pri mary cel l and a numb er Of th em a

, ,
b attery I n the second cas e z i nc d e po si tion and ox ygen produ c

.
,
8 ELE C T R I C CI R C U I T S
tion at the an ode the res ultant of the tw o potential diff erences at
,
the electrod es i s in Oppo sition to t h e current ; that i s the d ev ice ,
consumes electric energ y and converts it into chemical energy as ,
electrol yti c cel l .
B oth arrangements are ex ten sively u sed : the battery for pro
ducing el ectric power es pecially in s mall amounts as for hand
, ,
lamps th e operation of house bells etc T he electrolytic c ell is

, , .
used ex t en sively in th e indus tries for the production of m etals
as aluminum magn es ium cal cium et c for refining of m etal s as

, , , .
,
Copper e t c and con stitut es one of th e mo st important indu strial

,
.
,
appl ications of el ectric power .
A d evic e which can efficiently b e used al t ernat ely as batt ery ,
and as electrolytic c ell is the secondary cell or storag e b attery

, .
T hus in th e l ead storage b attery wh en dis charging the ch emical , ,
reaction at th e anod e is conversion Of lead peroxid e into lead ox ide ,
at th e cathode the convers ion of l ead into lead oxid e ; in charging ,
the revers e reaction occurs .
6 S pe cifically as polarization c ell i s und erstood a combina

” “
.
,
tion Of electrolytic conductor with two electrodes of such char ,
acter that no permanent change occurs during the passage Of the

current Such for instance consi sts of tw o platinum electrod es
.
, ,
in diluted sulphuric acid D uring the p as sage of th e current .

,
hydrogen is given off at the cathode and oxygen at the anod e but ,
termin al s and electrolyte remain th e same (ass uming that th e

s mall amount of diss ociat ed wate r i s replac ed ) .
I n s uch a polarization c el l if eo counter e m f of polarization ,

. . .
( corre s ponding t o t h e ch emica l en ergy of di ss ociation of wat er ,
and approx imately vol ts ) at constant t emperature and thus

con s tan t r es i s tanc e of t h e el ectrol y te th e current i i s proportional , , ,
to th e voltage e minus th e count er e m f of polarization eo

, ,
. . .
,
In uch a cas e the curve I I I of F ig 2 would with d ecreas ing

s .
current not g o down to z ero vol ts but would reach z ero amperes ,
at a voltage e e and its lower part would have t h e s hape as

a,
s hown in F i g 3 T hat is th e current b egin s at voltage eo and

. .
, , ,
below this voltage only a very s mall diff usion current flows
,
” “
.
When d ealing with electrol ytic conductors as wh en m easuring ,
th eir resis tanc e the counter e m f of polarization thu s must b e

,
. . .
considered and with impress ed v ol tages l ess than the polari zation
,
E LE CT RI C CON D U C T I ON 9
voltage no permanent c u rrent flows thro ugh the electrolyt e or

, ,
rather onl y a very s mall leakage current or di ff usi on cur

” “ ’
rent as s hown i n F i g 3 When closi ng the circui t however a

,
. .
, ,
trans i ent current flows A t th e mom ent of circuit cl osing no

.
,
counter e m f exis ts and current flows under the full impress ed

. . .
,
v oltage T his current however electrolyticall y produces a hy

.
, ,
drogen and an oxygen fil m at the electrodes and with their grad ,
ual formation t he co u nt er e m f of polarization in creas es and de

,
. . .
creas es the current until it finally s tops it T he duration of this

,
.
trans i ent depends on the resistance of the electrolyt e and on the

s u rfac e of th e el ectrod es b ut us u ally i s fairly s hort ,
.
7 T h i s trans i ent b ecomes a p ermanent with alternatin g i m

.
p resse d vo l tag e T h u s wh en
. a n alt ernating vo l
,
tag e of a ma x i ,
FI G . 3 .
mum value lower than the polarization voltage is impress ed ,
u pon an el ectrolytic c el l an alt ernating current flows through th e

,
cell,
which prod uc es the hydrogen and ox ygen fil ms whi ch hold
b ack t h e c u rrent fl ow by th eir co unter e m f T h e c u rrent thus . . .
fl ow s ah ead of th e vol tage or co u nter e m f which it prod u c es . . .

,
as a l eading current and th e pol ari zation c ell th us acts l i ke a

,
c ond en s er and i s cal l ed an el ectrol ytic cond en s er I t h as an

” “
.
,
enormous el ectros tatic capacity or eff ectiv e capacity b u t can “

, ,
s tand l ow v oltage only

— 1 vol t or l ess — and th erefore i s Of
limi ted i ndus trial v alue A s ch emi cal action requ ires appreciabl e
.
time such el ectrol yt i c condensers sho w at commercial frequencies

,
”
high losses of power by what may b e call ed ch em i cal hys teresis ,
and th erefore l ow efii ciences b ut th ey are all eged to become ,
effi ci ent at very l ow freq uenc i es F or th is reas on th ey have .

,
been preposed in the secondaries of ind u ction motors for power ,
factor compens ation I ron pl at es in al kaline s ol ution as sod i um

.
,
carbonat e are Often consi dered for this purpos e

,
.
N OT E — T h e al u minum c el l con s isting of tw o al u minum plates

.
,
with an electrol yte which does not attack al umin um Often is ,
called an electrolytic cond enser as its current i s l eadi n g ; that is , ,
i t act s as capac i ty I t i s how ev er not an electro l ytic cond enser

.
, , ,
and the counter which gi ves the capacity eff ect is not ,
el ectrolytic polari zation T h e al uminum c ell i s a tru e electro

.
s tat i c cond en s er in which th e fil m of al u mi na form ed on th e

, ,
pos it ive alu minum pl at es i s th e diel ectri c I ts charact eri s tic is

, .
,
that the cond enser i s sel f heal l ng ; that is a punct ure of th e alum
-
,
ina fil m caus es a c urrent to flow whi ch el ectrol ytical ly prod u c es ,
al u m i na at t h e punct u re hol e and s o c l o s es it T h e capacity i s

, .
very h i gh due to th e great thinn ess of th e fil m b ut the en ergy

, ,
losses are con s iderabl e due to the cont i n ual puncture and repai r
,
of the d iel ectri c fil m .
Pyr o el ectri c Conductor s
8 A
. third cl as s Of conductors are the pyroelectri c conductors or
p yr oe l ectr ol ytes I n s om.e f eat u r es th ey are int erm ediat e b etw een
the m etalli c con du ctors and th e el ectro l yt es but in th eir ess en ,
tial characteristi cs they are outs i de of the range of eith er T h e .
metal l i c condu ctors as wel l as th e el ectrol ytic cond u ctors giv e a

volt ampere charact eristi c in which with increase Of c urrent the
-
, ,
voltage rises fast er than th e c urrent in th e m etal l ic cond u ctors

, ,
du e to th eir po s itive t emperat u re co effi c i ent sl ow er than t h e ,
current in th e el ectrol yt es due to th eir n egati ve temperat u re

,
coeffic ient .
T h e charact eris tic of th e pyro el ectric cond u ctors h ow ev er , ,
i s s u ch a v ery hi gh n egat i ve t emperat u re co effici ent O f res is tanc e ,
that is su ch rapi d d ecreas e O f res is tanc e with increas e of tempera

,
ture that over a wide range of c u rrent th e vo l tage d ecrea ses w ith
,
increase of cu rrent T heir vol t ampere characteris tic thus h as a

.
-
s hape as s hown d i agrammaticall y in F i g 4 — thou gh not al l su ch .
condu ctors may show the compl ete curv e or parts of the c urve ,
may b e physicall y unattainabl e : for smal l c urrents range ,
the voltage increases appro x imat el y proportional to th e c u rrent ,
and s om etim es slightly faster showing the positive t emperature ,
coefi ci ent of metalli c conduct i on A t a th e t emp erat u re coeffi .

because th e maximum v oltage point b is so hi g h that dis rupti v e ,
dis charge occurs before it is rea ched S uch for ins tance is th e .
case in glas s the N erns t lamp conductor et c

, , .
9 T h e curve F i g 3 is draw n only diag rammati cally and th e

.
,
.
, ,
lower current range ex agg erated to sh ow the characteris tics

, .
U s ually th e current at point b is v ery s mall compared with that

at point c ; rarely more than one hundredth Of it and th e actual
-
,
proportions more nearly represented by F ig 5 W ith pyro . .
el ectric conductors Of v ery high valu e of th e v ol tag e b t h e cur ,
rents ln the range (1 ) and (2) may not ex ceed one mill ionth Of -
that at T herefore s uch volt ampere chara cteris tics are

,
-
FI G . 5 .
Oft en pl otted wi th x/ i as abs ciss a) to s ho w the ranges in better

,
proporti on s.
Pyro el ectric cond u ctors are metallic s ilicon b oron s ome , ,
forms of carbon as anthrac ite many metalli c oxid es es pecially

, ,
those of th e formul a M M 2 0 wh ere M i s a bival ent

‘ ) “z) “ )
4,
m
,
M a trival ent m etal (magn etit e chromi te) m etallic sul phid es
, , ,
s ilicat es s u ch as gl as s ma ny s al t s et c
, ,
.
I nt i mat e mix t u res of cond u ctors as grap hite co ke powd ered

, , ,
metal with non conductors as cl ay carborund um c em ent also

,
-
, , ,
have pyro el ectri c cond u ction S uch are used for instance as
.
, ,
resistanc e rods in l ight ning arresters i n s om e rh eostats as

”
, ,
ce ment i tances for high frequency power diss ipation in re

res s -
'
a ct a ces et c
n , . n —
Many if ot all s o called ins ul ators probably
,
” “
a re i n real ity pyroel e ctric con ducto rs i n which t h e max imum ,
v oltag e p oint b i s s o high that t h e range (3 ) of d ecreas in g charac

,
t eri s ti c can b e reach ed only by the application of ex t ernal h eat ,
as i n t h e N ern s t lamp conductor or can not b e reach ed at all , ,
b e c a us e ch emical di ss ociation b eg in s b elow i ts t emperat u re as ,
i n organi c i ns ul ators .
F i g 6 s hows th e volt ampere charact eri stics of tw o rod s of

.
-
,
cas t s ilicon 1 0 in long and

, . in in diam eter with \/i as ab .
,
FI G . 6 .
s c issaa and 7 their appro imat e t emp eratur res is tanc e

F ig . x e-
ch aract eris tic s T h e c urv e I I of F i g 7i s replott ed in F i g 8

. . .
,
w ith l og r as ordinat es Wh ere th e res is tivity vari es over a v ery

.
w ide range it oft en i s preferab l e to plot th e l ogarithm O f t h e

,
resis tivity I t i s int eres t i ng to not e that t h e range (3 ) of c u rv e

.
I I b etween 7 00 and is with i n th e errors of Ob servation

°
,
repres ent ed by th e ex press ion
9 08 0
r O O1 E
.
T
h r
w e e T i s the ab s olut e t emp erat u re —27
3 C
°
. z ero point)
as .
T h e di fi eren ce b etw een t h e two si l i con rods i s ,

that th e one con
tains p er c ent t h e oth er.only

, p er c e nt carbon ; bes i d es .
this the impuriti es are les s than 1 per cent

, .
A s seen in th es e s il i con rod s th e ra nge (4) i s not yet reach ed at

,
the m elting point .
_
F i g 9 show s th e volt ampere characteri st i c with \/i as ab s ci s
.
-
,
s ae and F i g
, 1 0 th e appro x imat e resi stanc e t emp erature char
.
FIG . 7
.
derived th erefrom w ith log r as ordinat es Of a magnetic

acteris ti c , ,
rod 6 in long and . in in diamet er con s i s ti ng Of 9 0 per c ent

.
, .
magn eti te (F e30 ) 9 per c ent chromite (F C CI 0 ) and 1 p er c ent

4 , .
'
2 4 .
sodium s ili cat e sint ered togeth er

,
.
10 A S res ult of th es e vo l t amp ere charact eri s t i c s F i gs 4 to

.
-
,
.
1 0 pyroelectric conducto rs as stru ct u ral el em ents of an el e ctric

,
circuit show some very in teresti ng eff ects wh i ch may b e il lus ,

E LE C T R I C CON D U CT I ON 15
trated on t he magnet it e rod F ig 9 T h e m axi mum terminal v ol

,
. .
tage which can ex ist acro ss this rod i n stati onary conditions is
, ,
25 vo l ts at 1 amp W ith i ncreasi ng t ermi nal vol tage the current

.
,
thu s grad u all y increases u nt il 25 vol ts is reach ed and th en with

, ,
out fu rth er increas e of t h e i mpress ed vol tage t h e current rapid l y
ris es to s hort circ uit val ues T h us such resi stances can b e used
-
.
,
as e x c es s vo l tage c uto u t or w h en conn ect ed b et w een circuit and

-
, ,
gro u nd as ex c ess vol tage ground i ng d evi c e : below 24 volts it

,
-
,
FI G . 8 .
bypasses a n eg l ig ible current only but if the v oltage rises above

,
25 vol ts it s hort circ ui ts t he voltage and so s to ps a fu rth er rise or

,
-
,
Operates t h e c i rc uit brea k er etc

-
A s the d ecrease of res is tance is
.
,
the res ul t O f temperature rise it is not ins tantan eous thus the rod
, ;
does not rea ct on t rans i ent v oltage ris es but only on lasting ones .
,
Wl thin a cons i derable v oltag e range— between 1 6 and 25 vol ts

“
three v alues of current ex is t for the same te rm i nal voltag e .
T hus at 20 volts between t he te rmina ls of t he rod in F ig 9 the .

,
current ma m m i
y b e a p or am.
p ,or 36 a p T ha t is n .
,
. ,
se ri es in a constant current c i rcuit of

-
amp thi s rod woul d
—
.
show t h e s am t rminal vo tag as in a

e e l e amp or a 3 6 amp -
. .
constant current circuit 20 volts On cons t ant potential s upply

-
, .
-
,
however only the range (1 ) and

, and the range (4) is s table ,
but the range (3)is unstable and h ere w e have a conductor whi ch
, ,
is u ns tabl e in a c ertain range of currents from point b at 1 amp , .
to point 0 at 20 amp A t 20 volts impress ed upon the rod

.
,
amp may pass through it and the conditions are stable T hat
.
, .
is a tend ency to i ncrease of c u rrent would ch eck itself by requir

,
ing an increase of voltage beyond that suppl ied and a decrease of ,
FIG . 9 .
current woul d reduc e th e voltage consu mption below that em

pl oyed and thus b e ch ecked A t th e same impress ed 20 volts
, .
,
—
3 6 amp may pas s thro u gh th e rod or 1 800 times as much as
.
—
before and the conditions agai n are stabl e A c u rrent of .
amp als o wo ul d con s um e a t erminal voltage of 20 b ut th e condi

.
,
tion now is unstable ; if th e current increases ever so little by a ,
mom entary voltage ris e th en th e voltage consu med by th e r od

,
d ecreases b ecomes l ess than th e termi nal vol tage of 20 and

, ,
th e current th us increa ses by t h e su ppl y vol tage ex c eeding t h e

con s um ed vo l tage T his how ev er s t il l fu rth er d ecreases t h e
.
, ,
o umed voltage and thereby in creases the c urrent and the cur
c ns ,
ren t rapidly ris es until condition s b ecom e s tabl e at 3 6 amp

, In .
v ersel y a mom entary d ecreas e of th e current b elow

, amp in .
c reases the voltage req uired by the rod and this high er voltage not,
being available at constant s upply voltage the c urrent decreases , .
FI G . 10 .
T h is ,however still further increas es th e required voltage and

,
decreas es the current unti l condit i on s b ecome s tabl e at

,
amp .
W ith th e silicon rod I I of F i g 6 on cons tant pot ential s u pply

.
,
-
,
w i th increas ing voltage th e c ur rent and th e temp erat u re incr eas es
g ra d ually u ntil
,
vo l t s ar e r each e d at abo u t 45 0 C ; th en °
.
,
w ith out furth er voltage increase c ur rent and temperature rapidly

,
i ncrease until th e rod mel ts T hus .
2
C ondition of s tab ili ty of a cond u ctor on con s tant voltage s u p -
p yl i s ,
that th e vo l t amp er e charact
-
e ri s tic i s ri s ing that i s an i n , ,
crease of c urrent req uires an increase of terminal vol tage .
A cond u ctor with falli ng volt ampere charact eri s tic that i s a -
, ,
cond u ctor in which with increase of current the termi n al voltag e

decreases is uns table on con stant potential s u pply
,
-
.
1 1 A n important appl ication of pyro el ectric conduction h as

.
been the glo w er of th e N ernst lamp whi ch before the d evelop ,
ment of th e tu ngsten lamp w as ex tensively used for illumination .
Pyroel ectrol ytes cov er th e wid es t range of conductiviti es ; the

all oys of sil i con with i ron and oth er m etals g ive depending on ,
th eir compo s i tion ; resis ti vi ties from those of the pure m etals up to
t he l o w er res is tivit i es of el ectrol ytes : 1 ohm per ems ; borid es ”
,
carbid es nitri d es ox ides etc gave values from 1 ohm per cm

, , ,
.
,
‘
.
or l es s u p to m egohm s per cm and graduall y m erge into the

3
.
, ,
mat erial s which u suall y are cl assed as in sul ators “

.
T h e pyro el ectri c cond u ctors thus are al mo s t th e only on es

avail abl e in th e res istiv ity range bet w een th e metal s oh m ,
cm and the el ectrol ytes 1 O h m cm

.
,
-
.
Pyro el ectri c cond u ctors are ind us triall y used to a con s id erabl e
ex t ent s inc e th ey are th e on l y s ol i d cond u ctors w hi ch hav e re
, ,
s is ti v i ti es m u ch high er than m etal l i c cond u ctors I n mos t of the .
i nd us trial us es ho w ev er th e dropping volt ampere charact eri stic

, ,
-
i s not of advantage i s often obj ectionabl e and th e us e i s li mited

, ,
to th e range (1 ) and (2) of F i g 3 I t th erefore i s of importanc e

. .
, ,
to real iz e th eir pyro el ectric characteri s tics and the eff ect which
they have w h en overl ooked b eyond th e max imum voltage point .
T h us s o cal l ed graphi t e resistanc es or carborundum res is t

-
“ ” “
ances ,
u sed in s eri es to l ightning arresters to limit the di s charge
’
,
wh en ex posed to a contin ual dis charge for a suffi c ient tim e to

reach high temperat ure may practicall y short circui t and th er e
,
-
by fail to limit the c urrent .
1 2 F rom th e dropping volt ampere characteri s tic i n so me

.
-
pyro electric cond uctors es peciall y thos e of high resistanc e of

, ,
very high n egative t emperatu re coefii cient and of consid erable

cross s ecti on resul ts the tendency to un equal c urrent distribution
-
,
and the form ati on of a lu mi nous streak at a sudd en applica

“ ”
,
t ion of high vol tage T h u s if the c u rrent pass ing through a

.
,
g raph i t e clay
-
r od of a f ew h u ndr ed ohm s r es i s tanc e i s gradu a lly
increased th e t emperatu re rises th e vol tage first increases and
, ,
then decreases wh il e the rod pass es from range (2 ) into t h e

,
20 EL E C T RI C CI R C U I T S
with a small er resistance of characteris tic B gives the res ultant
, ,
characteristic I I I I n this th e uns table range has contracted to

.
,
from b to c F urther dis cu ssion of th e instabili ty of such con

’ ’
.
ductors th e eff ect of res istanc e in stab l i z i ng th em an d th e resu lt

, ,
FIG . 11 .
ant stability c urve are fo und in th e chapter on I n stability

of E lectric Ci rcu its under A rcs and Si mil ar C ond u ctors
”
,
“
.
1 4 I t i s do u btful wh eth er th e pyroele ctric cond u ctors really

.
form one cl ass or wh eth er by th e phys ical nat ur e of th eir condu e

, ,
tion th ey should not b e di v id ed into at l east tw o cl ass es

,
1 T ru e pyroel ectri c cond u cto rs in which th e v ery high n eg a

.
,
t ive temperature co effi ci ent is a charact eri s tic of th e mat erial .

I n t his a prob abl y belong s il icon and its alloys boron mag
cl ss , ,
neti te and oth er m etallic o xi d es s ulphid es car bid es etc , , , .
2 C ondu cto rs which are mi x tures of materi al s of high condue

.
ti v i ty and of non conductors and d eriv e th eir res is tanc e from

,
-
,
th e con t act res is tanc e b et w een the conducting particles which

are se parat ed b y non con du ctors A s contact resistanc e shares
- .
w ith ar e conduction t h e dropping volt amper e char act eri s tic -

,
s uch mixt ures th ereby imitat e pyro el ectric cond u ction I n this .
clas s probably b elong the graphite clay rods industriall y used -

.
Powd ers of metal s g raphite and oth er good cond u ctors als o
,
belong i n this class .
T h e v ery great increase of res is t anc e of s om e cond u ctors und er

electro s tatic di s charges probab l y i s limit ed to this clas s and is ,
the res ul t of th e hi gh c urrent d en sity of th e cond en ser dis charge

burning off the contact points .
C oh erer action probably i s l imi t ed als o to those cond u ctors and ,
is th e res ult of th e minute s park at the contact poi nt s i n i t i at i ng

conduction .
Carb on
15 . ome res pects o uts ide of the three cl as ses of conductors

In s
thus far d i scus s ed in oth ers interm edi ate b etween th em i s one of
, ,
FIG . 12 .
the indus tria l l y mo s t i mport ant co nd u ctors carbon I t ex ists i n a

, .
larg e var iety of mod i ficati o ns of d iff erent resis tanc e ch aracteris
ti cs which al l are more or less intermed i at e between three typ i cal

,
forms :
1 M etall i c Carb on
.
— I t is produc ed from carbon d epo si ted on
.
an incand es cent fil ament from hydrocarbon vapors at a p ar tial

,
vac u um by ex pos ure to th e hi ghes t t emperatures of the electric

,
furnac e Physical l y it has metal li c ch aracteristi cs : high elas

.
,
FI G . 13 .
ti city, metal l i c l us ter etc and el ectrical ly it has a relativel y

,
.
,
l ow res i s tanc e approach i ng th at of m etall ic cond u ction and a ,
po sitive temperature coeffici ent of res istanc e of abo u t p e

,r
. .
—
cent per d egree C that i s of the s am e magn it u de as mercur y
,
or cas t iron .
T h e coating of th e G em fi l am ent incand es c ent lamp con

s is t s of th i s mod i ficat i on of carbon .
2 A morph ous
. produced by the carb onization of
carb on, as
cellul os e I n i ts purest form as prod uc ed by ex posure to the

.
,
hi gh es t temperat ures of th e el ectric furnac e it i s characteriz ed by ,
a relatively high resis tanc e and a negative temp erat ure coeffi ,
cient of res is tance its conductivity i ncreasing by ab out, per
ce nt per d egree C
. .
3 A nth raci te
.
— I t h as an extremely high resistanc e i s pra e ,
ti call y an ins ulator but h as a very high n egativ e temperature

,
coeffici ent of resi s tanc e and th us b ecom es a fair ly good cond u ctor ,
at high t emp eratur e but i ts h eat cond u ctivity i s s o l ow and the

, ,
n egativ e temperat ure co effi ci ent of r esi s tanc e s o high that the ,
conduction i s pract i cally always s trea k conduction and at the ,
h igh t emperat u re of the cond u cting lu mi no us streak conv ersion ,
t o graphite oc c urs with a p erman ent d ecreas e of resi stanc e

, .
( )
1 thu s s how s t h e charact eri s tic s of m etallic cond u ction ( )
2 ,
t ho s e of el ectrolytic cond u ct i on and (3 ) tho se of pyro el ectric ,
c onduction .
F i g 1 2 s hows th e vol t ampere characteri st i c s and F i g 1 3 th e

.
-
,
.
r es i s tanc e t emp erature charact eri stic s of amorphous carbon

-
c urv e I
— and m et alli c carbon curv e I I .
I nsul ators
16 A . a fourth class of cond uctors may b e consid ered the so

s
c all ed insul ators t hat i s conductors which have such a high

, ,
s pecifi c res ist anc e that th ey can not indus trially b e u s ed f or con
,
v eyi ng ele ctric pow er but on th e contrary are u s ed for res training
,
t h e fl ow of electric pow er to th e condu ctor or path by separating , ,
t h e cond u ctor from the s urrounding s pac e by su ch an in s ul ator .
T h e ins ulators al s o have a cond u ctivity but th ei r s pecific resis t ,
a nc e is ext rem ely high F or in stanc e th e s p ec i fic res is tanc e of

.
,
fi b er is a bout 1 0 of mica 1 0 of ru bb er 1 0 O h m cm etc

12
,
14
,
1° -
.
, .
A s th erefore th e d ist i nction b et w een conductor and in s ul ator

, ,
is o nly q u al itative d ep ending on th e app li cation and more par

, ,
t i cul ar l y on th e ratio of vol tage to c u rrent given by th e s o u rc e of

p o w e r s om etim, es a ma t e rial may b e con s id er e d eith er as in s u lator
or as conductor T hus wh en d eal ing wi th el ectro static machines
.
, ,
which gi v e high voltages b ut ex trem el y small currents w ood , , ,
p a pe r e t c , ar e u s ua ll.y ,con s id ered as cond u ctors while for the ,
l ow voltage high current el ectr i c lighting circui ts th ey are i n s ula

- -
tors an d for th e h i gh power very h i gh voltage tran s mis s ion cir

,
- -
cuits they are on the bord er l i ne are poor conductors and poor ,
insul ators .
I nsul ators us uall y if not always have a high n egative tempe ra

, ,
ture co effi cient of res is tanc e and the resistivity often foll ow s ,
approximatel y th e ex pon ential l aw ,
"
r r oE (3 )
wh ere T t emperature T hat i s th e res is tanc e d ecreas es by t h e
.
,
s ame p erc entag e of i ts val u e for every d egree C F or in s tanc e

,
.
,
it decreas es to one tenth for every 25 C rise of temp erature so

-
°
.
,
that at 1 00 C it i s °
. tim es l ower than at 0 C Some te m °
.
p er a t u re-
r es i s tanc e curv es with l og r as ordinat es of
,
i n s u l atin g ,
mat erial s are given in F ig 1 4 . .
A s th e res u l t of th e high n eg ative temperature co effici ent for a ,
s uffici entl y hi g h t emp eratur e th e in s ulating material if n ot de , ,
s troy ed by t h e t emp erature as i s th e cas e with organic mat erials, ,
becomes ap preciabl y conducting and fin al l y becomes a fa irl y ,
good conductor usual l y an el ectrol ytic conductor

,
.
T hus th e mat erial of th e N ern s t l amp (rar e ox id es s imilar to ,
th e Wel s bach mantl e of th e g as indus try) i s a practicall y p erf ec t ,
insul ator at ordinary t emperatures but b ecomes conductin g at ,
high t emperature and is th en used as l ight gi ving conductor

,
-
.
Fig . 15 s hows for a number of high resis tanc e i nsu l at -
ing material s the t emperature resis tanc e curv e at th e ra nge -
where the res is tivity b ecomes comparabl e with that of oth er

conductors .
1 7 Many in s ul ators however more p artic ul arl y the organi c

.
, ,
material s ar e ch emi cally or physi call y changed or d estroyed

, ,
before th e temperatu re of appreciabl e conduct ion is reached ,
though even th ese S how th e high n egative temperature coeffici ent .
With some as var ni sh es etc th e conductivity b ecomes s uffi ci ent

, ,
.
, ,
at high t emperatu res though stil l bel ow carbonization temp era

,
ture that under h igh el ectrostati c stress as in th e insul ation of

, ,
high vol tage apparatus appreciabl e energy i s represented by th e

-
,
l eakage current through th e in s ul ation and in this case rapi d ,
i r h eating and final d es truction of th e mat eri al may res ul t

2
.
T hat i s s uch mat eri al s whil e ex c el l ent in s ul ato rs at ordin ary

, ,
tem perature are unrel iabl e at higher temperatu re

,
.
I t is q uit e probabl e that th ere i s no es sential d iff erenc e b etween

the tru e pyro el ectric conductors and th e in s ul a t ors but t h e l atter , ,
are merel y pyro el ectric c on ductors i n which th e i ni ti al res is tivity

E LE CT RI C CON D U CT I ON 25
and the vol tage at the max imum point b are so high that the ,
ch an ge from th e range (2) of th e pyroel ectrol yte F ig 4 to the , .

,
range (3 ) can not b e produced by increase of vo l tage T hat is .

,
th e dis tin ction b etween pyro el ectric cond u ctor and ins ulator
w oul d b e the quantitat ive on e that in th e former th e maximum
,
FIG . 14
.
V ol tage point of the vol t ampere charact eris tic is with i n ex peri
-
m ental reach whil e with th e l atter it is beyond reach

, .
Wh eth er this applies to all in s ul ators or wh eth er among or

,
g an i c compound s as o ils, th er e ar e tru e ins ula tors which

, ar e not
py ro e l e ct r ic conductor,
s i s unc erta i n .
26 E LE CT RI C CI R C U I T S
Po sitive temperature coefficient of res is tivity i s very often met

in ins ul ati ng material s su ch as oil s fibrous material s etc I n t his
, ,
.
c as e however the rise of resis tance at increase of temperat u re

, ,
usuall y remains perman ent after the temperatu re i s agai n l ow ered ,
FIG . 15 .
and the apparent positive temperature co efficient w as due to the

ex p ul s ion of moi s tur e ab s orb ed by th e mat erial With ins ulators
.
of v ery high r es i s tivity ext remel y s mal l trac es of moi s tur e may
,
decreas e the resistivity many thousandfol d and th e conduct i vity

,
of in sul ating mat erial s very oft en i s al mo s t entirel y mois tur e con
C H A PT E R II
E L E CT R I C CON D U CT I O N . G A S A N D VA PO R
CO ND U CT OR S
G as , Vapor and Vacuum Conducti on
1 8 A s furth er ,
. and l ast cl ass may b e con sid ered vapor g as ,
and vacuum conduct ion T ypi cal of this i s that the vol t ampere
.
,
-
characteris tic i s dropping that is the vol tage d ecreas es with l n

, ,
creas e of current and that l umi n es c enc e accompanies the con

,
duction that i s conversion of el ectric en ergy into l ight

, , .
T hus g as and vapor conductors are un s tabl e on cons tan t

,
potential suppl y but stabl e on constant cu rrent On cons tant

,
.
potential they req uire a series resistance or reactanc e to produc e ,
s tabi l ity .
Such conduction may b e divid ed into three dis tinct types

s park conduction ar e conduction and tru e el ectronic conduction
, , .
I n s park conduction th e g as or vapor which fi ll s th e s pac e b e

,
tween the el ectrodes is the conductor T h e l i ght given by the .
gas eous conductor thus shows the s pectru m of the g as or vapor

which fills the S pac e b ut the material of th e el ectrod es i s imma
,
terial that i s aff ect s n ei th er th e l i ght nor th e el ectric b ehavior of

, ,
the gaseous cond u ctor ex c ept i nd i rectl y in so far as th e section

, ,
of th e conductor at th e t erm i nal s d ep end s U pon th e terminal s ur
fac e.
I n arc conduction th e cond u ctor is a vapor stream i s s uing fro m

,
the n egativ e t erminal or cathod e and moving toward the anod e ,
at high vel ocity T he l i ght of the ar e thus sho w s the s pectrum

.
of th e n egative terminal mat erial b u t not that of th e g as in th e ,
s urrounding s pac e nor t hat of th e po s i tiv e t erm i nal ex c ept indi

, ,
rectl y by h eat l umin es c enc e of mat erial ent eri ng th e ar e con

,
ductor from th e anode or from su rrou nd i ng s pace .
I n true el ectro ni c cond u ct ion el ectron s ex is t i ng in th e s pac e

, ,
or produc ed at th e t erm i nal s (hot cathod e) ar e th e conducto rs ,

.
Such conduction thus exis t s al s o i n a perfect vacuum and may b e ,
accompanied by practicall y no l u min esc enc e .
28
E LE C T R I C CON D U CT I ON 29
D i srupti v e Conducti on
19 . S park
conduction at atmos pheric pressure is the dis ru ptive
s park s tream ers
, and corona I n a partial vacuum it i s the
,
.
,
Ge iss l er di s char ge or glow d is charge S park conduction i s dis .
continuous that is up to a c ert ain voltage th e disruptive

, , ,
“
vol tage no conduction ex is ts ex c ept perhaps the ex tremely

, ,
s mall true el ectro nic conduction A t this voltage conducti on .
be gins and continues as l ong as th e voltage pers ists or if the , ,
s o u rc e of pow er i s capabl e of maintaining con s id erabl e current ,
t h e s par k conduction changes to ar e conduction b y th e h eat de ,
v el oped at th e n egative t erm i nal s upplying th e conducting arc
vapor s tream T he current us uall y is small and the vol tage

.
hi g h . E s pec iall y at atmos ph eri c press ure th e drop of th e vol t ,
am pe re char act eri s tic i s ex tremely s tee p so that it i s practical ly ,
i m po ss ibl e to secure stabil i ty by seri es resis tanc e but th e con ,
d u ction changes to ar e conduction if s u fficient current i s avail ,
a b l e as from power gen erators or th e conduction c ea s es by th e

, ,
v ol t ag e drop of th e s uppl y s ourc e and th en s tart s again by th e ,
r ec overy of voltage as with an el ectro s tatic machin e

,
T hus .
s p ark conduction al s o is called di sru p ti ve conducti on and di s con
ti n uous conducti on .
— —
A pparent l y contin uous though stil l int ermitt ent s park con
d u ction i s produc ed at atmo s ph eric press ure by capacity in series .
to t h e gaseo us conduc tor , on an al ternating voltage s upply , as

-
co rona an d as Geissl er tube conduction at a partial vacuum by

, ,
a n al ternating s upply voltage with con sid erabl e reactanc e or

-
re s is tanc e in s eri es or f rom a direct cur rent s ourc e of very high

,
-
v ol tage an d very limited current as an el ectro s tatic machin e ,

.
I n th e G ei ssl er tub e or vac u um tub e on al t ernati ng voltag e ,

-
S u ppl y t h e eff ective voltage con s um ed by th e tub e at con s tant

, ,
t emperature and cons tant g as press ure i s approxi mat el y con ,
s t ant and ind epend ent of th e eff ective current that i s t h e vol t , ,
a mp ere characteris tic a stra i ght horizontal lin e T h e G eissl er .
t ube thus requires con stant current or a st eadyi ng res i s t a nc e or

rea ctanc e for i ts op eration T h e vol t age cons umed by th e G eiss
.
l er tub e con s i s ts of a pot ent i al drop at th e t erminal s th e t ermi

“
,
nal drop and a voltage con s u m ed in th e luminous stream the

”
, ,
”
stream vo l tage B oth greatl y d ep end on th e g as pres sure
“
.
,
and vary w i th changing g as pres s u r e in oppo sit e d i rect i on s : th e

, ,
t erminal drop d ecrea ses and th e s tream voltage increases w i th

i ncreas ing g as press ure and th e total voltage consumed by th e
,
tub e thus gives a minimum at s ome d efinite g as press ure T h is .
pressure of minimum vol tage depends on the l eng th of the tub e ,
FI G . 16
.
FI G . 17
and the l onger the tube , th e l o w er i s th e g as pressure wh ich g ives

mini mum total vol tage.
EL ECT R I C CON D U C T I ON 31
Fig hows the voltag pressure charac teristi c at cons tant

. 16 s e-
,
current of amp and amp of a Geissler tube of

. cm .
,
.
internal diameter and 200 cm l ength us ing air as conductor and .

, ,
F i g 1 7the charact eris tic of th e sam e tub e with m ercury vapor as

.
conductor F igs 1 6 and 1 7al so show the tw o compon ent vol tages
. .
,
th e t ermi nal drop and th e s tream vol tage separat el y A s ab

‘
.
,
s ci ss a; are u sed th e l og of th e g as press ure in mill im eter m ercury ,
col umn A s s een the t ermi nal drop d ecreas es with increas ing
.
,
g a s pr ess ur e and b e com es n egl ig

,
i b l e compar ed with t h e s tr eam
vol tage at atmos ph eric pressure
, .
T h e vol tage gradient per c entim et er l ength of stream vari es

, ,
from 5 to 20 volts at g as or vapor pressure from ,

to
mm A t atmospheric pressure (760 mm ) the disruptive vo l tage
. .
gr adient which produc es corona is

,
volts eff ective per ,
centimeter T he specifi c resistanc e of the luminous stream is from

.
65 to 5 00 ohms per cm in th e G eissl er tub e conduction of F igs

3
. .
—
1 6 and 1 7 though this t erm h as l ittl e meaning in g as conduction .
T he s pecific res is tanc e of th e corona in air as it app ears on tran s ,
miss ion l ines at very high vol tages i s still v ery much high er ,
.
A rc Condu cti on
20 . l tric are the current i s car ried across the s pace

I n th e e ec ,
between the electrod es or are terminal s by a stream of el ectrode

vapor which iss ues from a S pot on th e negative terminal the
, ,
—
s o c all ed cathod e s pot as a h i gh v el ocity blas t (probably of a
,
-
velocity of s everal thou sand feet per second) I f the n egative .
termi nal i s fluid the cathode s pot c aus es a depression by the

, ,
r eactio n of t h e vapor blas t and i s in a more or l ess rapid motion , ,
depending on th e fluidity .
A s the arc conductor i s a vapor s tream of el ectrod e mat erial ,
this vapor stream must first b e produc ed that i s en ergy mus t b e , ,
ex pend ed b efore are conduction can take plac e T h e ar e th ere .

,
f ore do es not s tart s pontaneousl y b etween the arc t erminal s if

, ,
suffi cient vol tage i s supplied to m aintain the are (as i s th e case
w i th s par k conduction) but th e arc h as firs t to b e s tart ed that ,
i s the conductin g vapor b ridge b e produc ed

, T hi s can b e don e .
b y bringing th e el ectrod es into contact and separating th em or ,
b y a high vol tage spark or G ei ssl er dis charge or b y th e vapor

-
,
stream of anoth er are or by producing el ectronic conduction as

, ,
by an in cand es cent filament I nversel y if the curren t in the arc .

,
32 E L E CT R I C CI R C U I T S
s topped even for a moment conduction c eases that is the arc , , ,
ex t i ngui s h es and h as to b e res tart ed T hus arc co ndu ct ion may .

,
al s o b e call ed conti nuous conducti on .
2 1 T h e ar e s tream is conducting onl y in the directi on of i ts

.
motion but not in th e reverse direction A ny body w hi ch is

, .
,
reached by the arc stream is conductivel y co nnected wi th i t if , ,
pos itive toward it but is not in conductive connection if neg ati ve

, ,
or i s olat ed sinc e if thi s body i s n egativ e to th e arc s tream an arc

, , ,
s tream wo u ld hav e to i s s u e from this b ody to connec t it con ,
du cti v el y and th i s woul d require en ergy to b e ex pend ed on th e

,
body b efore current flows to it T hus only if th e ar c s trea m i s

,
.
,
very hot and the n egative vol tage of the body impinged b y i t
,
very h igh and the body s mal l enou gh to b e heated to high tem
,
p er a tu re an ar,e s pot may form on it b y h eat en erg y I f t h ere .

,
fore a body touch ed by the arc stream i s connected to an alternat

,
ing vol tage so that it is al ternatel y positive and negative toward

,
th e arc s tream th en cond u ction occurs durin g the h al f w ave

,
-
,
when this body i s po sitive but no conduction during the n egativ e

,
half wave (ex cept wh en the n egative voltage i s so high as to give

-
d is ruptive conduction) and th e are thus rectifies the al ternating

,
vol tage that i s permi ts current to pass in one direction only

, , .
T h e ar e thu s i s a uni di r ecti onal conductor and as s uch ext ens iv ely ,
used for rectificati on of al ternating voltages U s uall y vacuum .
arc s are empl oyed for this purpos e mainly the mercury are due , ,
t o i ts v ery great rectifying range of voltage .
S inc e the arc i s a un i d i re ctional conductor it us ually can not ,
ex i s t with alt ernating current s of mod erat e voltage as at th e end ,
of every hal f wave the arc ex t in g uish es T o maintai n an al tern a

-
.
ting arc b etween tw o terminal s a voltage i s required suffici ently ,
hi gh to restart th e are at every half wave b y j umping an elec -
tros tati c s park b etw een th e t erminals through th e h ot res idual

vapor of t he prec eding h alf w ave T he temp erature of this vapor-
.
i s that of the boil ing point of th e el ectrod e mat erial T h e voltag e .
requi red by the electros tatic S park that is by dis ruptive co ndue , ,
tion d ecreases with increas e of temperature for a 1 3 mm g ap

, ,
-
.
about as s hown by curve I in F i g 1 8 T he vol tage required to . .
maintain an are that is the direct current voltage increas es with

, ,
-
,
i ncreas ing ar c t emp eratu re and th erefore increas ing radiation , ,
et c . abou t as shown by curve I I in F ig 1 8 A s seen th e curves

,
. .
,
I and I I int ersect at s ome v ery h igh t emp erature and materials ,
as carbon which hav e a bo i l i ng poin t above thi s temperature

, ,
EL E C T RI C CON D U C T I ON 33
requ r e i a lower vol tage for restarting than for maintaining the
ar e th at is th e vol tage req uired to maintain th e arc res tart s it
, ,
at every hal f wave of alternatin g current and s uch material s thus

-
,
g iv e a s teady al t ernating ar c E v en mat e

.rial s of a somewhat
lower boilin g point in whi ch the starting voltage i s not much
,
ab ov e th e ru nning vo l tage of th e arc maintain a s t eady al t er ,
nati ng are as in starting the vol tage con s umed by the steadying
,
r es i s tanc e or reactanc e is avail abl e E l ectrod e mat erials of l ow

.
FI G . 18
.
bOiling point however can not maintain steady al ternat i ng arcs

, ,
at mod erate voltage .
T he ran ge in F i g 1 8 abov e th e curv e I thus is that in wh i ch

.
, ,
alternatin g arc s can ex is t ; in th e rang e b etw een I and I I an al t er ,
natin g vol tage can not m ai ntain th e ar e but unid i rect i onal cu r ,
rent is produc ed from an al t ernating vo l t age if th e arc conductor ,
is maint ain ed by ex citation of i ts n egativ e t erminal s as by an ,
aux i lia ry ar e T hi s th erefore i s th e recti fying range of ar e con

.
, ,
ductio n . B el ow curv e I I any cond u ction c eas es as t h e vo l tage i s ,
ins u fi ci ent to m aintain th e cond u cting vapor stream .
F i g 1 8 is onl y appro x imat e

. A s ord i nat es are used th e l oga
.
3
ri th m of the vol tage to give b etter proportions T h e boili ng

,
.
poi nts of some material s are appro ximatel y indicated on t h e

curv es .
I t i s es sential for th e el ectrical engin eer to thorough l y und er

s tand th e nature of th e are not on l y b ecau s e of i ts us e as ill u mi
,
nant in arc l ighting but more still because accidental arc s are
, ,
th e foremos t cause of in s t abil ity and troubl es from danger o us

tran sients in el ectric circuits .
FIG . 19 .
22 . vol tage con sumed by an arc s tream e1 at constant

T he , ,
current i is approx imatel y proportional to th e ar c l ength l or

, , , ,
rather to the arc l ength pl us a s mal l quantity 6 which proba b ly , ,
repres ents the cool ing eff ect of the el ectrodes .
Pl otting th e arc vol tage e as function of th e current i at con

, , , ,
stant arc l ength giv es dropping vol t amp ere charact eris tic s an d
,
-
,
the vol tage increases with d ecreas i n g current th e more t h e lo n g er ,

a 13 v ol ts for merc u ry ,
16 vol ts for zinc and cadm i um (appro xi matel y) ,
30 vol ts for magn etite ,
36 vol ts for carbon ;

0 31 for magn eti te ,
35 for carbon ;
6 cm for magn et ite
.
,
cm for carbon
. .
T he l eas t agreement with the equation (4) is shown by the car

b on are .I t agrees fairl y well for ar e l ength s above cm but .
,
for s horter arc l engths the observed vol tage i s l ower than given
,
by equation and approach es for l 0 th e val ue e 28 vol ts .
I t see ms as if th e t erminal drop a 36 vo l t s with carb on con , ,
s is ts of an actual t erminal drop d o 28 vol ts and a t erminal , ,
drop of c l 8 vol t s which resi d es i n th e spac e within a sh ort

,
distance from the terminal s .
S tab ility Curves of th e A rc
23 A s th e
. vol t
ampere characteris ti cs of the are show a de
-
crease of vol tage with increase of cur rent over the entire range of ,
cur rent the arc i s u n s tabl e on con stant vol tage supplied to its
,
termi nal s at every cur rent

,
.
I n serti n g in s eri es to a magn etit e arc of cm length sh ow n as .

,
curve I in F i g 20 a cons tant resistance of r 1 0 oh ms the v ol

.
, ,
tage con s u m ed by this resi s tanc e is proportional to the current ,
and th us gi ven by th e stra ight l ine I I in F i g 20 A dding this . .
vol tage I I to th e ar c vol tage cu rve I gives the total voltage con
-
,
s um ed by th e arc and i ts s eri es res i s tanc e S hown as curv e I I I , .
I n curv e I I I t h e vo l t age d ecreas es w i th increase of current up to

, ,
in amp and th e are thus i s un stabl e for currents below

.
amp F or cur rent s l arger than

. amp th e voltage increas es .
with i ncreas e of c urrent and the are th us i s stable T h e point

, .
in amp thus separat es th e un s tabl e l ower part of curve

.
I I I from th e s tabl e upp er p art

,
.
With a l arger series res is tanc e r 20 ohms the s tability ran g e ,

’
,
i s increas ed down to amp as seen from cu rve I I I but hig her

.
, ,
vol tages are required for th e operation of the are .
W ith a s mal l er series resis tanc e r 5 ohm s th e stability ,

’
,
range is reduc ed to currents above amp b ut l ow er voltag es .
are s u ffic i ent for th e op eration of th e arc .

EL E C T RI C CON D U GT I ON 37
A t th e tab ility limit i o in curv e

s , , III of F i g 20, the
. res ul tant
c h a r a c te ris ti c i s horizont al that i s , ,
th e s lope of th e res istance
!
6
cu rv e II : r
— ’ is e qual but oppo site to that of th e arc charac
i
FI G . 20 .
de
teustl c I _ requi red stab l l l ty
’
.
T he res I S tan ce , r, to g l v c
di
limit at current t thus is fou n d by th e co n d i ti on
de
r
di
Sub s ti tuti ng e quation (4) i nto (6) gives

6 0 6)
r
z i x/i
38 E LE C T R I C CI R C UI T S
as th e mi ni mum res is tanc e to produc e s tab ili ty hen ce , ,
c (l 5)
61
where c l arc stream vol tage and ,
c (l 6)
x/ i
i s th e minimum vol tage requi red by are and series res is tanc e ,
to j u s t reach stabil ity .
( )
9 i s p l ott e d as cu r v e I V in F i g 2 0 and i s c al l ed t h e s tab.i l i ty ,
cu rve of t h e ar e I t is of th e s ame form as th e are charact eris tic

.
I and d erived th erefrom by adding 5 0 per c ent of th e vol tage

,
.
.
cl, con su med by the arc stream .
T h e s tab il i ty l imit of an ar e on con stant pot ential t hus l ies , ,
a m x cess of th e s uppl y vol t a ge ov er th e arc vol tage e

g a el ,
by 5 0 per c ent of the vol tage e1 con s um ed i n the arc s tream

.
, , .
I n gen eral to g et reas onabl e st eadin es s and ab senc e of drifting

,
of current a som ewhat high er suppl y vol tage and lar ger series
,
r es is tanc e than g iven by th e stabil ity curve I V is d esi rabl e

, , .
2 4 T h e pr ec eding appl ies o nl y to tho s e arc s in wh ich t h e g as

.
pressure an th e spac e surrounding the arc and th ereby the arc ,
vapor pressure and temperature are con s tant and independ ent ,
of the c urrent as is th e case with arcs in air at atmos ph eric

, ,
“
press ure ”
.
W ith arc s in which th e vapor pres sure and temperat ure vary
with the c urrent as in vac uu m arc s l i ke th e m ercury arc di fi eren t
, ,
con sid eration s appl y T h us in a mercury are in a gl ass tube

.
, ,
if the current i s su fficientl y l arge to fill th e entire tub e but not ,
s o l arg e that cond en s ation of t h e m erc u ry vapor can not fr eel y
occur in a cond ens ing chamber th e power dis si pat ed by radiation , ,
etc . may b e as s umed as proporti on al to the length of the tube

, ,
and to the current

:
6 17 017
:
( )
1 0
that i s , th etream vol tage of the tube or vol tage cons umed by
s ,
the arc s tream (ex cl usi ve termin al drop) i s i ndepend ent of th e

9
current A dding h ereto th e termi nal drop

.
,
a, gives
vol tage cons umed by th e mercury tub e
a + cl
for a mercury are in a vacuum it is approximately

,
wh r e e diam et er of th e tub e s i nc e th e diamet er of th e tub e

d == ,
i s proportional to th e s urfac e and th erefore to th e radiation

coeffic ient .
T hus ,
e =
13 +
hi gh currents the vapor press ure rises abnorm al l y due to

At , ,
i ncompl ete cond en s at i on and t h e vol tage th erefore ri s es and

, ,
FIG . 21 .
at l ow curren ts the voltage ris es agai n due to the are not fill ing ,
t he e ntire tub e Such a volt ampere char acteri s t i c i s g iven in

.
-
F ig . 21 .
25 . Herefrom
th en follows that the voltage g radient in the
,
mercury are for a tub e d i ameter of 2 cm is about

, vol ts per .
,
cent i m et er or about one tw enti eth of what it is in t h e G eissl er

-
tub e and th e s pecific resistanc e of th e stream at 4 amp i s

, ,
.
,
40 EL E C T R I C CI R C U I T S
about ohms per cm or of the magnitude of one one )
,
thous andth of what it is in the Geissl er tub e .
A t high er current s th e m ercury are in a vacuum g ives a ris i n g

,
vol t amp ere characteristic N everthel ess it is not stabl e on

- .
constant potential supply as th e rising characteris tic applies only

-
,
to s tationary conditi ons ; th e in stantan eous charact eris tic i s drop

ping T hat is if th e current i s s uddenl y increased the voltage
.
, ,
drops regardl ess of th e current val ue and th en graduall y w ith

, , ,
the increas i ng temp erature and vapor press ure increas es ag ain to , ,
th e p erman ent v al ue a low er value or a high er v al ue which

, ,
ev er may b e giv en by th e p erman ent volt amp ere charact er is tic -

.
I n an are at atmos ph eric press ure as th e magn etite are th e , ,
voltage gradi ent dep ends on the current by equation and at ,
4 amp is about 1 5 to 1 8 volts per c enti m et er

. T he s p ecifi c re .
s is tan ce of th e arc s tream i s of th e ma g nitud e of 1 O h m per
and l ess with larger current arcs thus of th e same mag nitud e as ,
i n vacuum arc s .
E l ectroni c Conducti on
26 C onduction occurs at mod erat e voltages between t ermi nal s

.
in a part i al vac u um as well as in a perfect vacuum , if th e termin al s

are incandes c ent I f only one terminal is incandes cent t h e con
.
,
duction is un i directional that is can occur onl y in that direction

, , ,
w hi ch makes th e i ncandes c ent t erminal th e cathode or n eg ativ e , .
S uch a vac uu m t u b e th en recti fies an al t ernating voltage and may

b e used as rect i fier I f a p erfect vacuum ex is t s in th e conduct i ng
.
s pac e b et w een th e el ectrod es of s u ch a hot cathod e tube t h e con ,
ducti on is Cons idered as tru e el ectronic conduction T he vol tag e .
co ns umed by th e tu be is dependi ng on th e hi gh temperature of

th e cathod e and is of th e magn i tud e of arc voltages h enc e v e ry
, ,
much lo w er than in th e Geissler tu be and th e c u rrent of t he mag ,
nit u de of arc c u rrents h enc e m u ch h i gh er than in th e G eis sl e r tu b e

, .
27 T h e compl et e volt amp ere charact eri s tic of g as and va p o r

.
-
conduction th us w oul d gi ve a curve of the s hape in F i g 22 I t . .
cons ist s of three branches separated by ranges of ins tabil ity or

d is continuity T h e branch a at very l ow c u rrent electronic con
.
, ,
ducti on ; the branch b dis contin uous or Gei ssl er tub e conduction ;
,
and th e branch c are conduction T he change from a to b OC

, .
curs s u ddenl y and abruptl y accompanied by a b i g rise of curre nt , ,
as s oon as th e d is rupt i v e v o l tage i s rea ch ed T h e cha ng e b t o c .

ELE C T R I C CON D U C T I ON 41
oc curs s uddenly and abruptl y by the formation of a cathode s pot

, ,
a n y w h ere in a w i d e range of c u rrent and is accompani ed by a

,
s u dd en drop of vol tage T o s how th e entire range as abs cissa

.
,
a r e u se d V i and as ord i nates W .
FIG . 22 .
R evi ew
28 T h e
. various classes of conduction : m etal lic condu ction ,
e l ec t rol yt i c conduction pyroelectric cond uct ion i ns ul atio n g as

, , ,
v apor and el ectronic conduct i on are on l y ch aracteris t i c type8

, ,
b u t num erous interm ed i ari es ex is t and tran s i t i o ns from one type

,
t o another by change of el e ctrical co nd i t ion s of te mpe rat ure , ,
e tc .
A s regards to the magn i t ude of th e s p ec i fic

r tanc or r es i s e es i s t
i v i t y, t h e diff erent types of cond ucto rs are charac te r z d abo t

i e u as
°
f oll o w s :
T he res istivity of metall ic conductors is meas ured i n microhm

centim eters .
T he res is tivity oi electrolytic conduc tors is m easure d in oh m

centi meters .
T h e res is tivity of in sulators is m eas ured in m eg ohm c entim eters -
and million s of m egohm c enti m eters -

.
T h e res is tivity of typical pyroelectric conductors is of t he mag

ni tu de of that of el ectrolyte s ohm c entim eters but ex t end s fro m
,
-
,
this dow n toward the resis ti v ities of metallic conductors and up ,
toward that of in sulators .
T h e res is tivity of g as and vapor conduction is of th e magnitud e

of el ectrolyt ic conduction : arc conduction of the mag ni tud e of
low er resis tance el ectrolytes Geissl er tu be conduction and corona

,
conduction of the mag nitude of high er resis tanc e el ectrolytes -

.
E l ectronic conduction at atmos ph eric temperature i s of th e

magnitude of that of i ns ul ators ; with incandes c ent termin als it ,
reach es th e magnitud e of el ectrolyt i c conduction .
W hil e th e resistiviti es of pyroel ectric conductors exten d over

th e entire range from those of m etals to those of insul ators
, ,
typic al are those pyr oel ec tric conductors having a resis tivity of
el ectrol yt ic conductors I n tho se with lower res is tivity th e
.
,
drop of the volt amp ere characteris tic decreases and t he ins ta
-
b il i ty charact eristic becom es l ess pronounc ed ; i n tho se of hi gh er

resistivity the negative slope becom es s teeper the instabili ty i n
, ,
creases and streak conduction or finally dis ruptive conduction

,
appears T he strea k conduction des cri bed on th e pyroelectric

.
,
conductor pro bably is the s ame phenomenon as the disr uptive

,
conduction or breakdown of i ns ul ators Jus t as s treak condu e .
tio n appears most under s udden application of voltag e b u t less ,
under g radual voltage rise and thus g radual heatin g so ins ulators ,
of h igh dis ruptive s trength wh en of l ow resis tivity by ab s or b e d

,
mois ture etc may s tand indefinitely voltages appl ied inte rmi t
, .
,
—
tentl y s e as to allow time for t emperature eq ual ization — wh ile
qui c kly breaking dow n under very much lower sus tained voltag e .
and S B therefore the magnetizab il ity that , is , t h e s till avail

abl e increas e oi fl ux density over that ex is ting , .
F rom (1 ) follow s by s ub s t i tuting , ,
B
H
and rearrangi ng ,
where
a
S s atu r ati on coefi ci ent, that i s , th e rec i procal of th e
s aturati on val ue , S, of fl ux d ens ity ,

B, and
_ 1
2’
°
a _
aS a
for B O, e quation (1 ) gives
that is a is th e rec i procal of th e magn et i c permeability at ze ro

,
fl ux d en s ity .
A very conven ient form of th i s l aw h as b een found by Ke nn el ly

( 1 893 ) by introducing t h e r e c i proca l of t h e p erm eab il ity as ,
rel uctivity p ,
1 51 .
n B
in th e form , w hi ch can be derived from (3 ) by tran s pos i tion .
p CH
a (5 )
A s dominates the reluctivity at lower magneti zing forc es
a ,
and th ereby th e initial rat e of rise of th e magn etization curve ,
w hich i s charact eri st i c of th e magn etic hardn ess of th e mate rial

” “
,
it is call ed t h e coefil ci ent of mag neti c hardness .
3 0 Wh en inves tigating fl ux d ens it ies B at very high fi eld

.
, ,
intensities H it w as found that B does not reach a finite s at u ra

, ,
t i on val u e but increases i ndefinit ely ; that however

, , ,
B0 B -
H ( )
6
reach es a fi nit e s aturation val u e S which with iron us ually is not ,
far from 20 kil ol i nes per cm and that therefore F rohl ich s and
.
2
,
’
Kennell y s laws appl y not to B b ut to B o T h e latter then

’
,
.
, ,
MA GN E T I S M 45
is us ual ly c alled t he metal li c mag neti c densi ty or ferromag neti c
B o may b e considered as the magnetic fl ux carried by the mole

cul es of th e i ron or oth er magn etic mat erial in addition to th e
,
FI G . 23 .
s pace fl ux H or fl ux carried by s pace independent of the material

, ,
in s pace .
T h e bes t evidenc e seems to corroborat e that w i th th e ex cep

,
tion of very l ow fiel d intensities (where the customary magn eti

zation curv e us uall y h as an inward be nd w hich will b e dis cu ssed
,
later) in perfectly pure magnetic materials i ron nickel co balt , , , ,

46 E L E CT R I C CI R C UI T S
etc .
,
linear law of reluctivity (5 ) and (3 ) is rigidly obeyed by
the
the m etallic induction B o .
I n the more or l ess impure commercial mat erial s h owever t he , ,
p H relation while a s traight l i n e oft en h as one and occ as ion

, , ,
ally tw o point s wh ere i ts Slop e and thus th e v al ues of a an d a

, ,
change .
F i g 23 s how s an av erage magn etization curv e of g o od s t and ard

.
,
iron with field intensity H as abs cissa and magnetic in duction

, , , , ,
B as ordinates
, T h e total induction is s how n in drawn lin es th e
.
,
metallic indu ction i n dotted l ines T h e ordinates are g iv en i n .
kil ol i nes per cm th e ab sciss a in unit s for B in t ens for 3 2 and

.
2
, 1, ,
in hundreds for B 3.
T h e reluctivity curves for th e three s cal es of ab s cis sa a r e , ,
plotted as p p pa in tenths of milli units in milli units and in

l, z, ,
-
,
-
tens of milli units

.
-
.
B elow H 3 p i s not a s traight lin e but curved due t o t h e i n

, , ,
w ard b end Of t he magn etization curve B in thi s range T he , , .
s traight lin e law i s reach ed at t h e po i nt 0

-
at H 3 and t he re 1, ,
l u cti v i t y i s then ex pressed b y th e lin ear law

H
3 H 1 8,
givi ng an apparent saturation value ,
81
At H a b end occurs in the reluctivity line mar ked by
1 8, ,
poi nt 6 2, and above this point th e reluctivity follows the equa t i on

H (8)
18 H 80,
gi ving an apparent saturation value

S2
At H another bend occurs in the reluctivity lin e mar ked

80, ,
by point ca and ab ove this point up to saturatio n the reluct i vity

, , ,
follows the eq uation

H
H > 80
giving the true saturation value ,
S
M A GN E T I S M 47
P oint 02 frequently ab sent

is .
F i g 24 g iv es onc e more th e magn etization curv e (metallic i n

.
d u ct i on ) as B and giv es as dott ed curv es B B and B th e mag

, 1, z 3
n e t i z ati on curv es calc ulat ed from t h e three lin ear reluctivity equa
t i o ns A s s een n eith er of th e equat i on s represent s

,
B n approxi mately ov er t he en t ire ra ng e

ev e ,
b ut w b
e re pre sent »
i t very ac c uratel y w i thi n i ts rang e T he firs t equ t i on a
V f t b ‘ '
.
,
ab y covers prac tically the entire indust ria ll y imp

l or ta n t r a n g e .
3 7 A s t hese cri t i cal points a, and c do not m m t

.
; o ex i s t i n p er
fGCfl Y pure mate rials , and as t he cha ng e of direct ion of t he re

line is in general the greater th e more impure t h e mate
u ct i v i ty ,
rial the caus e seems to b e lack of homogen eity of th e mat erial ;

,
that i s the presence either on the s urface as s cal e or in th e body

, , , ,
as i ng l omerate of mat eri al s of difi erent magn etic characteris tics

,
magnetite cementite silicide Such materi al s have a much

, ,
.
greater hardn ess that is high er value of a and thereby would

, , ,
give th e observed eff ect A t l ow field intensit ies H th e harder .

, ,
material carries practically no fl ux and all the fl ux is carried by ,
th e s oft mat eri al T h e fl u x d ensity th erefore ris es rapi dly g ivi ng

.
,
l ow a b ut t end s toward an apparent l ow saturation value as

, ,
th e fl u x carrying mat eri al fill s only part of th e s pac e

-
A t hi g h er .
fiel d in ten si ties t h e h arder material b egin s to carry fl ux a nd

, ,
wh il e in th e softer mat erial th e fl ux increases l es s th e i ncrease of ,
fl ux in th e hard er mat erial g iv es a great er increase of tot al fl ux

den sity and a great er saturation val ue but al s o a g reater har d ,
ness as th e res ultant of both materials

,
.
T h us if th e magn etic mat erial is a conglomerate of fractio n p

,
of soft mat erial of reluctivi ty p (ferrite) and q 1 p of h a rd l
material of relucti vity p (c ement ite s ilicide magnetite) , g , , ,
+
'
O1 H
+ O 2H
'
at l ow val ues of H th e part p of th e s ecti on carries fl ux by p t h e

, l ,
part q carries fl ux by p but as p is very h i gh compar ed w ith p g, z ] ,
th e l att er fl ux i s n egl i gi bl e and it i s ,
0 1
— H
At high val ues of H the fl ux goes throu gh both materi al s mo re or

, ,
less in seri es and it th us i s ,
Pm q (
P l
a q z
a ) (P6 1 90 9 11 (1 2)
if w e assu me th e s am e s at urati on v al ue , a, for both materials , an d
n egl ect a compar ed with

l it is 61 2 ,
q as + O
'
H ( )
1 3
S u b s titutin g , as ins tance (7) ,

and (9 ) into (1 1 ) and (13 )
res pecti vel y gi ves ,
M A GN E T I S M 49
h e nce,
p pl H,
q pa H .
However , the aturation coefficients a of the tw o material s

s , ,
p r ob a bly ar e u s ual ly not equ al .
T h e d eviati on of th e reluctivity equati on from a s trai ght lin e ,
b y th e change of slope at th e critical points 6 2 and ca thus probably , ,
i s onl y apparent and i s the outward app earanc e Of a change of

,
t h e fl ux carri er in an unhomogen eous mat erial that i s th e res ul t , ,
of a second and magn etical ly har d er mat erial b eginning to carry
fiu x .
S uch bend s in the reluctivity l ine have been artificially produced

b y Mr J ohn D B all in com b ining by s uperposition tw o di ff erent
. .
materi als whi ch separately gave straight lin e p cu rves whil e

t
-
, , ,
combin ed th ey gav e a c urv e s how ing th e characteri s t i c b end .
V ery impur e material s li ke c as t iron may giv e throughout a , ,
cu rv ed rel uctivity lin e .
32 F or v ery low values Of fi eld int ensity H

. 3 how ev er th e , , ,
s t rai ght lin e l aw of reluctivity apparently fail s

-
and the mag ,
ne ti z ati on curv e in F i g 23 h as an i nward b end which gi v es ri se

.
,
O f p with d e creas ing H .
T h is curv e i s taken by b allis tic galvanom et er by th e s tep b y ,

-
ste p method that is H i s increased i n s ucc es s ive s t eps and th e

, , ,
in creas e of B observed b y the thr ow of th e galvanom eter n eedl e .
I t thus i s a ri sing magn etization cur v e .
T h e firs t part of this curve i s in F i g 25 r eproduc ed as B .

, ),
i n twic e the ab s ciss a and hal f th e ord i nates so as to gi v e it an ,
av erage slop e of as with thi s slop e curv e s hap es s u ch as th e
i nwar d b end of B 1 b elow H 2 are b es t s hown ( E ngin eeri ng ,

“
M ath ematic s p ”
, .
Sup pos e now at som e point B o , w e s top the increas e ,
of H and d ecreas e again down to 0

, W e do not return on the , .
same magn etization curv e B but on another curve B the '

, 1, , 1,
decreas i ng magn etic charact eri s tic ”

and at H
“
0 w e are not , ,
back to B 0 b ut a residual or reman ent fl ux i s l eft in F i g 2 5 :

, ,
.
R
Where magn etic circuit contain s an air gap as t h e fiel d
t he -
,
circuits Of el ectrical machin ery t h e d ecrea s ing magn et i c charac

,
teristic B i s v ery much n earer to th e increasi ng one B than in

’
, 1, , l,
4
th e cl os ed magnetic ci rcuit F i g 25 and practical l y coincid es for ,

.
,
hi gher values of H .
T h ere app ears no th eoretical reas on w h y th e rising ch aracter

i sti c B S houl d b e sel ect ed as th e representati ve magn etization
, 1,
curv e and not th e d ecreas in g char acteri stic B ex cept th e inci

, ,
’
1,
d ent that B passes thr ough zero I n many engin eering applica
, 1 .
tions for i n stance th e calcul ation of the regul ation Of a gen erator
, , ,
that is th e d ecrease of vol tage under i ncrease of l oad it i s oh

, ,
v i ou sl y th e d ecr eas i ng charact eri s tic B which i s determining ,

'
1, .
S uppo se w e continu e B into n egative valu es of H to th e poin t

’
1 ,
A at H B — 4 and th en again rev ers e w e g et a ri s

I ,
ing magn etization curve B whi ch pass es H" 0 at a n egativ e

,
,
,
,
reman ent magn etis m S uppos e w e s top at point A at H . 2,
B th e ri sing magn etization c u rv e B th en pass es

H 0 at a po s itiv e reman ent magn etis m T h ere mus t thus b e .
a poin t A b etw een A I and A s uch that the rising magn etiza
, O, 2,
tion curve B starting from A passes through th e zero point

,
’
, O,
H 0 B 0 and th ereby run s into th e curv e B 1

, , ,
.
T h e ri s ing magn etization c urv e or s tandard magn etic chara c ,
t eri s ti c d et ermin ed by th e s t ep b y s t ep m ethod B th u s i s noth - -

, 1,
ing but th e rising branch of an un symm etrical hys teresis cycl e ,
—
traversed between such limit s + B o and A 0 that th e ris ing ,
branch of th e hys teresi s cycl e passes through th e z ero point .
33 T h e charact eri s tic s hap e of a hyst eresi s cycl e i s that it i s a

.
l oop poi nt ed at eith er end and th ereby having an i nfl exi on point

,
about th e middl e of either branch I n th e un symm etrical loop .
+B —
1, A O of F i g 25 th e z ero poi nt i s fai rl y cl o se to one ex tre m e
.
, ,
A O and th e i nfiexi on point characteris tic of th e hy s t er es i s loop

, , ,
thus l ies bet w een 0 and B o that i s on that part of the risi ng , ,
branch whi ch i s used as th e magn eti c characteristic B I

,
”
, ,
and th ereby produc es th e inward bend in th e magn etization cu rv e

at l ow fiel ds which h as al ways been so puzzl i ng
,
.
I f how ever w e would s top th e increa se of H at B 0 w e woul d

, , ,
g et t h e d e cr ea s ing magn et i zation curv e B and s till o th er ,

’
1,
curves for oth er s tarting points of th e d ecreasi ng characteris ti c .
T hu s th e relation b etween magn etic fl ux d en s ity B an d mag

, , ,
m etic fiel d inten sity H i s not d efinit e but any point b etw een the
, , ,
”
various ris ing and d ecreas ing characteristics B B B B 1
’
1,
’
,
B
'
1, and for s om e distanc e out side thereof i s a possibl e B H ,
-
rel ation B h as th e characteristic that it passes through the

.
1
zero point B ut it i s not t he onl y characteri s tic which does this :

.
lin e given as D : in F ig 28 A t higher val ues of H : from H 3 up
. .
ward B and B both coincide with the curv e B o representing th e

, 1 2 , ,
s traigh t l in e r eluctivity l aw
- .
FI G . 27.
FIG . 28.
T he alternating charact eris tic B i s not a branch of any hystere

, 2,
s i s cyc l e
. I t is reprod u c i b l e and ind ep end ent of th e previous
hi s tory of the m agn eti c c irc ui t ex cept perh aps at ex trem ely l ow
,
val ues of H and i n view of i ts engineeri ng i mportance as rept e

,
M A ON E T I SM 53
sen ting the condition s in the al ternating magn etic field it woul d ,
app ear the most representative magn eti c characteristic and is ,
commonl y used as such .
I t h as howev er th e dis ad v antage that it represent s an nu

, ,
s tabl e condition .
T hu s i n F i g 2 7 an al t ernating fi el d H
.
,
1 g ives an alt ernating
fl ux d ensity B 2 , I f how ever this fi el d s tren g th H 1 , ,
i s l eft on th e magn etic circ uit th e fl ux does not r emai n at B , z
but g raduall y creeps up to higher values es pecially in the ,
p r es e nc e o f m echanica l V ibration s or s light pul s ation s of t h e
magn etizing current T o a l esser ex tent the s ame occurs w ith .

,
the val ues of curv e B to a great er ext ent w ith B 3 ,

A t very l ow
1, .
den s ities this creepage due to ins tabil ity of th e B H rel ation may
,
-
amount to hundreds of per cent and continue to an appreciabl e .
ext ent for minut es and with magneticall y hard material s for
,
many years T hus steel structures in th e terrestrial magneti c

.
field S how immediately af ter erection onl y a small part of th e

magnetization which they final l y assum e after many years
, , .
T hus th e al ternating charact eri stic B howev er import ant i n , 2,
el ectrical engin eering can due to i t s in s tability not b e con s id ered

, , ,
as representing th e tru e phys ical relation b etw een B and H any
more than the branch es of hyst eresis cycles B and B 3 1 .
34 C orrectl y th e rel ation b etw een B and H thus can not b e

.
,
ex pr es s ed by a curv e but by an area , .
S uppo se a hyst eres is cycl e i s p erform ed b etween infinit e values

of fi el d int en s ity : H i n that is practicall y between very o
, ,
high values s uch as are giv en for instance by the isthmus m ethod
of magnetic testing (wh ere values of H of over have b een
reached V ery much l ow er val ues probabl y give practicall y th e
.
sam e curve) T h i s giv es a magn etic cycl e s hown in F i g 5 as

. .
”
A ny point H B with i n t h e area of thi s l oop b etween B
’ ’
B B , .
, , ,
and B of F i g 27then represent s a possibl e conditi on of th e

.
magn etic circuit and can b e reach ed by starting from any oth er
,
point H B o s uch as the zero point by gradual change of H

, 0, , ,
.
T hu s for in s tanc e from point P o th e poin ts P P P et c are

, , , I, 2, 3, .
,
reach ed on the curv es shown in the dotted l ines in F ig 27 . .
A s seen from F i g 2 7 a gi v en val u e of fiel d int en sity s uch as

.
, ,
H 1 may gi v e any val ue of fl ux d en s ity b etween B

,
and B and a given val ue of fl ux d en sity such as B ,
1 0 may res ul t from any val ue of fi el d int en sity b etw een H

, ,
to H +34
T he different val ues of B corres ponding to the sam e value of H ,
in the magnetic area F i g 27 are not equall y stabl e but th e v al

,
.
, ,
u es n ear th e l imit s B and B are v ery un s tab l e and b ecom e more

” ’
,
s tab l e toward th e int erior of th e area T hus th e rel ation of .

,
point P F i g 27: H 2 B
1, . 1 3 wou l d rapid l y change by the
, , ,
fl ux d en s ity d ecreasing to P sl ower to P and th en s till sl ower , 0, 2 ,
whil e from point P th e fl ux d en sity woul d g radual l y creep up

3 .
I f thus fo ll ows that s om ewh ere b etween th e ex trem es B and

’
,
B which are most un stab l e there mus t b e a val ue of B which is , ,
s tab l e that i s repres ent s th e s tationaryand p erman ent r el ation

, ,
b et ween B and H and toward this stab l e val ue B o al l oth er val

, , ,
u es woul d graduall y approach T hi s th en woul d giv e th e tru e .

, ,
magn etic characteristic : the stabl e physical rel ation b etween B

and H .
A t high er fi el d int en s ities b eyond th e firs t critical point cl , , ,
this s tabl e condi tion i s rapid ly reached and th erefore i s given b y ,
all t h e m ethod s of d et erm in in g magn etic charact eri s tics Henc e .

,
th e curv es B B B o coin cid e th ere and the l in ear l aw of r e

1, 2, ,
l ucti v i ty appl ies B el ow c however th e range of poss ib l e B

.
l , , , ,
val ues is so l arge and th e final approach to the stab l e val ue s o

,
s low as to mak e it d i ffi cul t of d et ermi nation

, .
3 5 F or H
. 0 th e magn etic range i s from — Ro to
,
+R o th e p erman ent val ue i s z ero T h e m ethod of reach .
ing th e perman ent val ue whatever may b e th e reman ent mag ,
neti s m i s w el l known ; it is by d emagn etizing that is pl acing

” “
, ,
th e mat erial into a powerful al ternating fi el d a d emagn etizin g ,
coil and graduall y reducing this fiel d to z ero T hat i s descri b

,
.
,
ing a l arge numb er of cycl es with g raduall y d ecreas ing amplitu de .
T h e s am e can b e appl ied to any oth er point of t he magn eti z a

ti on cur ve T hus for H . 1 to reach p erman ent condition an , ,
al t ernating m m f i s superimposed upon H

. . . 1 and gradua ll y ,
d ecreas ed to zero and during thes e success iv e cycl es of decreas

,
ing ampl i tud e with H 1 as m ean val ue the fl ux dens ity grad u
, , ,
al l y approach es its permanent or stab l e val ue (T he onl y re .
q u i r em en t i s that t h e initia
,
l a l t ernating fi el d mu s t b e high er than
any unidirectional fiel d to whi ch th e magnetic circuit had been

ex po s ed ) .
T his s eem s to b e th e val ue gi v en by curve B o that i s b y t h e , ,
s trai ght l i n e l aw of rel uct i v i ty

-
I n other word s it i s pro b able .
,
that
F rohl ich s equation or Kenn ell y s l in ear l aw of rel ucti v ity
’ ’
,
MA GN E T I SM 55
represent the perman ent or stabl e rel ation between B and H ,
that i s the true magnetic charact eri stic of the material over the
, ,
entire rang e down to H 0 and th e i nward b end of th e magn et i c

,
characteristic for l ow field inten sit ies and corres ponding increas e,
of reluctivity p i s the pers is tence of a condition of magn etic

,
ins tabil ity j ust as remanent and permanent magnetis m are

, .
I n approaching stable condition s by th e s uperpo sit i on of an

al t ernating fi el d thi s fi eld can b e appl i ed at right angl es to th e
,
unidirectional fi el d as by pass ing an al t ernating current l ength

,
wise that i s in the direction of th e l in es of magnetic force through

, , ,
th e mat erial of th e ma g n etic circuit T his superimpo s es a cir .
cul ar a l te rnating fl ux upon th e continuou s l ength fl ux and per -

,
mits ob servation s while the circul ar al ternating fl ux ex is ts since ,
t h e latt er does not induc e in th e ex pl oring circuit of th e form er .
Som e 20 years ago E wing h as al ready s hown that und er th ese ,
conditions th e hys teresis loop coll apses the inward b end of the ,
magn etic characteris tic practicall y vanis hes and the magnetic ,
characteri s tic as s um es a shape l ike curv e B o .
T o conc l ud e th en it i s probabl e that

, ,
I n pure homogen eous magn etic mat erial s th e s tabl e rel ation ,
between fiel d intensity H and fl ux d ens ity B is ex press ed over

, , , , ,
the entire range from z ero to infin i ty by the lin ear equation ,
of rel uctivity
a + aH ,
where p appl ies to th e metall ic magnetic induction B H , .
I n un homogen eou s mat erial s th e sl op e of th e rel uctivity l ine

,
changes at one or more critical poi nts at which the fl ux path ,
changes by a material of greater magnetic hardn ess beginning

,
to carry fiux .
A t l ow fi el d int en s iti es th e range of un s table values of B is

,
very great and the approach to stabil ity s o sl ow that con sid erabl e
, ,
d eviation of B from its stab l e val ue can persis t som etim es for ,
years in the form of remanent or perman ent magnetism th e

, ,
inward bend of th e mag netic characteristic etc , .

C HA PT E R I V
MA GN E T I SM
Hysteresi s
36 U . nlike the electric current which req ui res pow er for i ts ,
mai ntenance the maintenance of a magnetic fl ux does not requi re

,
en erg y ex p enditure (th e en erg y con s um ed by the ma g netiz i ng
current in the ohmic res istanc e of the magn etizing wi ndin g be ing
,
an el ectrical and not a magnetic eff ect) but energ y is required ,
to produce a magn etic fl ux is then stored as potential energ y i n

,
th e magn etic fl ux and i s return ed at the d ecreas e or di s a p pear

,
ance of th e magn etic fl ux However the amount of energ y t e

.
,
turned at the decrease of magn etic fl ux is less than the energy

cons umed at th e s ame increas e of magnetic fl ux and energ y is ,
th erefore dissipated by the magn etic change by convers ion i nto ,
heat by what may b e call ed molecular mag neti c fri cti on at leas t
, ,
in tho se material s which have permeabil ities m aterial ly hi g her

,
than unity .
T hus if a magn etic fl ux i s periodical ly chang ed bet w een

, ,
B and B or b etween B 1 and B a as by an alternating or pul

, ,
s ating cur rent a di ssipation of energ y by mol ecular fr i ction

,
occurs during each magn etic cycl e E x periment shows th at th e .
en erg y con s um ed per cycl e and cm of magn etic material depends 3

.
onl y on th e l im its of the cycl e B 1 and B b ut not on th e speed or

, 2,
wave s hape of the change .
I f th e en er g y wh i ch i s con s um ed by mol ecular fri cti on is su p

pl ied by an el ectri c current as magn etizing force it h as the efl ect
'
that the rel ation s b etween the magn etiz ing current i or m ag neti c , ,
fiel d intens ity H and the magn eti c fl ux d en sity B is not revers
, , , ,
i b l e but for ris ing H th e d en s ity B i s l ower than for d ecr easi ng
, , , , ,
H ; that is th e magn eti s m l ags b ehind th e magn eti z ing f or ce and

, ,
the ph enom enon thu s i s call ed hys teresi s and gives rise to the ,
hys teresi s l oop .
However , hys t eresis and mol ec ul ar magn etic fri ction are not
56
M A GN E T I S M 57
th e sa me thing b ut
, th e hysteres is Ioop i s the
m eas ure of the mo
l ecul ar magn etic friction only in that cas e when en er g y i s s uppl ied ,
to or ab s tracted from the magnetic circuit onl y by th e mag neti z

i n g cur rent but not oth erwise
, T hus if m echanical wor k is don e
.
,
—
b y th e magn etic cycl e as wh en attracting and dropping an arm a
—
t u re th e hys teres is l oo ps enl arge representing not onl y the ,
en erg y diss ipat ed by mo l ec ul ar magn etic friction but al s o that ,
co nv er ted into m echanical work I nv ersely if m echanical en.

,
er g y i s s uppl i ed to th e magn etic circuit as by v i brati ng it m echan
i ca ll y the hys teres i s l oop coll ap ses or ov ert urn s and i ts area
, ,
b e com es equal to the mol ec ul ar magn etic fri ction m i nu s the

m ech anical en erg y abs orb ed T he react i on machine as synchron
.
,
ou s motor and as gen erator i s bas ed on this feature , S ee .
R e a ction M achine T h eory and C al cul ati on of E l ectri cal

“ “
,
A pparatus .
I n g en eral wh en s p eak ing of hys t eres is mol ecular magn et i c ,
fri ction i s m eant and the hysteres is cycl e ass um ed und er th e con
,
di tion Of no oth er en ergy convers i on and this as s umpt i on will b e ,
mad e i n the following ex c ept where ex pres sl y s tat ed oth erwise

, .
T h e hys teresi s cycle is ind epend ent of th e frequ ency withi n

commercial frequenci es and far b eyond this range E v en at .
frequencies of hun dred thous and cycl es ex perimental evi d ence ,
seems to s how that th e hys t er es is cyc l e i s not mater i all y changed ,
e x ce pt in so far as eddy c u rr ent s ex ert a d emagn et i z i ng action and
t h ereb y requi re a ch ange of the immes s ed to g et th e s ame

res ul tan t and cause a change of th e magn etic fl ux dis
t ri b uti on by their s creening eff ect .
A change of th e hys teres is cycl e occ urs onl y at very sl ow cyc l es

—c ycles of a dur ation from several m i nutes to years— and even
th en to an appreciabl e ex tent on l y at v ery l ow magn etic d en s ities .
— —
T h us at l ow val ues of B b el ow 1 000 hy st eresi s cyc l es tak en by
ball is tic galvanom eter are l iabl e to b ecom e i rr eg ul ar and erratic ,
by magnetic creepage F or mo s t pract i cal p urpos es however

.
, ,
this may b e negl ected .
37 A s th e indus triall y mos t important varying magn etic fi el ds

.
are the alternating magn etic fi eld s t h e hy s t eres i s l o ss i n al t ernat

,
ing magnetic fiel ds that i s in symm etri cal cycl es i s of most

, , ,
Ingeneral if a mag netic fl ux changes from the condi ti on H 1

, ,
3 : point P I of Fi g 29 to the condit i on H 3 : poi nt P and w e

1 .
, 2, 2 2,
assume this ma netic circuit sur round ed by an el ectric c i rcuit of

g
n turn s th e change of magn etic fl ux induces in

, the l ctri c
e e
cuit the vol tage in ab sol ute un i t s

, ,
d <l>
e =
n
dl
i t is , however ,
w h ere 8 se ction of magnet i c c i rcuit . Henc e

dB
e
dt
current in th e el e ctri c circuit , th e mmf

. . . is
F ni
and the magnet i z i ng for ce
h r
w e e l l ength of the magn eti c circuit .
A nd th e fiel d i nten sity

H 41rf
h ence ,
su bs t i tuting (5 ) into (6) and tran s pos ing ,
lH
41 m
(7 )
i s th e magnetizi ng current i n th e el ectri c circui t whi ch produc ,

e s
the fl ux d en si ty B ,
.
T h e pow er con su m ed by t h e vol tage induc ed in th e elect r i c
c ircuit thus is
sl H dB
1? m
41r dt
or , p er cm of the magneti c ci rcui t that is

.
3
, ,
for s 1 and l
H dB
9
41r dt
and the en erg y con sumed by the change from H 1 B 1 to H3 , ,
w hich i s tran s ferred from t h e el ectric into th e mag neti c cir c u l tr
or i nversel y ,
H dB ergs
T hetotal en ergy of this rectangl e , or maximu m available

magneti c energy is ,
or if p
, permeab il ity thus, H
FI G . 31 .
t he max imu m poss ibl e hysteres is l oss .
T h e i n effic i ency of t he magn et i c cycl e or perc entage ,

10 88 ( f
en ergy i n t h e magn et i c cyc l e thus i s
,
FIG . 32 .
4B 2
39 . E x p eri m ent shows that for medium fl ux d ens ity that i ,

—
fl r
thoses val u es of B whi ch are of the mos t importanc e indus trialL ZJ '
r
M A GN E T I SM 61
from B 1 000 to B the hys teres is l os s can with s uffi

cient accuracy for most practi cal purposes b e approx imated by
th e empirical equation ,
FIG . 33 .
where m the coefficient of hysteres is is of the magn itude

“
,
of 1 X to 2 x for ann eal ed soft sheet steel if B is ,
g iv en in lines of forc e p er cm }
and
, w i s e rg s p er cm . and
3
cyc l e .
Very ofte n w is gi ven in jo ul es or watt second s per cyc l e and

,
-
p er k i logram or pound of iron and ,B in l in es p er s quar e in ch ,
or w is g iven in watts per kilogram or per pound at 60 cycl es .

hown w ith B as abs cis sa the hys teres is l oss 10

I n F ig 33 is . s , , , ,
of a sampl e of silicon steel T he obs erved values are marked .
by circles I n dott ed lines is gi ven th e curve calculated by the

.
equation
w X E L B
(1 6)
th
A s s ee n
agreement the c urve of l 6 power with th e tes t
, the .
val ues i s good up to B b ut above this dens i ty the ,
observ ed values ris e above th e curve .
40 I n F i g 34 i s pl ott ed with fi el d inte ns ity H as ab s ciss a

. .
, , , ,
the magn etization curve of ordinary ann eal ed s heet s teel in ,
FI G . 34 .
hal f s cal e as curve 1 and t he magnetization curve of mag netite

-
, ,
Fe O g
— which is about the same as the bl ack scale of iron ln
4
—
do ubl e s cale as curve 1 1 A S 11 1 then is plotted in full scale
-
, .
,
-
a curve ta king of I and of I I T his woul d corres pond t o .
t he average magn etic d ens ity i n a mat erial containi n g 80 per cen t .
of iron and 20 per c ent (by vol um e) of s cale Cu rv es I and I I I

. .
’ '
s how t h e initial part of I and I I I with ten times the scale o f ,
abs ciss a and the same s cal e of ordinat es .
F i g 3 5 then s hows with the average magn etic fl ux density B

.
, , ,
taken from curve 11 1 of F ig 34 as ab s ciss a the part Of the ma g

.
, ,
MA GN E T I SM 63
n et i c fl ux dens ity whi ch is carri ed b y the mag neti te as curve 1 , .
A s seen th e ma g n etite carries p ractically no fiux up to B

,
10 ,
b u t beyond B 1 2 the fl ux carried b y the mag netite rapi dly

,
i nc reases .
A s curve I I of Fi g 35 is s hown th e h yst eresis loss in this inh omo

.
g e n eo u s mat e ria l con s is ting of 8 0 p er c e nt f errit e (iron ) .and 2 0
p e r c ent magn
. e tit e (s cal e) calc ul at ed from curv es I and I I of F i g .
FIG . 35 .
34 under th e ass umpti on that either mat erial rigidly foll ows t he
power law up to t h e high es t d en s it i es by t h e equat i on , ,
Iron:
—3
l s
X 10
'
Bu l '
6
X
As cu rve '
1 1 is s hown in dotted l i nes the power equation ,
—
w 13 x 10
1 -6 3
th
A n while either constituent follows the 1 6 power law
s s ee , .
,
t he combination d eviat es therefrom at h igh d en si ties and gi ves ,
an increase of hysteres is loss of the same general characteri s t ic ,
as s hown with th e s ilicon s t eel in F i g 3 3 and with mo s t s imil ar .

,
material s .
A s curve I I I in F i g 35 i s th en s hown the increase of t h e b ys te

.
—
res i s co efficient n at h i gh d en s ities ov er t h e val ue
,
X 10 ,
3
,
which it h as at med i um densities .
T hus th e d eviation of t he hyst eres is lo s s at high d ens iti es

, ,
from the po w er law may poss ibl y b e onl y apparent a n d , ,
the res ul t of lack of homogen eity of th e mat erial .
41 A t l ow magn etic d en sities the l aw of t he

. power m us t ,
ceas e to repres ent th e hys teres is l oss even appro x imat el y .
T h e hys teres is lo s s as fraction of th e availabl e magn et i c en e rgy

, ,
is by equation
,
W p ul
B 2
S ubs t i t u t i ng herei n the parabo li c equation of th e hys t e res is

l oss ,
w
where n i t is
l mm
’
1m B A
”,
W i th d ecreas ing dens ity B , B " s t ead il y increas es

‘
2
,
if n 2 , and
as the permeabil ity p approaches a cons tant value I s tea dil y i n , ,
creas es i n this c ase thus woul d become unity at s ome l ow de n s ity

, ,
B and b elow this great er t han unity

, T his howev er is not
, .
, ,
po s s ib l e as it woul d imply more en ergy dis sipated than av ai la b le

, , ,
and thus wo ul d contradict the l aw of conservation of e n ergy .
T hus for l ow magn etic d en siti es if th e para bol ic law of hy s teres is

, ,
7
( ) appl ies th e ex pon ent mus t b e : n
1 ,
2 .
I n th e case of F i g 33 for 77 X as s uming t h e p e r

.
,
meab il i ty for ex trem el y low d en s ity as
p 1 5 00,
g
‘
becomes unity by equat ion ,

at
B = 30 .
If n t adil y decreases with decreas ing B and th e per

2, B ” 2
s e ,
centage hys teresi s l oss becomes l ess that is the cycle approa ches , ,
reversi bility for decreasi ng density ; in other words the hys ,
teresi s loss van i sh es T h i s i s po ssibl e but not probab l e and the

.
, ,
MA GN E T I S M 65
p r o ba b ility i s that for very l ow magn etic dens ities the hysteres is
,
l o sses approach proportional i ty with t he s quare of t he magn etic

de ns ity that is the perc entage lo ss approach es con s tancy
, , .
F rom equation (1 7 ) fo l l ow s
FI G . 36
.
l og w = l og n + n l og B
T hat is
“
hyst eresis loss foll ows a parabol ic l aw the curve plotted
I f t he ,
with l og w again st log B i s a s traight l i n e and th e sl ope of this

,
straight line is the ex pon ent n

”
.
,
5
hus to investigate the hys teresis law l og w is plotted against

T , ,
l og B T h is i s don e for t he silicon s teel F i g 33 over th e ra nge

.
,
.
,
from B 3 0 to B in F i g 36 as c u rve I .
,
.
C urve I contains two s traight part s for m edium d ens iti es , ,
from l og B 3 ; B 1 000 to log B 4; B w ith s lope

,
and for l ow d ens iti es up to log B B 400 with , ,
sl op e T hus it is
F or 1 000 5 B 4
”
w B X
B 4 400
w E 2 11
’
X
H owev e r , i n th is l ower range ,
n 2 gi v es a c u rve
w B 2
X 10 -
3
which s till fairl y wel l satisfi es the ob served valu es .
A s the l ogari thmic curve for a s ampl e of ordi na ry an n eal ed

s h eet s t eel F i g 3 7 giv es for th e l ow er rang e th e ex pon ent
,
.
, ,
n :
and as the d ifficul ties of ex act m eas urements of hysteres is l osses

increase wi th decreas i ng d en si ty it i s quite poss ibl e that i n both , ,
F ig s 36 and 3 7 th e tru e ex pon ent in the l ower ran ge of mag

.
netic d en sities is the theoretical l y mos t probabl e one ,
n =
2,
that is that at abo ut B 5 00 in iron th e point is reach e d below

, , ,
w h i ch th e hys t er es i s l os s vari es w ith th e s quare of th e m agn etic

den si ty .
42 A s over mo s t of th e magn et i c range th e hys teres is lo ss can

.
b e ex pres s ed by th e parabo l ic l aw it appears des irabl e t o

adapt thi s empi rical l aw al s o to th e range where th e logarithmi c
curve F i g s 3 6 and 3 7 is curv ed and the parabol ic law does no t
,
.
, ,
appl y above B , and between B 5 00 and B 1 00 0 ,
or thereabouts T his can b e don e either by ass uming the coef f i

.
cient n as v ariab l e or by ass uming th e ex pon ent n as variable

, .
( )
a A s s um i ng n as con s tant ,
7
1 0 824 X 10
-
3
for the medium range where n S ,
—
7
11 X 10 3
for t he l ow range wh ere n1 3 , 2
T he coeffic ients n and u 1 cal cul ated from t he observ ed val u es

F i g 3 7s hows th e val ues

. of 77and m as cal cul ated from the para ,
b oli c equat i ons with n an d n 1 2 and F ig 3 6 s how s t h e ,

.
perc entual variation of 77and m

T h e l att er m ethod (b ) i s preferabl e as i t uses on l y one ex po
, , ,
n ent , in the industri al range and uses m erel y a correction ,
factor F urth ermore in the m ethod (a) the variation of th e

.
, ,
ex pon ent i s v ery s ma l l ri s ing on l y t o or_

, by p er c ent whil e .
,
in m ethod (b) the correction factor i s or 46 per cent thus a .
much greater accuracy poss ibl e .
43 I f the parabo l i c l aw appl i es

.
,
w 3
11
”
t h e s l op eof the l ogarithmic curve i s th e ex ponent n .
I f however t h e parabol ic l aw do es not rigi d l y apply th e l pe

, , ,
of the l ogarithmic curv e i s not the ex pon ent and in the range , ,
where the l ogari thm i c curve is not strai ght th e ex pon ent thus ,
can not even b e approx imatel y derived from th e sl ope .
F rom (1 7 ) fo l l ows
l og w l og 7
7 n l og B (1 9 ) ,
d iff erenti ating gives in the gen eral cas e where the parabol i c
, ,
l aw do es not strictl y appl y ,
d l og w d l og n + nd l og B + l og B dn ,
h enc e , the sl ope of the l ogarithm i c curve is

d l og w .
dn d l og q
d l og B
If con stant and n con stant

n , , the se cond term on t he
right hand s id e dis appear s and it i s
-
,
d l og w _
n
d l og B
that is th e slope of the l ogarithmic curve is th e ex ponent

, .
I f however I? and n are not con s tant th e second term on the

, , ,
right hand s id e of equation (20) does not in gen eral disappear

-
,
and the s10 pe thus does not give the ex ponent .
A ss uming in this l atter cas e th e s l op e as th e ex pon ent it mus t ,
l og B
M A GN E T I SM 69
Inthis case n and much more s ti ll 17s how a very great varia
,
tion and the variation of 77is so enormous as to make this repre

,
s entati on val uel es s .
A s ill u s tration i s s hown in F i g 3 6 the S lope of th e curve as , .

,
n 2.A s seen n vari es v ery much more than n or n

, z l .
T o s how th e three diff erent r epres entation s in th e foll owing ,
tabl e the values of n and 77are s hown for a diff erent s ampl e of ,
i ron .
T AB LE
b el ow u = 1 6 a
=
1 2 5 4 x 1 00
-
3
nz = 1 6
1 79
1 604 1 3 02 2 23
1 61 7 1 468 2 66
1 62 4 1 570 2 83
1 630 1 668 2 98
As s ee n to represent an increase of hysteresis l oss by

,
i ggi
or 3 9 per c ent under
.
,
nz is nearl y do u bl ed and , 7
1 2 re
44 . T he quation of the hys teresis l oss at med i u m d ens ities

e ,
W n
is ntirel y empiri cal and no rational reason has yet been found
e ,
why th i s appro x imation S ho ul d appl y C al cul ating th e coeffi .
cient n from test val ues of B and W shows usu all y val ues cl ose to ,
but not infreq uentl y val ues of n are fo u nd as l ow as and ,
ev en val u es b el ow and val ues u p to and even abov e

I n gen eral howev er th e more acc urate t es t s giv e val u es of n
, ,
which do not di ff er very m u ch from s o that th e lo s s es can
s till b e repres ent ed by th e c u rv e with th e ex po ne nt n
without s erious error T h is is des irabl e as it p ermits comparing

.
,
di ff erent mat erial s by compari n g th e co effic i ent s It T h is would

n ot b e t h e c as e if diff erent val u es of n w ere u sed as eve n a s mal l
, ,
change of n makes a very large change of n: a change of n by 1 per

c ent at B. cha nges 17by abo ut 1 6 per c ent .
7
0 E L E C T R I C CI R C U I T S
Thus in F i g 3 7is represented as I the logarithmic curv e Of a

.
s ampl e of ordinary ann eal ed s h eet s teel which at me dium den

,
si ty giv es th e ex pon ent n at l ow densities the ex ponent

nl A ss uming however n
, and u 1
, giv es
the average val ues 7 7 X and m X l 0 and the ‘
s
,
FIG . 38 .
cal cul ated val ues of n and m are then s hown on F i g

in d i v id u al .
3 7by cro s ses and three pointed s tars res pectively

-
,
.
F i g 3 8 th en s hows th e c u rv e of ob served loss i n d raw n li ne

.
, ,
th
and the 1 6 power c u rve cal c ul ated in dotted line and F ig 3 9
.
, .
th e l o w er range of th e cal cul at ed curv e with the ob servat ions

,
marked by c i rcl es F ig 40 s hows for the l ow rang e the curv e

. .
, ,
MA GN E T I SM 71
of lry i n t w o diff erent

cal s
es with t h
, e ob s erv ed valu es mark ed
by c ycles A s seen although in this case the deviation of n from
.
,
res pe ctively 2 is con s id erabl e th e curv es drawn with n

,
a nd n ; 2 s till repres ent the ob served values fairly wel l in
FI G . 39 .
the ran g e of B from 5 00 to and b el ow 5 00 res pectivel y so

, ,
th
t h at th e 1 6 power equation for th e m ed i u m and th e quadratic
.
,
equation for the low valu es of B can b e ass u m ed as s u ffici entl y
a cc urate for mo s t pu r po ses ex c ept in th e ran g e of high d en s ities

,
in those materials where the increas e of hysteres is loss oc curs

,
there .
Whil e the m easu rement of th e hys teres is lo ss appears a v e ry

s impl e matt er and can b e carried out fai rl y accurately ov e r a
,
FIG . 40.
narrow range of densities it is one of th e mos t difficult matters

,
meas u re the hyst eres is los s over a wid e range of d ensi ties wi 1 3 1
.
s u ch accuracy as to d efinit el y d et ermin e th e ex act val ue of t h e
ex pon en t n due to vary i ng con s tant errors which are beyond co n

, ,
M A GN E T I SM 73
trol W hile true errors of ob servations can b e eliminated by

.
multi plying data with a constant error this is not the case and if
, ,
t he con s tant error changes with th e magnetic d en s ity it res ults ,
in an apparent change of n Such con stant errors which i ncreas e .

,
or d ecreas e or ev en rev erse with changing B are in t he B al lis ti c

, ,
galvanometer method the magnetic creepage at lower B and at ,
high er B the s harp pointed S hape of the hysteresis Ioop w hich

-
,
makes the area between ris in g and decreas ing characteris tic
difficult to determine I n th e wattmeter method by alternating .
c u rrent varying constant errors are the losses in the ins tru m ents
, ,
th e eddy c u rrent l osses which change with th e changing fl u x dis

-
tri b u ti on by magn etic s creening in th e iron with th e t emperature , ,
etc . by wave shape distort ion th e un equality of th e inner and

-
,
outer length of the magn etic circuit etc ,

.
45 Symmetrical magnetic cycl es that i s cycl es perform ed b e

.
, ,
tween equal but oppo s ite magnetic fl ux densities + B and B — , ,
ar e ind u s trially th e mo s t i mportant as th ey occur in practically ,
al l al t ernating curr ent apparatu s - U n symm etric al cycl es that .

,
is cycl es b etween two diff erent val u es of magn etic fl u x d en s ity

, ,
B 1 and B o which may b e of diff erent or may b e of th e s am e

, ,
S ign ar e of l es ser indus trial importanc e and th erefore hav e b een

, ,
littl e inves tigated until rec entl y .
H ow ev er unsymm etrical cycl es are met in many cas es in al

,
ter natin g an d direct current apparatus and th erefore are of -

,
i mportance al s o .
I n mos t inductor al ternators th e magnetic fl ux in th e armatur e

does n ot revers e but pul sat es b etw een a high and a l ow val ue in
,
th e s am e direction and th e hys teres is lo ss thus i s that of an

,
uns ymm etrical non reversing cycl e -

.
U n s ymm etrical cycl es occur in tran s form ers and reactors by th e

s upe rpo si tion of a direct cur r ent upon th e alt ernating curr ent as ,
dis cuss ed in th e chapt er Shaping of Waves or by th e equi v a “

,
l ent th ereof such as the suppress ion of one half wave of th e al ter
,
-
nating cu rrent T hus in th e tran sformers and reactors of many

.
,
types of rectifiers as the mercury arc rectifier the magnetic cycle

,
-
,
i s u n symmetrical .
U n s ymmetrical cycl es occur in c ertain conn ections of tran s

formers (three phase star conn ection ) feeding three wire syn
- - -
chr onons converters if the direct current n eutral of the converter

,
-
i s conn ected to th e tran sformer n eutral .
T hey may occur and caus e s eri ous h eating if sev eral tran s ,
7
form ers with grounded neutral s

feed the sam e thr wi re dis tri ee-
b uti on circ uit by s tray rail w ay retur n current entering th e three

,
w ire a t ern ati ng dis tribution circuit ov er one n eutral and l eaving
it over anoth er one .
T w o s mall er un symm etrical cycl es often are s uperimpo se d on

an al ternating cycl e and th en increase the hys teres is 10 88 S uch
, .
occurs in transform ers or reactors by wave shapes of impres sed

vol tage having more than two zero val ues per cycle s uch as that ,
s hown in F i g 5 1 of th e chapter on
. Shapin g of W aves .
T h ey al s o occur s ometimes in the armatures of dir ec t cu rr ent -
motors at high armature reaction and low fiel d ex citation du e to ,
th e fl ux dis tortion and und er c ertain condition s in th e arm a tures

,
of regul ating pol e conv erters .
A l arge numb er of s mal l unsymm etrical cycl es are s om e tim es

s uperimpo s ed upon th e al t ernating cycl e by high fr equ ency pul -
s ation of th e al t ernat i ng fiux du e to th e rotor and s tator t ee th ,
and th en may produce high losses Such for ins tanc e i s th e .

, ,
case in ind u ction machines if the stator and rotor teeth a r e not ,
proportion ed so as to mai ntain uniform reluctance or in al t ern a ,
tors or direct current machin es in which the pol e fac es are sl otted
-
,
to receive damping windings or compen s ati ng wi ndin g s et c , , .

,
if th e proportion of armature and pol e piece sl ots i s not ca reful l y -
d es ign ed .
46 T h e hys t eresis l o ss in an un symmetrical cycl e b e tw een

.
,
l imit s B and B that i s w i th th e amp l itud e of magn etic vari ation

1 2, ,
3 8
5
1 2
B , fol l ows th e s am e approx imate l aw of th e 1 6 .
th
power ,
as l ong as th e average v al ue of th e magnetic fl ux variation ,
is con stant .
W i th changing B o however th e co effici ent no changes an d in

, , ,
creases with increas ing average fl ux densi ty B o ,

.
John D B al l h as shown that the hysteresis coeffi cient of the

.
,
unsymm etri cal cycl e increases with increasing averag e density ,
B o and appro x imat el y proportional to a power of B o

, T hat is .
,
7
7 37)
o ver that in a symmetrical cycle of the sam e amplitude

l os s ,
moderate but the increase of hys teres is los s becomes very larg
,
in hi ghl y unsymmetrical cycles ,

s uch as between 3 1
and B 2
C HA P T E R V
MA G N E T I SM
M ag n eti c Cons tants

47 With th e
. c ption of a few ferromagnetic s ubs tances t he
ex e ,
mag netic permeabil ity of all mat erials cond u ctors and di el ectrics , ,
gases l iq uids and s ol id s i s practi cal l y u nity for al l indus trial

, ,
Purposes E ven liqui d o x ygen which h as th e high es t perm ea

.
,
bili ty diff ers o nl y by a fraction of a per c ent from non magneti c

, .
-
mat eri al s .
T hus th e p erm eabil ity of n eody mium wh ich is one of the mos t ,
Par a magnetic m etal s i s 1 th e perm eab ili ty of bis muth

, 1 ,
wh ich i s very s trongly diamagn etic i s p 1 ,
T he magn eti c el em ents ar e iron cobalt nickel manganese , , ,
an d chromium I t i s interes ting to not e that th ey are in atomic

.
We i g ht adj oi ning each oth er i n th e latter part of the fi rs t half of

,
th e firs t l arge series of th e p eriodic sy s t em :
T i V C r Mn F C o N i Cu Z n e
A t o mi w i ght
c e 48 5 1 5 2 55 5 6 58 5 9 6 1 6 5
T he mos t characteris tic becaus e relativel y mos t constant i s

, ,
th e metalli c magnetic s atu ration S or i ts reciprocal th e s atura ,

, ,
ti o n coefficie nt a in th e rel uctivi ty eq u ati on T h e s aturatio n .

, ,
de nsity see ms to b e l ittl e if any aff ected by th e physical cond i tio n

Of the mate ri al B y th e ch emi cal compo sition s uch as by the
.
,
P e sence of i mp u ri t i es it i s aff ect ed o nl y in so far as it is reduc ed

r
,
ap roxi mat l y i n proport ion to t h

p e e vol u me occ u pied by th e non
ma g neti c material s ex c ept i n those cases wh ere new compounds
,
reS ul
t .
It seems that the satu ration val ue is an absolute l imi t of th e

,
el el
nent and in any mi x tur e all oy or compound th e saturatio n
, , ,
V al
ue reduc e d to t h e volum e of t h e magn etic m etal contain ed
ther e in can not ex ceed that of th e magnetic metal but may b e
, ,
1mit e
r if t h e magn etic m etal pa rtly or who l ly enters a compoun d
,
of 1
O wer intrins ic sa tu rat i on val ue T h us if S 2 1 X 1 0 is .
,
3
the s
aturation value of i ron an all oy 0 1 compoun d conta i ni ng ,
‘
77
72 per c ent by vol ume of iron can have a max imum satura tion
.
val ue of S X 21 X 1 0 X 1 0 onl y or a s t ill lo w er

3 ‘
,
s aturation valu e .
T h e only known ex ception h erefrom seems to b e an i ron co balt -
all oy which is alleged to have a s aturation value about 10 per

,
cent high er than that of iron though cobalt is l ower than i ron
.
,
.
T h e coefficie nt of magn etic hardn ess or however an d th e co , , ,
efficient of hys t eres is 17 vary with th e ch emical and mo re s till

, , ,
with the phys ical characteristic of th e magnetic material ov er an ,
enormou s range .
T hu s a s p ecial high silicon s teel and th e chill ed g l as s hard

,
-
,
tool s teel in th e foll o w in g tabl es have about the same perc e ntag e ,
of non magn etic con s ti tu ent s 4 per c ent

-
and about th e same ,
.
s aturation valu e S X 1 0 but th e coefficient of ha r dness

3
, ,
of chill ed tool s t eel or 8 X 10 4

is 200 tim es that of th e s pec i al
, ,
s il icon s t eel or , X 1 0 and the coefficient of hy s teres is of

4
,
th e ch il l ed tool s teel 17 75 X i s 1 25 tim es that Of t h e sili

,
con st eel 17 , X 10 4
Hardn ess and hysteres is loss seem .
to d epend in general on the phys ical characteris tics of th e material ,
and on the ch emical cons t itut i on onl y as far as it aff ects th e phys
ical characterist i c s .
C h emical compound s of magn et i c m etals are in gen e ral not

ferromagn etic ex c ept a few compo und s as magn etite wh i ch are
, ,
ferromagnetic .
W ith increas ing t emperat u re th e magnetic hardness a d ecreases , , ,
that is th e material b ecom es magneti cal ly s ofter and th e satura

, ,
tion d ensity S al so sl owl y decreases until a certain critical

, , ,
t emperature is reach ed (about 76D C with iron ) at which the °

.
,
material su ddenl y ceas es to b e magn etizable or ferromagnetic

b ut us uall y remai n s sl ightl y paramagn etic .
A s th e res ul t of t h e increas i n g magnetic s oftn ess and d ecreas in g

s at u ration d ens ity w ith i ncreasing t emperatu re the d ensity :
,
B at l ow fi el d i nt ens i t ies H increas es at h i gh fiel d i nten sitie s

, , , ,
decreases Such B temperat ure c u rves at constant H howeve r

.
-
, ,
ha ve l ittl e s ignificanc e as th ey combine th e eff ect of tw o chang e s

, ,
t h e i ncreas e of s oft ness w hich pre dominates at low H and th e , ,
decrease of saturatio n w hich predomin ates at high H , .
H eat treatment su ch as a nneal i ng cool ing etc very g reat l y

, , ,
.
,
cha nges th e magnet i c con stant s es pecially a and 17 more 0 1 — ,

'
l ess in corres pond enc e w i th th e change of th e physi c al constan ts

bro ught abo ut by th e heat treatment .
M A GN E T I S M 79
V e ry extend ed ex po s ure to mod erate tempe rature 1 00 to —

°
2 00 C —
. increases hardness and hysteres is loss w ith some mate
r ia l s, by what is called ageing wh ile other materials are al mo st ,
free of ageing .
48 T h e mos t important and th erefore mo s t compl etel y i n

.
,
v es t i g at e d magn etic m etal i s iron .
I ts s at u ration val u e i s probab l y b etween S 21 0 X 1 0 and

3
S X 1 0 th e s aturati on coefficient thus a

3
,
A s all indus triall y u s ed iron contain s s om e impu riti es ,
carbon s ili con manganese phos phorus s ulphu r etc usuall y

, , , , ,
.
,
s at u ration val ues b etw een 20 X 1 0 and 2 1 X 10 are found on

3 3
sh ee t s teel or cas t s t eel et c lower val ues 1 9 to X 10 ,

3
.
, , ,
in s ili con s teels containi ng several per c ent of Si and stil l much .
,
l ower values 1 2 to 1 5 X 1 0 in v ery impure mat erial s s uch as

,
3
, ,
cas t iron .
T w o types of iron all oys seem to ex is t

.1 T hos e in w h i ch th e al l oy i ng mat erial do es not directl y a ff ec t
the magn etic qual iti es but on l y in dir ectl y by r ed ucing th e v ol
, ,
tune of th e iron and th ereby th e s aturation val u e and by chang ,
ing the phys ic al characteris tic s and th ereby th e hardn ess and
hyst er es is los s .
Such apparentl y are th e all oys with carbon s il icon ti tanium , , ,
chromi u m mol ybd enum and tungsten etc as cas t iron s il i con
, ,
.
, ,
Steel magn et s teel et c

, , .
. 2 T hose in which th e al l oy i ng mat eri al cha nges t h e magnetic ,
Characte ris tic s .
Such apparentl y are th e al l oys with n i ckel mangan es e m ercury , , ,
co
pper cobal t et c
, , .
I n this c l ass al s o bel ong th e ch emi ca l compo u nd s of th e mag

II etic mat e rial s .
T h us a manganese content of 1 0 to 1 5 per c ent mak es th e iron

, .
Pr actical l y non magn etic l ow ers t he p erm eabil i ty to u

-
,
Ho wever even here it i s not c ertain wh eth er this is not an

,
reme case of magnetic hard ness an d at ex trem ely high

ext
,
In
a g net i c fiel ds th e normal s aturation va l ue of th e iron woul d b e
a p roach ed
p
'
.
S ome nickel s teels (25 per c ent N i ) may b e ei th er magn etic or .

,
n magn et i c H owev er pure iron wh en h eat ed to h i gh incan

tl O -
.
, ,
d e s cence be comes non magn etic at a c ertai n d efini te t emperat ure

-
, ,
a1 1 d w e
h n cool ing do w n b ecom es magn etizabl e again at anoth er ,
d e finite though lower temperatur e and b etween th ese tw o tem

, ,
80 ELE C T R IC CI R C U I T S
p er at ures ,
iron may b e magnetic or u nmagnetic d epending ,
whether it has reach ed thi s temp erature from lower or from h i gh er ,
temperatures A pparentl y for these nickel steels th e critical

.
, ,
temperature range within which they can b e magn et i c or un ,
magn etic i s W ithin th e range of atmos ph eric temperature and

, ,
thus after h eating th ey becom e non magnetic after cooling to

, ,
-
,
s uffici entl y l ow t emp eratur e they becom e magn etizable again , .
T hu s a s t eel contai ning 1 7per cent nic kel

, p er c e nt ch r o .
, .
mium 3 per cent man gan ese has perm eabili ty

, . that is is , ,
almos t comp letely unmagnetic .
Het erog eneou s mi x tures s uch as powd ered iro n incorporated ,
in resin or ir on filings in air seem to give saturation d ens ities

, ,
not far d iff erent from those corres ponding to their vo l um e per
cent age of iron but give an en ormou s increase of hardness
, and ,
a ,
hysteres is 7 as is to b e ex pected
,
1 ,
.
Most ch emical compounds of iron are non magn etic F er -

.
romag neti c i s onl y magn etit e which i s the intermediate o x ide ,
and may b e consid ered as ferr ous ferrite T h ere al s o is an .
al l eged magnetic sulphid e of iron though I have n ev er s een ,
it magnetkies F 8 78 3 or F e s
, , g g .
A s magn etit e F e 30 contains 72 per cent of F e by weight

, 4, .
, ,
and h as th e s pecific weight i ts vol um e per c ent of iron would .
b e 48 p er c ent and th e s at u ration d ens ity S.

,
10 X 1 0 3
.
Ob servation s on the magnetic con stants of magn etite give a

s aturat i on d en s ity of X 1 0 to X 1 0 so that magnet
3 3
,
i te woul d fal l in th e second cl as s of iron compound s tho s e in ,
which the saturation density is aff ected and l owered by the , ,
composition .
N ot onl y mag neti te which may b e con sid er ed as ferrou s ferrite

, ,
but nu merous other ferr ites that i s s alts of th e acid F 8 20 Hz , , 4 ,
are to s om e ex t ent ferromagn etic s uch as copper and cobal t f er ,
rite cal cium ferrite etc

, , .
49 Coba l t n ex t adj oining to iron in th e p eriodic sys tem of el e

.
,
ments is the magnetic m etal which h as been leas t inves tigated

, .
I ts s aturation value probabl y i s between S 1 2 X 1 0 and S 3
1 4 X 1 0 and i ts magn etic char acteri s tic l oo ks v ery si mil ar to that

3
,
of cas t i ron P artl y thi s i s du e to the s imil ar s aturation val ue

.
,
partly probably due to th e f eature that mo st of th e avai l able

data were taken on cas t cobal t .
I t i s int eres tin g to no te that C obal t r etain s i ts magn etizability

M A GN E T I S M 81
up to muc h hi gher temp eratures than iron or any oth er mat eri al ,
so that above 800 d egrees C C obal t i s th e onl y magnetic mat erial

.
, .
M ore information i s avail abl e on ni ckel the metal n ext ad ,
j oini ng to cobal t in the periodic sys tem of elements I ts satura .
tion d en sity is the lowes t of the magn etic m etal s probably b e ,
tween s 6 X 1 0 and S 3
7X 1 0 3
.
S om e data on nickel and nickel all oys are g iv en in the fol lowin g
tabl e I n general nickel s eem s to show characteris ti cs very simi
.
,
l ar to those of iron ex c ept that al l th e magnetic d en siti es are re

,
du ced in proportion to th e l ower s aturation d en sity ; but th e efl ect

'
of th e phy s ical charact eri s tic s on th e magn etic con s tant s appears
to b e th e s ame . I nteres ting is that nick el seems to b e l eas t sen

,
sitiv e to impuriti es in th ei r eff ect on th e r eluctivity curv e .
Ni ckel c eas es to b e magn etizabl e already bel ow red h eat .
T he n ext m etal b eyond nickel in the periodic sys tem of el e

,
ments i s copper and this is non magn etic as far as known

, ,
-
, .
0 u th e oth er s id e of ir on in th e periodic sys tem i s mang anese

, , .
T his is very interes ting in so far as it h as n ever b een observed

ina strongl y magn etic stat e but many of the al l oys of mangan ese
,
are more or l es s s trongl y magn etic and es timating from th e s atu

,
ration valu es of mangan es e all oys th e s atur ation val u e of man

,
ganese as pure m etal s ho ul d b e about S 30 X 1 0 3

T his .
would make it th e mos t magn etic m etal .
In favor of mangan ese as magnetic m etal al s o is the unu sual

behavior of i ts all oys with iron : th e all oys of nickel and of cobal t ,
With iron als o s how unus ual characteristics and this seems to b e a ,
Characteris tic of alloys b etween magn etic m etal s .
T he bes t known magnetic mangan es e al l oys are the Heusl er

allo s of manganes e with copper and al uminum and th e char
y, ,
acteristi cs of three s uch all oys are giv en i n th e fol l owing tabl e .
T he most magn etic s hows about th e s ame s atur ation val u e as

magnetite but higher saturation val ues equal to those of nic kel
, , ,
have been ob s erv ed .
A curiou s feature of some Heusler alloys is that w hen sl owly ,
cOoled
from high temperatures they are very littl e magnetic
, ,
30 d have l ow s aturation va l ues T h e quick er th ey are cooled

.
,
the hi her their pe rm eabil ity and th eir s aturation val ue and th e
g ,
befit Values hav e b een reach ed by dro i th mol ll i nto

pp g n e ten a oy
Water so s udd enl y chill ing it
, .
In general the Heusl er al l oys are es pecially sens iti ve to heat

,
ent and s om e of th em s how t he ag eing in a mo s t pro

treatm
,
6
nou nced d egree so that maintaining the alloy for a cons i de ra ble
,
tim e at moderate temperature increases hardn ess and hyste resis ,
l oss more than tenfold .
Magnetic all oys of manganese also are known w ith anti mony ,
arsenic phosphorus bis muth boron with zin c and with ti n etc
, , , , , .
U suall y the b es t res ul ts are given by all oys containi n g 20 t o 3 0

,
p e r c e nt o f ma ng
. an ese L itt l e i s kn own of th es
. e mag n e tic al
l oys ex cept that th ey may b e in a magn etic state or in an
, ,
unmagn etic stag e T hey are mos t conveniently produc ed by

.
diss olvi ng manganese m etal in the s uperheated al loying m etal ,
or in this m et al with th e addition of s om e pow erful re ducing
m etal as sodium or aluminum but th e al l oy is only s ometimes

, ,
magn etic s om etim es practicall y unmagn etic and the co n ditions

, ,
of th e formation of th e m agn etic s tat e ar e un known .
A pparently th ere a l s o ex is ts an interm ediary o x id e of m angan

,
ese or a compound o x id e of mangan ese with that of th e other

,
m etal w hich i s s trongl y magn etic T he bl ack sl ag appearing in

, .
,
th e fu s ion of manganese with oth er m et al s such as ant i mony ,
zi nc tin without fl ux often is strongl y magnetic more so than

, , , ,
th e al l oy itself .
A mix ture of about 25 per c ent powd ered m an g an ese m etal .

,
and 75 per cent powd ered antimony m etal h eated togeth er to a

.
, .
— —
mod erate t emp eratu re i n a test tube g ives a s tron g ly mag -
netic b l ack powd er which can b e us ed l ike iron fil i n g s to show

, ,
th e l in es of forces of th e magn eti c fi el d but h as not furt h er been ,
investigated .
A con si d erab l e numb er of such magnetic mang anes e al l oys hav e

'
b een investi gated by Heusl er and others and their con stants ar e ,
given in th e fol l owing tab l e .
I t i s s uppo sed that th ese magn eti c mangan ese alloys are chem
ical compound s s imil ar as magn etite or magn et ki es T hus th e
,
.
copper al uminum manganese al l oy of Heusler is a compound o f

- -
1 atom of al uminum w ith 3 atom s of copper or man g an ese : A I

(M n or C u ) u s ua l l y A l
3, M D C l l z O t h er m ag n eti c ma n g an e s
.
e
compound s then are

With antimony M usb and Mu n
With b i mu th s Mn Bi
Wi th r ni c a se MnA s
Wi th b oron . Mu B
Wi th ph o ph oru s s Mu P
Wi th tin . . MmSn and Mn,Sn
84 E L E CT RI C CI R C U IT S
ctrica l r i tivity of h material

which r—efers to th e
p el e e s s t e
eddy curr
-
ent l o sse s in magn e tic cyc l es .
Sp gr. s p e. cific gravity of t h e mat eria l .
FIG . 42 .
F ig .gives the magnetic characteris tics up to H

42 160 ,
(b eyond thi s th e l in,

ear l aw of r el uctivity us ually a p ies ) for
p l ,
a n umb er of magnetic material s of higher val ues of satur atio n

den sities .
F ig 43 gives wi th t w ic e th e s cal e of ordi nat es b ut th e same

.
, ,
MA GN E T I SM 85
a b s cis s zn, magn etic characteri stic of s om e material s of l ow

th e
s aturat i on d en sity .
F i g 44 giv es with ten tim es th e s cal e of ab sci ss m and th e s am e

.
, ,
s c al e of ordinat es th e initial part of th e magn etic charact eri s tic

, ,
10 an 80 40 50 60 7
0 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 1 50
F m 43
. .
up to H mag n eticall y s oft materials of F ig 42

1 6, for th e .
,
t h at is mat erial s with l ow val ue of

, w h i ch ri s e s o rapid l y to
a,
h ig h val ues of d ens ity that th e ini ti al part of th eir charact eris t i c
i s n o t wel l s hown i n th e s cal e of F i g 42 . .
T h e m ag n etic characteris t i c s in F ig s 42 43 and 44 are d eno ted

.
,
86 E L E CT RI C CI R C U I T S
by numbers and these numbers refer to th e materials g iven in t h e

,
tabl e of Magn etic C on stants under the s am e numbers

“ ”
.
Wi th regard s to the magnetic data it mus t b e real iz ed howe ve r

, , ,
that the numerical values es pecially of the less inves tigated

,
-
materials are to some ex tent unc ertain due to the g reat di ffi
, ,
cul ty of exact magn etic m eas urements .
T he aturation d en sity S which is th e most con s tant and

s , ,
mos t d efinite and perman ent magnetic quantity can b e m easured

,
ei th e r dir ectl y by meas uring B in s uch very h igh fi elds H

,
— ,
=
— —
and over that B H does not furth er increase or in ,
di rectl y by obs erv ing the B H curve u p to mod erately high

, ,
fie ds th erefrom d erive the re u ct vity curve : p H and fro

l ,
l i , ,
m the
s trai ght l in e l aw of th e latt er curv e d etermin e a and therewith 3

-
88 E L E CT RI C CI R C UI T S
0 w m
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0
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$
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0
0 0 0 c 0 o
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m
00
.
c 0 0 0 0 0 0
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7 a
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.
0 0 O .
0 0
s
0 0 0
~ ~ ~ 0 0
A A A A A A
. .
0
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m : 0 : 0 a m
0 0 0 0 0 fi 0
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S uch trem ely high fiel ds as to reach compl ete magne tic
ex ,
s aturation are produc ed on l y b etween th e con i cal pol e fac es of a

,
very powerful l ar ge el ectromagnet T he area of the fi el d th e n

.
i s v ery s m all and it i s diffi cul t t o g et p erfect uniformity of t h e

,
fiel d T he tend ency i s to und eres timate the fiel d and this giv es
.
,
too high val ues of S . T hus in th e foll owing tab l e tho se val u es
,
of S which app ear ques tionab l e for this cas e have b een mark e d
, ,
by the interrogati on si gn .
T h e indirect m ethod from t h e s traight lin e rel uctivity cu r v e

,
-
,
gives more accurate val ues of S as S is d erived from a compl e te

,
curve branch and this m ethod thus i s preferabl e H owever t h e

, .
,
val ue d erived in thi s mann er i s based on th e as s umption that

there is no furth er critical point in th e rel uctivity cu rve beyond
th e ob s erved range . T hi s i s correct with iron as th e b es t t es t s
,
by th e direct method ch eck Wi th cobal t th ere may b e a critical

.
,
point in the rel uctivity curv e beyond the observ ed range as th ere ,
are s ev eral ob servat i on s by th e d i rect m ethod which g ive v ery ,
much higher though erratic val ues of s aturation S

, , , .
T h e val ue of t he magn etic hardn ess a al s o is difi cul t t o de

, ,
termin e for v ery s oft material s es peciall y where the m ethod of

,
observation requires correction for j oints etc and the ex trem el y

,
.
high val ues of p ermeabil ity over — — theref ore ap pear

ques tionabl e .
s ign of the el ectromagnet and permits the det ermination of w hat

,
may b e cal l ed the effi ciency of an electromagnet .
I nves tigat i ons and cal c ul ations d ealing with one f o rm of

en ergy onl y as el ectromagn etic en ergy or m echa nical en e rg y
, , ,
us ually are rel atively simpl e and can b e carri ed out with v ery
high accuracy D i ffi culties however arise when the cal c ul ation
.
, ,
involves th e relation b etween several diff erent forms of ene rgy ,
as el ectric en ergy and m echanical en ergy W hile the el emen tary .
rel ation s between diff erent forms of energy are relatively sim ple ,
t he calcul at i on involving a tran sformation from one for m of

e n ergy to anoth er u s ually b ecom es s o compl ex that it eith e r can
, ,
not b e carried out at all or even o nly approximate cal cul ation
,
becomes rath er l aborious and at th e same time g ives onl y a l ow

degree of accuracy I n mos t cal c ul ations involving th e t rans
.
formation b etween difi erent form s of energy it is the refore ,
preferable not to con sid er the rel ations b etween th e diff erent
form s of en ergy at all but to use the law of com m oti on of energ y
,
to relate th e diff erent forms of energy which are invol ved , .
T hus wh en m echanical motion s are produc ed b y t h e action

,
of a magn etic fi eld on an electric circuit energ y is cons um ed ,
in the electri c circuit by an induced e m f A t th e s am e ti me

, . . .
,
th e s tored magn etic en ergy of th e system may chan ge B y the .
l aw of con servation of en ergy w e have : ,
E lectri c ener gy cons u med by the i nduced e m f . . . mechani cal

ener g y p r oduced,
i ncrease of the stored mag neti c energ y ()
1 .
T he consumed el ectric en ergy and the s tored magnetic energ y , ,
are ea s ily ca l c ul at ed as th eir calc ul ation involv es one form of

,
energy only and th i s calculation th en gives th e m echa nical work

,
done ,
F l wh ere F
,
mechanical forc e and l dis tance over ,
which this forc e moves .
Wh ere m echanical work i s not required but merely th e me ,
ch an i cal forc es which ex ist as w here th e sys tem i s su pported

, ,
—
again s t motions by t he mechanical forces as primary and
s econdary coil s of a tran s form er or cabl e and return cabl e of a ,
—
circuit th e s ame method of calcul ation can b e employed b y ,
assuming som e dis tanc e I of the motion (or dl); calc ul ating the
mechanical energy w o F l by and therefrom the m echani cal
=
force as F or F
S inc e the in duced which cons um es (or produ ces ) the
el ectri c en er g y , and al s o th e s tored magn et i c en erg y d e pend on ,
MA GN E T I S M 93
t he cu rrent and the inductance of the electri c c ircuit and in ,
a l te rnating c u rr ent circuit s th e impress ed vo l tage al s o d e pend s

-
o n t h e inductanc e of th e circuit th e inductanc e can frequ entl y ,
b e ex pres s ed by suppl y vol tage and c urrent ; and by s ub s tituting

t his in equation th e m echanical work of the magn eti c forc es
c an th u s b e ex pr es sed in al t ernating current apparatus by s u p
,
-
,
l
p y vo l tage and c u rr ent .
I n this mann er it b ecom es poss ibl e for in s tanc e to ex press

, , ,
t h e m echanical wor k and th ereby the pul l of an al ternating

el e ctromagn et by s impl e ex press ion s of vol tage and cur rent or
, ,
t o give t h e m echanical s train s occurring in a tran sform er und er

s h ort c irc u its
-
by an ex press ion contain ing onl y the t erminal
,
vol tage the short circuit c urrent and the distance betw een
,
-
,
pri mary and secondary coils without ent ering into the detail s ,
of the cons truction of the apparatus .
T his gen eral m ethod bas ed on th e law of con servation of

,
energy , wil l b e ill ustrated by s ome ex ampl es and the general ,
equation s th en g iven .
2 T h e C ons tant
.
-
current E l ectromag n et
52 Su ch
. mag n ets are mos t el e ctromagn et s d rect current
i -
,
and als o th e series operating magn et s of con s tant current arc -
lamps on al ternatin g cur rent c i rcuits -

.
Let i o current which i s constant during the motion of

,
the armature of the el ectromagn et from i ts initial po s ition 1 , ,
to its final po s ition 2 l th e l ength of thi s moti on or the s troke

, ,
Of the el ectromagn et in c enti m eters and n number of turns

, ,
Of the magn et winding .
T he magn et i c fl ux D and th e inductance (

,
n 
io
Of the magn et vary dur i ng th e moti on of i ts armature from a
, ,
InI l l il num val ue

,
in the initial pos ition to a maxi mum val ue

, ,
i oL z 8
10
n
inthe end posi tion of t he armature .

Hereby an e . m f is
. . induced i n the magnet winding ,
43> . dL
z
dt dt
T his con sum es th e power

’
1) i oe
and thereby th e e nergy

7
1) ni 0
2
( z
L
um i ng that th e inductance in any fix ed po sition of the

A ss ,
armature does not vary with the current that i s that magnetic
, , ,
s aturat i on i s ab sent the s tored magn etic en ergy is

1
,
I n the in i ti al po s ition 1 , ,
i n th e end position ,
2,
T he increase of the s tored magn etic energy duri ng the motion ,
of th e armature th us i s ,
2
10
T he m echanical w ork done by the el e ctromagnet thus is ,
by th e l a w of con servati on of en ergy ,
’
w w
79
1 L 1 ) j ou l es .
(1 l )
2
If l l en gth of s troke in c entim eters F average for c

, ,
e ,
or pul l of th e magnet in gram weight the m echanical worl:

, ,
1 8
E l gram cm -
.
S i nce
g cm s ec 981 .
-
.
( 1 2 )
acc el eration of gravity the m echanical work is , , in b
a sol u te
F lg
If
magneti c s atu rati on i s reach ed , th e s t ored magneti c energy is t ak en
1
from t e magneti z at ion cu rve, as th e area b etw een this curve a

h nd t he
v rti c
e al a xi s , as d i c u d b f or
s ss e e e
.
wh ere f frequency in cyc l es , p er se cond .
F rom wh i ch fol l ows ,
e
“ L ( )
2 1
2 1r f
and substituting (2 1 ) in equati ons (1 4) to g iv es as t h e e qua
tion of the mechani cal work and the pull of ,
the al terna ti ng -cu rr en t
electr o mag net .
I n th e m etric sys tem '
7
Fl
61 )0
1
gram cm -
.
4 1 e
7
F
t o 62( 61 ) 10 10 7
grams
4 n l
In foot pound s
-
61 ) fl u ih
-
.
dl
( 5)
2
f f l
E x amp le — I n a 60 cycl e al t ernating current l amp m agn et
- -
,
t he s trok e i s 3 cm the vol tag e con s um ed at th e con s tant al ter

.
, ,
nating current of 3 amp i s 8 vol ts in the initial po sition 1 7

.
,
vol ts in th e en d posi tion W hat is the average pul l of the

.
magnet ?
henc e by,
Fgram s lb )
1 22 .
T h e work don e by an el ectromagnet and thus i ts pull depen d , , ,
by equation on the current i n and th e diff erence in volta g e

between t he initi al and the end position of the armature 62 6 ; , 1
that is d epend u pon th e differenc e in the volt amperes co n

,
-
s um ed by th e el ectromagn et at th e b egin nin g and at t h e end of t h e
strok e W
. ith a giv en ma x imum vo l t am e es i 06 2 a a a
p r v il b l e -
, ,
for the el ectromagnet the max imum work woul d thus b e do n e

,
,
that i s t e gr eates t pu
h ,
l l produced if t e volt amperes at
h t h e
,
-
b ginning of t e stroke were ero that s e

e h z i 0 and t h e
, , ; ,
theoreti cal maxi mum outp u t of the magnet thus woul d b e

l
MA GN E T I SM 97
an d ratio of the actual output to t he theoretically maximum

th e ,
output or the effi ci ency of th e electromagn et thus is by (22)

, , ,
and
F 62
Fm
or us i ng the more gen eral equation
, which al s o appl ies to
the di r ec t c urrent el ectromagn et
-
,
L2 L 1
L
(28)
2
T he ciency of the electromag n et th erefore is the dif

effi , ,
ferenc e b etween maximum and minimum vol tage divid ed by the ,
max imum vol tage ; or th e difference between max imum and

mini mum vol t ampere cons umption divid ed by the max imum
-
,
vol t ampere cons umption ; or th e differenc e between max imum

-
and mi n i mum inductanc e di v id ed by th e ma x imum inductance .

,
A s seen thi s ex press ion of effi ciency i s of the s am e form as

,
that of the th ermodynamic engin e ,
T 2 T 1
T 2
follows that the maximum work which can

From (26) it al so ,
be derived from a given ex penditur e of vol t amperes i oe is -

, z,
li mited F or i oez1 that is for 1 vol t amp th e ma x imum

.
, ,
- .
w o rk which coul d b e d erived from an al ternatin el ctr o

, g e
m agnet is from , ,
7
l
10 g ,
gram cm (2 9 ) -
.
4 fg f 1r
T hat is a 60—cycle electromagnet can never give more than

,
1 3 5 gram cm and a 25 cycle el ectromagn et n ever more than
- - -
.
,
gram cm pul l per volt ampere s upplied to i ts terminals

- .
- .
Or inversel y for an average pull of 1 gram ov er a di s tanc e of

,
3
—
c m a m imum in of vo t amp
l -
is required at 60 cycl es
13 ,
. .
,
5
a 1
nd a m vol mum
t amp at 25 cycl es
i ni of
- -
55 2
. .
O r reduc ed to poun ds and inches

,
F or an average pull of 1 lb over a dis tance of 1 in at l eas t . .

,
86
vol t amp are required at 60 cycl es and at l east 3 6 vol t
-
am
.
,
p a t 2.5 cycl es .
T hi s g ives a crite rion b y whi ch to j udge the s ucc ess of th e

d e s i n of el ectroma nets
g g .
3 . T h e C ons tant potenti al A l ternati ng E l ectromag net

-
54 a con stant al ternating potential eo is impressed upon an

. If , ,
el e ctromagn et and th e vol tage con sum ed by th e resis tance

, ,
i r can b e n egl ect ed th e vol tage cons um ed by th e reactance x is

, , , ,
cons tant and is th e terminal vol tage eo thus the magn etic fl ux , , ,
 al s o is con s tant during th e motion of the armatur e of th e

,
el e ctromagnet T he c urrent i however varies and d ecr eases

.
, , , ,
from a max imum i in th e initi al posi tion to a minimum

, l, in , ,
the end position of th e armature whil e the inductanc e increas es ,
from L to L 1 2.
T h e vol tage induc ed in the el ectri c ci rcui t by the motion of

th e armature ,
it
? 10 8
(30)
then is zero and therefore al s o

, the el e ctri cal energy ex pended ,
0 .
hat is the el ectric circuit does no work b ut the m echanical

T , ,
work of moving the armature is done by th e stored magn eti c

en ergy .
T he increas e of th e s tored magn etic en ergy i s
22 14 2
2
and since the mechanical en ergy in j oul es , ,

is by
7
F lg 1 0
the e quation of the law of conservati on of energy ,
w w
’
we
then becom es
—7
F lg 1 0 ,
10 7
gram cm - .
29
Sinc e, from th e e quation of s e f induction ,

l -
in the i nit ial p osi
tion ,
2 f
'
1IL
in t he end posi tion
1 00 E L E CT RI C CI R C UI T S
the upply sys tem is s ufficientl y l arge to maintain constant

s
vol tage at the primary termin al s of the transformer eve n at

s hort circuit full magnetic fl ux passes through the primary
-
,
coil s I n this cas e the total magnetic fl ux pas s es b et w een

.
primary coils and secondary coil s as s el f inductive or l eakage ,

-
fl ux I f then x
. s el f inductive or l eakage reactanc e eo
= im -
,
2
°
pressed in i s th e s hort circuit current of
-
th e tran s
former .us ual the reactance i s g iven in per cent that
Or , if as .
,
i s th e i x (wh ere i
, ful l l oad current of th e transform er) gi v en -
in per c ent of e the short circ uit current is equ al to the f ull l oad
.
,
- -
current divid ed by the p ercentage reactanc e T h us a trans .
former with 4 per c ent reactance woul d give a s hort circuit cur .
-
rent at maintain ed suppl y vol tage of 25 tim es full l oad c ur rent

, ,
-
.
T o cal c u l ate th e force F ex ert ed by this magnetic l eakage , ,
fl ux on th e tran s former coil s (w hich i s repul s ion s inc e primary ,
and secondary cu rrents flow in oppos ite di r ection )w e may ass ume ,
at con stant short circuit cu rrent i o the secondary coil s moved

-
, ,
agains t thi s forc e F and u ntil th ei r magnetic c enters coincide

, ,
with thos e of the primary coils ; that i s by th e di s tance I as s hown , , ,
diagrammaticall y in F ig 45 the s ection of a shell type trans form er .

,
-
.
W h en brought to coincid enc e no magnetic fl ux passes b e t w een ,
primary and second ary coil s and duri ng this motion of l en gth l , , , ,
the primary co i l s th u s have cu t th e total magn etic fl ux Q of the , ,
tran sformer .
Hereby in th e pri mary co ils a vol tage h as b ee n ind u c e d ,
where n cti v e number of primary turns

eff e .
T he w ork don e or r ath er ab s orb ed by this vol tage at cu:

’
, e ,
rent ,
i o, i s
n i oQ j o u l es .
1
If th t rmin l vol t g d rop t hort c i rcu i t on th tran f ormer secon
e e a a e s a s - e s t
ri th m gn ti c fl u throu gh th tran f orm r pri mari es d Ops in th e sac

es , e a e x e s e r :
proporti on and th m chani c al forc in th tran form r drop w i th

,
e e es e s e
s qu r of th prim ry t min l vol t g and w i th a great drop of t h e b

a e e a er a a e, e
min l vol t g a occu r f o in t n c e w i th l a rg transf orme s at t h e enti

a a e, s s r s a e r .
a tr ns mi a i on li ne o l on g f d r
ss t h m ch ani c al forc es may drop t o
r ee e s, e e
sm l l fract i on of t h e val u e w hi c h t h ey have on a sys tem of p racti cal l y 1 1

a ,
1 1
li mi t ed p ow er .
M A GN E T I S M 10 1
If L leakage inductance of the transform er at s hort circuit ,

-
,
wh ere the enti re fl ux Q i s l eakage fl ux w e have

, , ,
L io
n
h ence substi tu ted

,
in ( 5)
4
w i L 0
2
T h e s tored magneti c en ergy at s hort circu it - is

i0 L 2
2
( )
48
an d s ince at the en d of the assu m ed motion through distanc e l , ,
t h e l eakage fl u x h as vanis h ed by coinc i d enc e b et w een primary

and s econdary coil s i ts stored magnetic en ergy also h as vani s hed
, ,
and the change of s tored magnetic energy th erefore i s

i o
2
L
2
( )
49
H enc e , th em echanical work of th e magneti c forc es of th e short

circu i t current is
=
w
ho w ev er if F is th e forc e in grams l th e d i stance bet w een

I t is , , , , ,
t h e magn eti c c ent ers of pri mary and secondary coi l s ,
w F lg j oul es
l .
Henc e ,
1 0 gra m cm
7 -
.
$0
2
11
10 7
gram s ( )
5 2
2 gl
th e m echanical force ex isting bet w een primary and secondary

coil s of a transform er at th e s hort circuit current i o -
, .
S in c e at short circ u it th e tot al s u ppl y vol tage eo i s con s um ed

-
, , ,
by the l eakage indu ctanc e of th e tran sformer w e have ,
60 2 WfL i o
hence , su b stituting (5 3 ) in gi ves
10 7
eoi 0
F g rams
E x amp le — L et , in a 25 cycle 1 667kw transformer the s uppl y

- -
,
voltage cc , 5 200 the reactance ,

4 per cent T h e trans .
form er contain s tw o pri mary coil s between three secondary coils ,
and th e distance betw een the magn etic centers of the adjac ent
coil s or half coil s is 1 2 cm as s ho w n diagrammatic al ly i n F ig 45
.
,
. .
What forc e is ex erted on each coil face duri ng short circuit i n a -

,
s ys t em w hich i s s o large as to maintain con s tant t erminal voltage ?
A t 5 200 vol t s and 1 667kw the full load c ur rent i s 3 20 amp .

,
-
.
A t 4 per cent reactanc e th e s hort circuit current th erefore

.
-
,
3 20
8000 amp . E quation (54 ) th en gives for f , 25 ,
1 2,
1 12 X 1 0 grams °
1 12 tons .
This force is ex erted betw een the four fac es of the two primary
coils and the corres ponding fac es of th e s econdary coil s and
, ,
on every coil fac e thu s is ex ert ed th e forc e
28 tons
T his is the average force and the force varies with double ,
frequency between 0 an d 5 6 tons and i s thus a l arge forc e

, , .
56 . Subs ti tuti ng i o m gives as th e s hort circuit force

-
of an al ternating -
current tran sform er at maintaine d t ermi nal ,
vol tage ,
co, the val ue
z
10 7 810 eo
z
eo
ms
4 mm l
fx
g r a
T hat hort ci rcui t s tresses are inversel y proportional

i s , th e s -
to the l eakage reactance of th e trans former and to the dis tance , ,
I b etw een th e co i l s
, .
I n l arge tran s form ers on sys tems of very lar ge pow er s afety ,
therefore requ ires the use of as high reactance as poss ibl e .
High reactan c e i s prod u ced by massin g the coils of each cir

cui t .
L et in a tran sform er
number of coil grou ps

hus the total i nterli nkag es of the leakage fl ux with the coil
T
turns are the s ame as that of a uniform leakage fl ux den sity over
i1
th e w i dth lo T his gi ves the eff ecti ve dis tance between
6
coil c enters for , th e reactance cal cul ati on ,
l =
lo +
A umi ng now w e regrou p the tran sformer coils so as to g et

ss ,
m primary and m secondary co i l s l eaving however the sam e iron , , ,
s truct u r e .
T h e l eakage fl ux d en s ity bet w een t he coils is h ereby changed in

proportion to the changed numb er of ampere turns per coil that -
,
is, by th e factor
T he eff e ctive distanc e betw een th e coi l s l 18 changed by th e
s ame factor
n u mb er of i nterl i nkag es bet w een l eakage fl ux and el ectric
T he
circu its an d th us th e l eakage reactance x of the transformer
, , , ,
thus is changed by th e factor
hat is by regrouping th e transform er winding withi n the s ame

T ,
magnet ic circ u it and w ithou t changing the nu mber of turn s of the

el ectric circ u it t he l eakag e r eactanc e x changes inverse propor
, , ,
ti onal t o th e s q u are of th e numb er of coi l gro u p s .
A s by equ at i on (5 6) the m echan i cal forc e i s inverse propor

2
ti onal to x, l and n, and changes proportional to 7

3:
2) (
porti on al to
$2
: th e mechani cal force per coi l thus changes
proporti o nal to
hat is regrouping th e transform er winding in the s am e wind

T ,
ing s pac e changes the m echanical force inverse proportional to

M A GN E T I S M 1 05
th e square of the coil groups thus inverse proportional to the

,
change of leakage reactance .
H owever the di s tanc e lo between th e coils is d et ermin ed by i n

,
s ul ati on and v entil ation . T hus i ts d ecreas e wh en increas ing the,
numb er of coil g roups wo uld usuall y not b e permissible b ut more

, ,
w i nd i ng s pac e would have to b e provid ed by changing th e mag

n etic circui t and invers el y with a reduction of the numb er of
, ,
c oil groups th e winding s pac e and with it th e magn etic circui t

, , ,
would b e redu ced .
A ss umi ng then that at the change from n to m coi l groups

, , ,
t he dis tanc e b etw een th e coil s l o i s l eft th e s am e

, , .
T he efi ecti v e l ea kage s pac e th en changes from
and th e l eakage reactance thus changes from
h ence the mechanical force per coil from ,
F 60
2
10 7
2 n 8 f
1r ng l a:
l l l lz
' ’
hus l arge compared th

.
T ,
if 18 wi l o,
6
that is the mechanical forces vary with the s quare of the number
,
of coil groups .
l l + l2
If is s mal l compared wi th l o,
6
F0 1 =
Fo
that i s th e m echanical forces are not change d by the chang e of

,
t h e numb er of coil gro u ps .
I n actual d es ign d ecreas ing th e n u mb er of coil group s us u al l y

,
material l y d ecreases the mechanical forces but materiall y l ess ,
than proportional to the s qu are of the number of coil group s .
5 . R epul s i on b etw een Conductor and R etur n Conductor
5 7 I f i o i s th e
. c u rrent flowing in a circuit con si sting of a con
ductor and th e return condu ctor paral l el thereto and l th e dis ,
tance between the conductors the tw o conductors repel each ,
other by th e m echanical force exerted by the magn etic fiel d of

th e circuit on th e current in the conductor
, .
A s this cas e corr es ponds to that cons id ered in section 2 eq ua ,
ti on (1 6) appl ies that is , ,
dL
10 7
gram s ,
2 g dl
T he inductance of tw o paral l el conductors at dis tan ce l fro m ,
each oth er and conductor d i am et er l a i s per c entim eter l ength o f

, ,
conductor ,
(4 l og u
) henrys
Henc e , d iff erent iated ,
—9
dL 4 X 10
dl l
and s ubsti tuted in

,
grams
or s ubstituting
If then Q magnetic fl ux n number , of turns in terl ink ed

with the fl ux , the i nduced e m f i s .
We have how ever , ,
nQ i L 10 ; 3
th e power of this i nduced e . m f is

. .
I
p re
and th e e nergy
i dL
2
i L di
T he s tored magnetic en e rgy in th e i nitial position 1 is
I n th e end posi tion 2,
and the mechanical w ork thus is , by th e l aw of o

c nser a v tion o f
en ergy
w we wl
i d(iL ) ta(i L 1 ) i d(i L .)
and s i n ce th e mechanical work is
F lg
i d(i L ) i d(i L 1 ) i daL .) g ra m cm

- . (69 )
MA GN E T I SM 1 09
I f L is ction of the current i but only of the position

not a fun , , ,
that is if saturation is absent L 1 and L 2 are constant and equa

, , ,
tion (69 ) becomes ,
gram cm - .
con stant equation (70) becomes

, ,
10 7 i 2
(L 2 —L I )
g 2
(C on stan t -
c urrent el ectromagnet ) .
If L constant equation (70) becomes

, ,
Fl 0 .
T hat i s , mechanical forcesrted only where the i n are ex e
ductance of the circuit chang es with th e m echanical motion

which wo uld b e produc ed by th ese forc es .
(c)I f iL consta nt eq uation (7 0) becomes , ,
10 7 i L (i 1
g 2
(C ons tant-potential e e l ctromag net ) .
In the gen eral case the evaluation of equation (69) can usually
,
em
h ade g raphi cally from the two curv es which g ive th e varia
ti on of L with i in th initial po ition
, ,
I e s of L . with i in the fi nal ,
POSition and the curv e iving th e variation of L and i with th e

g
'
motion fro m the initial to the final pos ition

,
I n al ternating magnetic sys tems these three curv es can b e

,
dete
rmi ned ex perimental l y b y m eas uring t he volts as function
of
t he amperes in the fixed initial and end po sition and by
measuring volts and amperes as function of the intermediary
, ,
,
D oS i
tions that i s by s trictly electrical m easu rement
, ,
.
A s seen however th e probl em is not entirely d etermined by

, ,
e tw o end position s but th e function by which i and L are

,
g
“
a ted to each oth er in t h e int erm ediat e p os ition s m u s t a l s o be ,

nv e n . T hat is in the gen eral cas e the m echanical work and
, ,
11 1 1 8 the average m echanical force are not d et ermin ed by the
1
41
,
d positions of the electromagnetic sys tem T his again s h ows .
“ 1 an alo y to t hermodynamic rel ation s

g .
I f then in case of a cy cli c change the variation from position ,

1 to 2 i s di ff erent from that from pos iti on 2 back to 1 , s u ch a

cycl ic change produc es or consum es en ergy .
Such a cas e i s th e hys t eres i s cycl e . T h e reaction machine

(see T h e ory and C a l culation o f E l e ctrical A pparatu s ) i s b ased
on such cy cl e
.
T he advantage of the s in e wave i s , that it remain s unch anged i n

s hape und er mo s t condition s , whil e thi s is not the cas e with any
other wave shape and any other wav e shape thus introd u c es th e
,
danger that und er certain condition s or in c ertain part s of th e

, ,
circui t it may change to a shape which is undesirabl e or ev en

,
F m 46
. .
F ro 4 7
. .
F ro 48
. .
F m 49
. .
Fros 46 T O 49 . .
dangerous Voltage e and current i are related to eac h other b y

.
, , , ,
proportional ity by diff erentiation and by integ ration with t e

, ,
si s tance r inductan ce L
, , and capacity C as factors
, , , , ,
ri
= L
and as diff erential s and integral s of sines are sines as long as

th e
— —
,
r, L and C are cons tan t which is mostl y the case s i ne w aves of

S HA P I N G OF WA VE S 1 13
v ol tage produc e sine waves of current and i nversely that i s the , ,
s in e wav e s hap e of th e el ectrical quantities remain s con s tant .
A fiat topp ed current w ave like F i g 47 howev er woul d by

-
.
, ,
d iff erentiation give a s elf i nductiv e voltage wave which is peaked

-
, ,
like F i g 48 A vol tage wave like F ig 48 which i s more effi cient

. . .
,
in transformation may by furth er dis tortion as by i ntensifica

, ,
ti on of the triple harmonic by l ine capacity ass ume the shape

.
, ,
F ro . 50 .
F ig . and th e latter th en w oul d giv e wh en impressed upon a

49 , ,
transform er a double peaked wave of magn etism F i g 50 and

,
-
, .
,
s u ch wave of magn eti s m gives a magn etic cyc l e w ith tw o s mal l
F ro . 51 .
c ndar y l oops at high density as shown in F ig 5 1 an d an

se o ,
.
,
additional energy loss by hysteres is in these tw o secondary loops ,
which is con siderable due to the high mean magn etic den sity at ,
which th e secondary l oop is traversed so that in s pite of the

re duc ed m
,
aximum fl ux d ensity the hys teresi s l oss may b e ,
in creased .
T herefore in al ternating c urrent en g in eering the ai m gen er

,
-
,
s
1 14 E L E C T R I C CI R C UI T S
al ly is to produce and use a wave which i s a sin e wave or

nearly so .
60 I n an al ternating current gen erator synchronous or i n

.
-
,
duction machine commutating machin e etc the wave of vol tage

, , .
,
induced in a single armature conductor or face conductor ”
equal s th e wav e of fi el d fl ux di s tribution around th e periph e ry of
the magn et fi el d modified however by the rel uctanc e p ul sa tion s

, , ,
of the magn etic circuit wh ere s uch ex is t A s the l atter produc e

, .
higher harmonics they are in general obj ectionable and t o b e

,
avoided as far as po ssibl e .
B y properl y sel ecting the l ength of the po l e arc and the l en g th

of th e air gap b etween fi el d and armature a sinu s oidal fiel d fl ux
-
,
dis tribution and th ereby a sine wave of vol tage induc ed in the
armature fac e conductor coul d b e produced I n this direction .
. ,
however the design er is very g reatl y limited by economic con

,
s id eration : l ength of po l e arc gap length etc are d etermin ed , , .

,
within narrow limits by the requirement of the economic us e of

the material ques tion s of commutation of pol e face l oss es of fi el d
, ,
-
,
ex citation etc s o that as a rul e th e fi el d fl ux di s tribution and

,
.
,
with it th e vol tage induced in a fac e conductor diff ers material ly

from sin e shape .
T h e vol tage induc ed in a face conductor may contain e ven har

moni cs as well as odd harmonics and often as in mos t inductor , ,
al ternators a c onstant term ,

.
T he con s tant term canc el s in al l tur n windin g s as i t is eq ual ,
and opposite in the conductor and return conductor of each t urn .
D irect current induction (continuous or pul sating c urrent ) thus

-
,
i s po ss ibl e onl y in hal f turn windings that is w indings in w hi ch

-
, ,
each fac e conductor h as a coll ector ring at eith er end so c all ed ,

-
u nipolar machin es (see T h eory and C al cul ation of E l ec trical

“
A pparatu s
I n every winding which repeats at every pol e or 1 80 el ec trical
,
degrees as i s al mos t al ways the cas e the even harmonics cancel

, , ,
ev en if th ey ex i s t ed in th e fac e conductor I n any m a c hi n e i n .
which th e fl ux distribution in successive poles is the same and ,
m erely opposite in direction that is in whi ch the pol es are symmet , ,
ri cal no ev en harmonic s ar e induc ed as th e fi el d fl ux dis tr i bution

, ,
contains no even harmonics E ven harmonics would h owever .

, ,
exi s t in th e voltage wave of a machin e d es i gn ed as s hown di ag r am
mati cal l y in F i g 5 2 as fo l l o w s : .
,
T he s outh po l es S have abo ut one th i rd the width of t he north -

di ti ons n curve I I I as well as V are approximately s ine

. A s see ,
waves but the one of twice the frequency of the oth er T hus
,
.
,
s uch a machin e by rev ersing conn ection s b etw een the t w o wind
,
ing s A and B coul d b e mad e to give two frequencies one doubl e

, ,
the other or as sync hronous motor coul d

,
at tw o s peed s one ,
one hal f th e oth er

-
.
FIG . 53 .
61 . istributi on of the winding over an arc of th e periphery O f

D
t he armatur e e iminate or reduc es t e high er harmo nics so th
l s h a t
,
t he terminal vol tage wave of an al ternator with dis tribu ted win d
“
ing is ess distorted or more n ear y sin e shaped th an that o

l l ,
f 8 -
,
s ingl e turn of th e s am e winding (or that of a unitooth alt ernato r )
T e vo tage waves of s ucc ess ive turn s are slightly out of ph a

h l s e
with each other and the more rapid variation s due to high er li ar
,
“
moni es thus are smoothed out I n two armature tu rns difierea .

t
S H A P I N G OF WA VE S 1 17
in position on the armature circumference by 8 el ectrical degrees

(
“
el e ctrica l d egr ees
”
m ean s counting t h e pitch of two po l es as
th e fun dam ental waves are 6 d egrees out of phase the third ,
harmonics 3 8 degrees the fifth harmonics 5 6 degrees and s o on

, , ,
and their resul tants thus g et l ess and l ess and becomes zero f or
,
that harmonic n where n 6

, 1 80
°
FIG . 54 .
e; si n Q es si n 3 (Q —a s) ea si n 5 (Q —a s)
e si n 7(Q — a7) ()
l
is the vol tage wave of a singl e turn and the armature wi nding of
,
m turn s covers an arc of to el ectrical d egrees on th e armature

°
periph ery (per phase) the coefi ci ents of the harmoni cs of the
,
res ul tant voltag e wave are

1 18 E L E C T R I C CI R C U I T S
me . avg . cos
or , si nce
avg . cos
e3
si n 6 -
s in si n )
as
§
as )
hus in a three phase w inding l ike that of the three phase

T ,
- -
synchrono us conv ert er in which each phas e cover s an arc of 1 20

°
,
_ Z I
,
3
E
{ 6 1 Sl n ¢ si n
( )
5
that third harmonic and all i ts mul tipl es the ninth fif

i s , th e , ,
teenth etc canc el all oth er harmonic s are greatl y reduced t he

,
.
, , ,
more the high er th eir ord er

, .
I n a three phase Y connected winding in which each phas e

- -
,
covers
g periphery common l y used in induction
°
60 of th e ,
as
and synchronous mach in es ,

it 1s
{
2 1
el s m e3 s 1 n 3 (¢ e5 s1 n 5 (¢
§ 5
6 7S I D 6 9 si n
en s i n
ture turn conductor and return conductor are not separated

, ,
fro m each other by th e full p i tch of the field pole or 1 80 el e ctrical ,
degrees but by l ess (or more); that i s each armature turn or coil
, ,
covers not the full pitch of the pol e but the part 37l ess (or more) , ,
that i s cov ers (1 i

, T h e coil th en is s aid to b e (1 i p)
fractional pitch or has th e pitch d eficiency p T h e voltages in
, .
du ced in th e t w o s id es of th e coil th en are not eq ual and in phase ,
but are out of phase by 1 80 p for the fundamental and by 1 80 ,

th tl
np f or th e n harmonic T hus if up 1 for this n har.
, ,
r
l
monic th e voltages in th e two sid es of the coil are equal and oppo
s it e thu s canc el and thi s harmonic is eliminat ed
, , .
T h erefore two third s pitch windin g eliminates the t hi rd har

,
-
monic four fifth s pitch winding the fifth harmonic etc

,
-
, .
Periph erally dis placing hal f th e fi eld pol es again s t th e oth er

hal f by the fraction q of the pol e pitch or by 1 80 q electrical de ,
g r ee s cau
,
s es t h e voltages induc e d by th e t w o se t s of fi el d p o l es
th
to b e out of phase b y 1 80 nq for th e n harmonic and thereby ,
el iminat es that harmon i c for wh i ch nq 1 , .
B y th ese variou s m ean s if s o d es ired a numb er of har monic s , ,
can b e el iminated T hus in a Y conn ected three phas e alternator

.
- -
with the winding of each phas e covering 60 el ectrical d eg rees ,
with four fifth s pitch winding and half the field pol es off set against
-
th e oth er by one s ev enth of th e pole pitch th e third fifth and

-
, , ,
sev enth harmonic and th eir mul tipl es are eliminat ed that i s t he , ,
l o w es t harmo nic ex i s ting in the termin al voltage of s uch a ma

chine is the el eventh and the machine contains onl y th e el ev enth
, ,
thirteenth sev enteeth ni nteenth twenty third twenty n inth

, , ,
-
,
-
,
thirty first thirty s eventh etc harmonics A s by the dis trib

-
,
-
,
. .
uted w inding th es e harmonic s are gr eatly d ecreas ed it f ollows ,
that the terminal voltage wave would b e closely a sin e irres pec ,
tive of the field fiux distributi on as suming that no sl ot har moni cs ,
ex i s t .
63 I n mod ern machin es th e voltage wave us ual l y i s very

.
,
cl osel y a sine as the pronounced lower harm onics caused by t he

,
‘
fiel d flux distribution which gave the saw tooth fl at top pea k ,
-
,
-
,
or mul tip l e pea k eff ect s in th e form er unitooth machi n es

-
are ,
greatl y reduced by the distri buted winding and th e use of f rac

tion al pitch I ndividual h i gh harmonics or pairs of high h armon
.
,
i cs are occas ionally met s uch as th e sev enteenth and nint eenth
, , ,
or th e thirty fifth and thirty sev enth etc-

T h ey are du e t o t he -
, .
pul s ation of the magn etic fiel d fl ux caused by the p uls ation of the
S HA P I N G OF WA VE S 1 21
field rel uctance by th e passage of the armature slots and occa ,
s i onal l y und er load by magn etic s aturation of th e armature s elf

, ,
inductive fl ux that is fl ux produced b y the current in an arma

, ,
ture slot and surrounding this sl ot in cas es w h ere very many ,
a mpere conductors are mass ed in one slot and th e slot Opening ,
bridged or n early s o .
T h e l ow harmonic s third fifth seventh are relativel y harm

, , , ,
l ess ex c ept wh ere very ex cessive and causing appreciabl e increase

,
of th e max imum vo l tage or th e ma x im u m magn etic fl u x a ,

nd
t hus hy s teres is loss T h e very high harmonic s as a rul e are r ela
.
t i v el y harml es s in all circuit s containing no capacity s i nc e th ey ,
are n e c ess arily fairl y s mall and s till furth er s uppress ed by the
inductan ce of the circuit T h ey may b ecom e serious and even .
dange rou s however if capacity i s present in th e circuit as the

, , ,
c urre nt taken by capacity i s proportional to th e frequ ency and ,
even s mal l voltage harmonic s i f of v ery high ord er that i s high , , ,
freq uency produce very large currents and th ese in turn may
, ,
caus e dan g erou s vol tages in inductiv e d evices conn ected in s eri es
i nto t h e circuit s uch as current tran sformers or caus e res onanc e

, ,
efi ects in tran sform ers et c W ith th e increas ing ex tent of v ery

, .
high vol tage tran smissi on introducing capaci ty into the sys tem s
-
, ,
it thus b ecom es increasingly important to keep the v ery high

h ar monics practicall y out of the vol tage wave .
I ncid ental ly it foll ows h erefrom that th e s peci fication s of wav e ,
s h a pe that it shou l d b e within 5 per c ent of a s in e wav e which i s

,
.
,
s ti l l occas ionally met h as b ecom e irrational : a third harmonic of

,
5 per c ent is practical ly n egligibl e whil e a thirty fif th harmonic of

.
,
-
5 p er cent in th e vol tage wave would hard l y b e permiss ibl e

.
, T his , .
m akes it n ec ess ary in wav e shap e s p ecificati on s to dis criminate -

,
ag ain s t h igh harmonic s One way woul d b e to s pecify not the

.
,
w a ve s hape of th e vo l tage but that of th e c urrent tak en by a ,
s m all cond en ser conn ected acro s s th e voltage I n th e cond en s er .
c u r rent th e voltage harmonic s are mul tipl ied by th ei r ord er

,
.
T h at is th e third harmonic i s increas ed three tim es th e fifth

, ,
h a rmo nic fiv e tim es t he thirty fifth harmo ni c 3 5 tim es etc

,
-
,
.
H owever this probab l y overemphas iz es t h e high harmonics

, ,
g i v es th em too much w e ight and a b ett er way app e ars to b e to , ,
s p ec i fy th e current wav e tak en by a s mall cond en ser hav i n g a
s p ec i fi ed amount of non inductiv e res i s tanc e i n s eri es -

.
T hus for instanc e if a: 1 000 ohm s

,
capacity reactanc e of
th e c ond en ser at fund am ental frequency r
,
1 00 ohm s re ,
si s tance in seri es to the cond en ser , th e i mpedanc e of thi s circuit ,

h
for t he n
t
harmoni c would b e ,
T 1 00
or , absol ute , th e i mpeda n c e,
and , th e ad mi tta nce ,
n
2
n
and th erefore , the mul ti pl yi ng factor ,
ya n
2
91 n
th is gives for ,
T hus wi th this proportion of resis tance and capacity the max i

, ,
mum inten s ification i s t enfol d for very high harmonics , By .
using a d iff erent val ue of the resistance it can b e mad e an ything ,
d esired .
A conv eni ent way of judgi ng on th e j oint eff ect of all harm o ni cs
of a vol tage wave is by comparing the curre nt taken by s uch a
cond en ser and resis tance w i th that taken by the same con d en ser
,
a nd resi s tanc e at a s in e wav e of i mpress ed vol tage of th e s a m e

, ,
eff e ct i v e va l u e .
T h us if th e vol tage w ave

,
600 1
1 24 E L E CT RI C C I R C UI T S
circuit and elimination by d el ta conn ect ion h as been dis cussed

, ,
in C hapter XX V of T heory and C alcul ation of A l ternating

“
current Ph eno mena .
I n th e flickeri ng of incand es c ent lamps and th e s t eadin es s of

,
arc l amps at l ow frequencies a diff erence ex is ts between th e fl at

,
top wave of current with steep zero and the peaked wave with ,
flat zero the l atter showing appreciabl e flickering al r eady at a

,
s om ewhat h igh er fr equ ency as is to b e ex p ect ed

,
.
I n gen eral wh ere s p ecial wave shap es are d esirab l e th ey are

, ,
u s uall y produc ed locall y and not by th e gen erator d es ign as

, ,
with th e increasing con so l idation of all el ectric power suppl y in

large generati ng s tations it becom es l es s permissibl e to produce
,
a desired wave shape within the gen erator as this i s cal l ed upon ,
to s uppl y power for all purpos es and th erefore the s ine wav e as
,
th e s tandard is preferabl e .
One of the mo s t frequent causes of very pronoun c ed wave

sh ape dis tortion and th erefore a v ery conv eni ent m ean s of pro
,
ducing c ertain charact eri s tic deviation s from s in e shape i s mag ,
n etic saturation and as in stanc e of a typical wave shape di stor

,
-
tion its causes and eff ects this will b e more ful l y discussed in the
, ,
foll owing .
C HA P T E R V I I I
S HA PI N G O F WA VE S BY M A GN E T I C S A T U R A T I ON
65 . wave s hapes of current or vol tage produced b y a closed

T he
m agn etic circuit at mod erate magn etic d en sities s uch as are com
,
monl y used in transform ers and oth er induction apparatus have ,
FIG . 55 .
been dis cuss ed in T h eory and C al cul ation of A l ternati ng cur -
r ent Ph enom ena .
T he ch aracteris tic of the wave s hap e dis torti on b y m agn eti c

-
1 25
saturation in a closed magn etic cir cuit is the producti on of a high

peak and fl at z ero of the current with a sine wav e of impress ed
,
vol tage of the voltage with a sine wave of current travers ing the
,
circ ui t.
FI G . 56 .
I n F i g 5 5 are s hown f our

. agn etic m cycl es corres ponding re
,
s pect i v el y to b eginning s at u ration : B ki l ol ines per cm 2

.
,
H 10 ; mod erate sat uration : B H 20 ; high s aturation
FIG . 57 .
B H and very high saturation : B

50 ; H
1 00. F ig s 5 6 5 7 5 8 and 5 9 s how t he four corres ponding
.
, ,
c u rrent waves I at a s in e wave of impress ed vol tage co and

, ,
th erefore sin e wav e of magn etic fl ux B (negl ecting i r drop in ,
t he w i nd i ng or rath er eo i s t h e vo l tage induc ed by th e al t ernat

, ,
ing magn et ic fl ux d en sity B ) I n th ese four figu res th e maxi

.
,
1 28 E L E CT RI C CI R C U I T S
val ue and b ecom es 1 3 2 per c ent higher than in a s in e wave at

,
.
,
th e v ery high s aturation of F i g 5 9 . .
I nv ersel y whi l e the max imum values of current at th e high er

,
TA B L E I
Sin w av of vol t g e maximum

e e a e, o, .. 3 48
. 3 80
.
M ax imum val u of c u rr nt I
e e ,
Eff ctiv val u of c urr nt

e e e i e , i 14 1
.
Form f cto of cu r nt w av
a r re e 2 32
.
R at i o of efi e ticcu r ntve re s 4 48
.
FIG . 60 .
FIG . 61 .
S H A P I N G OF WA VE S BY M A GN E T I C SA T URA T I ON 1 29
sa turations are tw o fiv e and ten tim es the maximum current

,
v al ue at beginning s aturation the eff ective val ues are onl y

,
and times high er T hus with increas ing magn etic s atura
.
,
tion th e efl ecti v e val ue of current rises m u ch l ess than the max i

,
m um val ue and when cal cul ating the ex citing current of a s atu
,
ra ted magnetic circuit as an overex cit ed transform er from the

, ,
m ag n etic characteris tic d erived by d i rect c u rrent und er the as ,
FIG . 62 .
al l
p a s ine wave the cal cul at ed ex citing c u rrent may b e
I n ti on of
,
In
( ) re than twic e as l arge as th e act u al ex citing c u rr ent .
66 F igs 60 to 63 s how for a s in e wave of c u rrent I trav ers ing a

. .
, , ,
(l
f o s ed magn e tic circuit and t h e s,
am e four magn e tic cyc l es giv en
11 1
Fi g 5 5 th e waves of magn etic fl u x d en s ity B of ind u c ed v ol
.
, , ,
ta e e the sine wave of vo l tage eo which woul d b e induc ed if the

g , , , ,
9
magnetic density B were a sin e wave of the s am e max imum v al ue

, , ,
an d F i g 63 a ls o s hows the equival ent s in e wav e c l of the

.
, ,
(di s tort e d ) ind u c e d vo l tage wave e , .
A s seen al ready at b eginning s at u ration F i g 60 th e vol tage

, , .
,
peak i s more than twice as high as it woul d b e w i th a s i ne w ave ,
FIG . 63 .
and ris es at hi gher s aturations to enormous val ues : ti mes the

s in e wav e val u e in F i g 63 . .
T h e magn etic fl u x wave B b ecom es more and more fl at-to pped

, ,
w ith increas ing s aturation and final l y practical l y rect ang ul ar in

, ,
F ig . 63 .
T he c u rv es 60 to 63 ar e drawn w ith th e s ame max imu m v al ues

very high s aturation F i g 63 the efl ecti v e value e of

A t th e ,
.
, , l ,
the vol tage i s times as high as it woul d b e with a sin e wave of

magnetic fl ux ; th e max imum value e is more than fiv e t i mes as , ,
h igh as it woul d b e with a sin e wave of the sam e eff ective v al ue ,
e] , that is more than fiv e times as high as woul d b e ex pected

, ,
from the voltmeter reading and it i s tim es as hi gh as it

,
w o ul d b e with a s ine wav e of magn etic fl ux .
T hus an ov ers aturated closed magn etic ci rcuit reactance

, ,
w hich con s um es eo 5 0 vol t s w ith a s in e wave of vol tage co and , ,
thus of magnetic d ensity B woul d at the s am e maxi mum mag , , ,
netic d en sity that is the s ame saturation with a si n e w av e of

, , ,
—
current as woul d b e the case if the reactance i s connected in ser
—
i es in a con s tant current circui t give an eff ective valu e of t er
-
minal voltage of el X 5 0 1 75 vol ts and a max imum peak ,
vol tage of e X 50 X 2 1 33 0 vol ts .
T hus whil e suppo sed to b e a low vol tage r eactance en

, 50 -
,
vol ts and ev en the vol tm eter shows a voltage of on l y el

, 17 5 ,
which whil e much high er is still withi n the li mi t that does not
, ,
endanger l i fe th e actual p eak voltage 6

, 1 330 is beyon d the
danger limit .
T hus magn etic s atur ation may in suppo sed l y l ow voltag e

,
-
c uits produc e dangerously high voltage peaks -

.
A tran sform er at open secondary circuit i s a clos ed m ag n etic

, ,
ci rcui t reactan ce and in a trans form er connect ed in series into a

,
— —
circuit such as a cur rent transform er etc at O pen s ec o ndary , .
circ u it unex p ectedl y high voltages may app ear by m ag n etic

s aturation .
67 F rom the pr ec ed i ng it follows that the relation of al t em at

.
,
ing current to al ternating voltage that is the reactan ce of a clo sed , ,
magnetic circuit withi n the range of magn etic s aturation is not

, ,
con stant but varies not onl y with the magn etic dens ity B but for
, , ,
t he s am e magn etic d en s ity B t he r eactance may have ver y di ff er ,
ent v al u es d ep end i ng on th e cond i t i on s of t h e circuit : wh e th er

,
cons tant potential that i s a s ine wave of voltage impress ed u pon

, ,
the reactance ; or con s tant current that i s a sin e wave of current , ,
travers ing the circuit ; or any intermediate condition su ch as ,
brought abo ut by the insertion of various amou nts of res is tance ,
or of r eactanc e or capacity in s eri es to th e c l o sed m ag n et i c cir

,
cuit reactanc e .
T he num erical val ues i n T abl e I I I il l us trate this .
I gives t he magn et i c fi el d int en s i ty and thus the direc t cu rr ent , ,

S H A P I N G OF WA VE S B Y MA GN E T I C S A T URA T I ON 1 33
w h ich produces t he —
magn etic d ens ity B that
is the B H
, ,
-
c urv e of the magn etic material A n alternating cur rent of max i

.
mum value I thus gives an alt ernating magn etic fl ux of max i

, ,
mum fl ux den sity B I f I and B w ere both sin e waves that is if

.
, , ,
FI G . 64 .
dur ing the cycle current and magnetic fl ux were proportional to

ea c h other , as in an un s aturat ed open magn etic circ uit eo as giv en
, ,
i n t h e t hi rd column would b e the max imum val ue of th e induc ed

,
v olta g e and x 0
9 9
the reactanc e T his reactanc e vari es with
1
, .
the d ens ity and greatl y d ecreases with increas ing magn etic satu
,
ration as well known

,
.
How ever if eo and thus B are sin e waves I can not b e a s in e

, ,
wave b ut is dis torted as shown in F igs 5 6 to 5 9 and the efl ecti v e

,
.
,
val ue of the current that is the current as it wo ul d b e read by an

, ,
al ternating ammet er multipl ied by 2 (that is the max imum

, ,
val ue of the eq uivalent s in e waves of ex citing c u rrent) is giv en as

60
11 T h e reactanc e i s then found as x T 11 18 18 th e reactanc e
,
Z1
.
FIG . 65 .
of the cl osed magn et i c circuit on cons tant potential that is on a , ,
s in e w av e of impress ed voltage and as s een i s larger th an

, , ,
I f howev er th e current I which travers es the rea ctance is a

, , , , ,
s in e wav e th en th e fl ux d en s ity B and th e induc ed voltag e are not

, , ,
s in es but are di s tort ed as in F igs 60 to 63 and t he efi ect i v e v alue

, .
,
of th e ind u c ed vo l tage (that i s t h e vol tage as read by al tern atin g

,
voltmet er) mul tipl ied by x/é(that is ; the max imum of th e equiv a
,
l ent s i n e wav e of vol tage) i s giv en as e; in T abl e I I I an d th e true ,
max i mum v al ue of the i nduc ed vol tage wave is e .

pending on the rel ative amount of resistance T o g et the .
genera ted suppl y vol tage of a constant potential sour ce mus t b e -
varied ; to g et th e current in a con stant current ci rcuit mus t -
b e varied A s seen the diff erenc es may amount to sev eral h un

.
,
dred per c ent .
A s graphical ill us tration F i g 64 s hows ,

.
A s curve I th e magn etic charact eris tic as d eri ved with dire ct ,
current .
C ur ve I I th e vol t ampere charact eris tic of th e c l osed circ u it

-
reactance I eo as it woul d b e if I and B that is eo both were s in e

, , , , ,
w av es .
C urve I I I the vol t ampere characteris t i c on cons tant potential

- -
al ternating suppl y i eo , l , .
C urve I V the vo l t amp ere characteris t i c on con s tant curr e nt

- -
al ternating s uppl y as d eri ved by vol tmeter and amm eter I

, , ,
cl and as
,
C ur v e V the vol t ampere characteris tic on cons tant curr ent

- -
al ternating suppl y as given by the peak val ues of I and c

, .
F i g 65 gives th e s am e curves in reduced s cal e so as t o s ho w V

.
,
compl etel y .
F i g 66 th en s hows w i th B as ab s ciss ae th e val ues of th e r e ac t

.
, ,
an ces m o x and , 0,
T A BL E III
nother way of l ooki ng at the phenomenon is this : w hil e

68 . A
with increas ing current traversing a cl osed mag neti c circuit th e ,
magnetic fl ux dens ity is l imi ted by saturation the indu ced v ol tag e ,
S HA P I N G OF WA VE S BY M A GN E T I C SA T URA T I ON 1 3 7
p e ak is not l imited by s atur ation as it occurs at the current rever

,
s al but it is proportional to th e rat e of change of t he magn etic

,
fl ux d ens ity at t he c ur rent rev ers al and th us appro x imatel y pro ,
portional to the cur rent .
T h us appro x imat ely within th e range of magn etic s aturation

, , ,
w ith increas ing current trav ers ing the cl o sed magn etic c i rcuit
( li k e that of a s eri es tran s form er ):
T he magn etic fl ux d en s ity and th erefore th e m ean val ue of i n

,
du ced vo l tage re mains cons tant ;

T he pe ak value of induc ed vol tage increas es proportional to the
current and therefore ;
,
T h e eff ectiv e value of ind u c ed vol tage i ncreases proportional

to the s quare root of the current .
T hus if the ex citing current of a series tran s form er is 5 per c ent

,
.
of ful l load current and th e s econdary circu i t i s op en ed w hil e th e

-
, ,
primary c ur rent remains the same the eff ective vo —

l tage con s umed
,
b y the transformer in creases approx imately V iz0 times ,
an d t h e ma x imum vol tage p eak 20 tim es abov e t h e full l oad -
v oltage of the transform er .
A s th e s hape of th e magn etic fl ux d en s ity and vol tage waves are

d e termin ed by the curr ent and fl ux rel ation of the hys t eres is cy
cl es and t h e latt er are entir el y empiri cal and can not b e ex press ed
,
m athematicall y therefore it i s not poss ibl e to d erive an ex act

,
m ath ematical equation for th ese dis torted and p eaked vol tage
w aves from th eir origin N ev erth el ess es peciall y at high er s atu
.
,
r a tion wh ere the voltage p eak s are more pronounc ed th e equa

, ,
t i on of t h e vol tage wave can b e d eriv ed and repres ent ed by a

F our i er series with a fair d egree of accur acy B y thus d eriving .
t h e F ouri er series which represents th e p eak ed vol tag e waves th e ,
h armonics which make up the wave and th eir appro x imat e v al ,
u es can b e d etermin ed and th erefrom th eir probab l e eff ect on th e
s ys tem as res onanc e ph enom ena et c

, es timated ,
.
, .
T he characteris tic of the voltage wav e di s tortion due to mag -
n etic s aturation in a cl o s ed magn etic circuit trav ers ed by a s ine
w ave of current is that th e entir e vol tage wave pract i call y con
,
t rac ts into a s ingl e high peak at or rath er s hortl y af ter t he mo

, , ,
ment of cu rrent rev ersal as shown in F ig s 63 62 etc

,
.
, ,
.
W ith the same max imum val ue of m agn etic d en s ity B and thus , ,
of fl ux Q t h e area of th e induc ed vol tage wav e and thus t he m ean

, , ,
v al u e of t h e voltage i s th e s am e w hatever may b e th e w av e of

, ,
mag netis m and thus of vol tage since Q e dl and the area of
, ,
the p eak ed vol tage wave of the saturated magn etic circuit e thus , ,
i s the s am e as that of a sin e wav e of voltage eo N egl ecting th en , .
the s mall val u es of vol tage e o u t s id e of th e vol tage peak , if this

, ,
vol tage peak of e is p times the max imum value of the s ine wav e ,
eo i ts width i s
,
l of that of th e sine wave and if the s in e wav e of ,
P
vol tage , eo, is represented by the equation
eo cos !p ( )
1 1
the pea k of the distorted vol tage wave is represented in first , ap
prox imation by assum i ng it as of sinusoidal shape by

, ,
p eo cos pd
: ( )
12
hat is the distorted vol tage wave e can

T , , ,
be con sid ered as
re presented by peo cos p ¢ within the angl e
and by zero outsi de of this range .
T he val ue of p foll ows appro x imatel y from the cons i de r a tion

, ,
that the peak reactanc e xm is independent of the saturation or , , ,
cons tant since it d epends on the rate of change of magnetis m

,
with current n ear th e zero val ue where there is no saturation and , ,
the ratio
$
3 thus (approx imately) constant .
in oth er word s if bel ow saturation in the rang e wh ere th e

Or , , ,
magn etic permeabil ity is a max imum the current i produces t he , , ,
magn etic fl ux Q and thereby induces the vol tage e the reactance
, , ,
'
,
is
his is the max imum reactance b el ow saturation of t he mag

T , ,
netic circuit and can b e cal cul ated from the dim en sions and the
,
magn etic characteristic in the usual manner by ass uming s ine , ,
waves of i and B .
T h e pe ak reactanc e m m of t he s at ur at ed magn etic circ u it is a p

, ,
prox imatel y eq u al to x and thus can b e cal cul ated with reas on
'
,
ab l e approx imation from th e dimension s of the mag n etic c i rcuit

,
and the magn etic charact eris tic .
I f now in th e range of magn etic s aturation a s ine wave of cur

, ,
cos n¢ is practical l y cons tant and 1 d u ri ng th e s hor t vol tage

peak e peo cos p 4 and
1,i t i s th e r efor e , ,
‘ '
I
2 av g e ( )? '
l
‘
2 av g (p eo cos p c t) ?
p
2
av g (p eo 0 0 8 19 40 11
4
7
T
()
b F or t h e harmonic where n , p, it i s
f
2 av g (peo cos ?
m? l)
2
av a(reo 0 0 8 2
11
0 03
avg cos 2 60
2
()
c F o r s till high er harmonic s than n p cos n ¢ ass u mes ,
n egativ e values w ithin th e range of th e vol tage peak an d a , ,
th ereby rapid ly d ecreases final ly becomes zero and then n eg a tive

, ,
at n 3 p pos itive again at n 5 p etc b ut i s practical l y

, ,
.
,
n egl igibl e .
T hus th e co efficients of th e F ourier series d ecrease grad ual ly

, ,
w i th increas ing ord er n , ,
4
— eo as max i mum to , en for n p, and then with in
1r
creas ing rapidity fal l off to n egl igibl e values .
T h eir ex act va l ues can eas i l y b e d eriv ed by s ub s titutin g (1 2 )

i nto
6 0 cos p t
c cos n ¢ d¢
7
T
here th e int egration is ex e t nd ed to 2p
onl y , as beyond this , th e
vol tage e is not given by equation

, , ( ) any
1 2 more but is , zero .
( )
2 1 int egrat es by
1r P
— n /o
Sl n
g( l +
)
2 si n
g( l
g
-
)
S H A P I N G OF WA VE S BY M A GN E T I C SA T URA T I ON 1 4 1
but s ince si n
35
2 0 g) s in
g g) 1
20 Z)
4 co s i n
1
cos n o
n
2
p
as the quations of th e vol tage w ave dis tor ted by mag net i c
e
s a t u ration .
70 T h es e coeffici ents a are very easil y cal cul ated and as i n

.
, n, ,
s t a nc es are giv en in T abl e I V the co efficients of the dis tort ed ,
v ol tage w ave of F ig 62 which has the form factor p

.
,
T ABL E IV
A n after n 9 th e val ues of a rapidl y d ecrease and

s see , , . ,
be
c om e n egativ e though of n egl igib l e val u e aft er n
,
27 ,
I n F i g 67t h e s ucc ess i v e val ues of

s hown as curve
?
. are s .
In real ity the peaked vol tage wave of magn etic saturation as
, ,
s hown in F igs 61 t o 63 i s not hal f a s in e wav e but i s round ed off

.
, ,
a t t h e end s toward t h e z ero va l u es

, Phy sicall y th e m eaning of .
,
t h e s ucc ess iv e harmonic s is that th ey rai s e th e p eak an d cut off

,
t h e val u es outs i de of th e peak I t i s th e h i gh harmo nics which

.
,
s ha r pe n th e edge of th e p eak and th e round ed edge of t h e p eak in

,
t h e actual wav e thus m ean s that th e high es t harmonic s which ,
g i v e v ery s ma ll or n egativ e val u es of a a re l ow er tha n g iv en b y n,
e qu at i on s or rath er ar e ab sent .
Thus by omitting the highest harmonics the wave i s round ed

, ,
off a nd brought n ear er to i ts act u al s hap e T hus in s tead of fol .

,
l owing th e curve a” as cal cul at ed and given in F i g 67 w e cu t it

, , .
,
off b efore t h e z ero val u e of a about at n 23 and fol l ow the

n, ,
curve l in e , which is drawn so that 2

? 0
that i s that
,
th e vol tage peak h as the actual val u e .
FIG . 67
T he e quation of the peaked vol tage in F ig 62 . then becomes

e co cos 4
: cos 3¢ cos 5 11: cos 7
0
cos 9¢ cos 11¢ cos cos 1 50
cos 1741 cos 19¢ cos
Or , in s ymboli c w riting ,
e, { 1 2701
.
c g E and wh en this val ue

, reached the rate of chan g e of fl ux
is ,
den s ity B and thus of current I decreases as shown in F i g 68

, , , , ,
.
,
in drawn lin es I n dotted l in es are add ed the curv es corres pond

.
ing to unlimit ed s uppl y vol tage T he vol tage peak i s th ereby .
reduc ed corres pondingl y broaden ed and retard ed and th e cur

, , ,
rent is fl attened at and after i ts z ero val ue th e more th e l ow er , ,
th e max imum s uppl y vol tage .
T h e reactanc e i s reduc ed h ereby al s o from x in F i g , , .
62 to x
, .
I n oth er word s if p is th e form factor of the dis torted vol tage

,
wav e which woul d with unl imit ed s u ppl y voltage b e induce d by

, , ,
th e s aturat ed magn etic c i rc uit of max imum d en s ity B and 6 is , , 0
th e max imum val ue of th e s i n e wav e of voltage which a s i nu ,
s oi dal fl ux of max imum d en sity B woul d induc e th e d i s tort ed, , ,
vol tage peak is

6 P 0
6 ( )
24
and max imum value of th e eq ui val ent sine wav e of th e

th e d is
t orted v o l tage or th e eff ectiv e v ol tage read by vo l tm eter i s
, ,
V }; 30
If now th e max i m um v ol tage peak is cut down to E ,

by th e
l im i tat i on of th e s uppl y v ol tage and q t h e form factor b e

E
, ,
co mes
and the effecti v e val ue of the d i s torted v oltage tim es , 2 that is ,
th e max i mum of th e eq ui va l ent s i n e wav e i s ,
thus varies wi th the s uppl y v ol tage , E .
T he reactanc e th en i s
T h us for e
, E it i s
q
S H A P I N G OF WA VE S B Y M A GN E T I C S A T URA T I ON 1 45
a nd as eo p
V5
fl
T hese values however are onl y fair approxi mation s as they
, , ,
a re ba s e d on th e as s umption
of s i nu s o i dal s hap e of th e
p e aks .
72 I n t he prec ed i ng t he
.
,
as s umption has been mad e ,
that t he magnetic fl ux pas s es

e ntirel y within the c l osed
magn etic circuit that i s that , ,
th ere is no magn etic leakag e

fl ux , or fl ux which c l os es
t h rough non magn etic s pac e
-
o u tside of th e iron conduit .
I f th e re i s a magn etic l eak

ag e
—
fl ux and th er e mus t
—
a l w ays b e s ome it somewhat
r e duces the vol tage peak th e ,
m ore th e gr eat er i s th e pro

,
portion of the l eakage fl ux to

t h e main fl ux T h e l eakage
.
fl u x in open magn etic circ uit

, ,
i s practicall y proportiona l to
t h e c urrent and that part of
,
t h e vol tage wh ich i s induc ed

,
by th e l eakage fl ux th erefore , ,
i s a s in e wav e with a sin e,
w av e of curr ent h enc e does not

, F m 69 . .
contribute to the voltage p eak .
S uch high magn etic s aturation p eaks occur on l y in a c l o s ed

mag netic circ ui t I f th e magn et i c circ uit i s not cl o sed b ut con
.
,
t ain s an air gap even a very s m al l one th e vol tage p eak w ith a
-
, , ,
s ine wav e of current i s v ery great l y re d u c ed s i nc e i n t h e ai r gap

-
, ,
mag n etic fl ux and magn eti zing c urrent are proportional .
10
Thus below s aturation and even at beginning s aturation an

, ,
air gap in th e magn etic circuit of one h undredth of i ts l ength

-
,
-
,
mak es t he vol tage wave practical l y a sin e w ave w ith a sin e wave
,
of current as di s cu s sed in T h eory and C alculation of A lternating

“
,
current Ph enomena .
’
FIG . 70 .
T he e normous reduction of th e vol tage peak by an air gap of -
1 per c ent of t h e l engt h of t h e magn et i c c i rcuit is s ho w n i n F igs

. .
69 and 7 0 .
I n F i g 69 w i th t h e m agn et i c fl ux d en s ity B as ab s cis s a the

.
, , , ,
more sinusoidal el s ew h ere does not reduc e but g reatly increas es

,
th e vo l tage p eak and produc es ex c ess i v e p eak s ev en b el ow sa tura

,
ti on with a sin e wave of current and s uch bridged gaps are th ere
, , ,
fore obj ect ionabl e with series reactors in high vol tage circ u its
,
-
.
I n shunt reactors or reactors having a con s tant s in e wave of i m

,
press ed vol tage the bridged gap merel y produc es a short flat z ero
,
of t h e current wav e thu s i s harm l es s and for th es e purpo ses

, ,
—
the bridged gap reactanc e s hown diagramm atical l y in F i g 7 1 .
— is ex ten s i vel y used due to i ts con s tructive ad v anta ges : gre a t er

,
FIG . 71 .
rigidity or stru cture and th erefore absence of noise and red uced
, , ,
magn etic s tray fiel d s and eddy current l oss es resul ting th erefrom
-
.
A ssu ming that one t enth of th e gap i s bri dged and that the
-
,
l ength of th e gap i s one one hundredth that of the entir e mag

-
n etic circuit as s hown diagrammatical l y in F ig 71 W ith s uch

,
. .
a bridged gap with al l but th e l owes t m m fs th e nar ro w ir on

,
. . .
bridges of th e g a p are s aturated thus carry th e fl ux de ns ity ,
S H wh ere S
,
m etal l i c s atu ration d ensity 20 kil olines ,
p er cm .in th
2
ese fi g ur es and H t h e magn
,
e t i z i ng forc e i n t h e gap .
F or on e t enth of th e g ap th e fl ux d en sity thus i s H

-
, S for ,
th e oth er nin e t enth s i t i s H and th e av erage fl ux d en si ty in the

-
, ,
gap thus is
S H A P I N G OF WA V E S B Y M A GN E T I C S A T URA T I ON 1 49
or if, p bri dged fract ion of gap ,
B H 198 .
C urv e I I in F ig 71 sho w s wi th th e av erage fl ux densi ty

.
, ,
B, as
ab s c i ss ae ,
t h e m m f requ i red by th e gap
. . .
,
H B S
B 2,
w h i le curve I s ho w s the m m f w hich an unbri dged g ap woul d . . .
re quire .
A dding to the ordinates of I I th e val ues of th e m m f requ i red . . .
f o r th e iron part of th e magn etic circui t or the oth er 99 per c ent ,

.
,
g iv es as curv e I I I t h e total m m f o f th e r eactor . . . .
T h e low er part of c urv e I I I i s onc e more s hown with fiv e tim es ,
t h e ab s cissa B and 1 000 1 00 and 1 0 tim es res pectively the

, , , ,
o r dinat es H as I I I III III , 1 .

z, 3.
74 F rom B
. 2 u p w ard cur ve I I I i s practical l y a s traight ,
l i ne and pl otting h erefrom for a s in e wave of current I and thus

, ,
H th e wa v e of magnetis m B and of vol tage 6 th ese curves

, , , , ,
b e com e within thi s range s i m i l ar to a s in e wav e as shown as B and

e in F i g 72 B el ow B
. 2 howev er th e s l ope of the B H
.
—
, ,
c u rv e and with thi s th eir w a v e shap es change enormously T he .
B w a v e becomes practical l y v ertical that i s B abru pt l y rev erses , , ,
a nd corres ponding th ereto th e vo l tage abruptl y ri ses to an ex ,
cess i v e peak value that i s a h i gh and v ery narro w vo l tage p eak

, ,
ap pear s on top of the other w i se appro x imatel y sine shaped -
voltage wave e ,
.
C hoo s ing the s am e val ue as in F i g 60 B or b eginni ng .

,
s aturation as the maxi mum val u e of fl ux d en s ity : at thi s i n an

, ,
e ntir ely clo se d magn etic circuit th e v ol tag e p eak i s s ti ll mod erat e .
—
O n t h e B H curve I I I of F i g 7 1 th e fl ux d en si ty B .
, ,
requires the H I f th en B and H wou l d v ary

s inu s oidall y givi n g a s in e w a v e of v o l t a ge co th e a v er age v al u e
, , ,
of this vo l tage wav e eo w ou l d b e proport i onal to t h e a v er age rat e

, ,
B
of magn et i c change or to H ,
a nd th e max imum
val ue of th e s i ne w av e of vo l tage w o ul d b e as h i gh or , ,
7
r B
2 H
max imum val ue of the actual vol tage curve 6 occurs at

T he , ,
the mom ent w h ere B pas ses through z ero and i s from curv e 1 1 1 , , 1,
T h is then is the peak v ol tage of th e actual wav e w hi l e if it w ere

, , , ,
a sin e wave with the same max imum magn eti c fl ux th e ma x i

, ,
mum vol tage woul d b e ao

T h e vol tage peak produc ed by the bridged gap and t h e form
factor thus is
that is 345 tim es higher than it woul d b e with a s ine wave

,
.
Ob v ious l y s u ch p eak can hard l y ever occur as it i s u s u al l y

, ,
beyond the l imit of th e avail abl e s uppl y vol tage I t thus m ea ns .

,
that during the very s hort mom ent of tim e when durin g th e ,
current revers al the fl ux d ensity in th e ir on bridge of th e gap

changes from s aturation to s aturation in the reverse dire ct i on ,
a vol tage peak rises up to th e lim i ts of voltage given by th e s u p

l
p y s y s t em T his p.eak i s s o narrow that ev e n t h e os cillo g raph
u s ua l l y does not comp l et el y s how it .
Ho w ever s uch practical l y unl imited peaks occur only i n a

,
perfectly cl osed magn etic circuit containing a bridged gap I f ,

.
,
in addition to th e bridged gap of 1 per c ent an unbridge d gap of .

,
p e r c ent — s uch as o .ne or s ev eral b utt j oint s— i s pr es e-

nt ,
—
givi ng th e B H cur ve I V of F ig 71 the vol tage peak i s gre atl y
.
,
reduced I t is .
e :
hence , th e rel ati ve vo l tage peak or form fac tor

, ,
T hat by this additional gap of

is, thous andth of the n n
o e o e-
l ength of magn eti c circuit th e p eak vol tage is reduced from 345
,
tim es that of the s i n e wave to onl y ti m es or to less than 2

, ,
p er c ent of i t s.pr ev iou s v a l u e .
A s seen from t he r eas oning in paragraph and F i g 6 7 t he .

current transformers series tran sformers at open secondary cir

,
cuit autotransformers or reactors etc they may b e g uard ed

, , .
,
agains t b y u sing a smal l air gap in the magn etic circuit or b y

-
,
providing the ex tra ins ul ation required to stand the vol tage and ,
the secondary circuit even if of an effectiv e vol tage which is n ot

,
dangerous to life w h en a sine wave shoul d b e careful l y hand l e d

,
as the vol tage p eak may reach val ues w hich are dangero us to
—
l ife without th e vol tmeter which read s the eff ectiv e val ue
,
indicating this .
I nversel y s uch vol tage peaks are intentional l y provid ed in

,
s om e seri es autotran s form ers for the operation of individual a rcs
of the typ e in w hich s l agging and con s equ ent fail ur es to s tart m ay
,
occur due to a high resistanc e sl ag covering the el ectrode t ips

,
-
.
B y d esi gning the autotran sformer so as to give a very high vol t a ge

—
peak at open circuit and providing in the apparatus the in s u la
—
tion capabl e to stand this vo l tage rel iabil ity of starting i s se
cured by puncturi ng any non conducting sl ag on the el ect rod e
-
tips by the vo l tage peak

, .
T h ese h i gh vol tage peaks produc ed by magn etic s at u ra tion

, ,
et c
. greatl y decrease and vanis h if cons iderabl e current is p ro
du ced by th em T hu s wh en the secondary of a cl osed ma g n etic
.
,
circuit s eri es transformer i s Open at magn etic s aturation a high

, ,
vol tage p eak app ears ; with increas ing load on the secondary ,
however the vol tage peak drop s and practical l y dis appears
,
al ready at rel ativ el y smal l load T hus such arrangements are

.
s ui tab l e for producing vo l tage peak s onl y wh en no curr e nt is
r equ i red as for di s rup tiv e eff ect s or on l y v ery s mall c urrents
, , .
C HA PT E R IX
W A VE S CR E E N S . E VE N HA R M O NI CS
7
6 . T he imination of voltage and current dis tortion and
el ,
p roduction of s in e wav es from any kind of s upply wav e that i s , ,
t h e rev erse proc edure from that d is cus s ed in th e prec eding chapt er ,
”
i s accompl i sh ed by what h as b een cal l ed wav e s creens
“
.
S eri es reactanc e al on e acts to a con s id erabl e ex tent as wav e

s creen by con s uming vo l tage proportional to th e freq uency and
,
t he c u rrent and th ereby reduc i ng the harmonic s of vol tage in

,
t he res t of th e circ ui t th e more th e high er th ei r ord er ,

.
L et t h e vol tage impress ed upon th e circ uit b e d enoted s ym

b ol i call y by
2 e. ( )
2 9
where n d eno tes the ord er of the h armon i c of abs ol ute n umeri cal
val ue
I f th en t he reactanc e a: (at fundam en tal freq uency ) i s in sert ed
, ,
i nto the circuit of res istance r th e i mpedanc e i s , ,
V r
z
x
2
for th e fundamental frequency and ,
V T
2
n x
2 2
for the n th h armoni c , ( )
3 0
and the c u rrent thus is
or , d e noting
en 81 83
2m o
c
m x
m
‘ ‘
c
fi
if r is smal l compared w ith x, 0

2
is n egli gible compared wi th l ,
9 , 25 , etc and i t is
.
,
83 85 67
that is the current i and thus the vol tage across the res is tance r
, , ,
s hows the harmonic s of t h e s upply vo l tage 6 reduc ed in propor , ,
tion to th eir ord er n , .
E ven if r is l arge compared with as and thus 0 > 1 final l y 0 ,

2
,
2
becomes n egligible with n and th e harmonics decrease with th eir

”
,
ord er .
77 T he screening eff ect of the series reactance is in creas ed by

.
s hunting a capacity C beyond th e inductanc e L that i s acro s s

, , , , ,
th e resi s tanc e r as shown in F i g 7

,
3 ,
B y con s uming cur r ent . .
FIG . 73 . FIG . 74 .
proportional to frequency and voltage the condenser s hun ts th e ,
more of the cur rent pass ing through the reactanc e the high er t h e ,
frequency and th ereby stil l furth er reduces th e higher har moni cs

,
of current in the resistance r and thus of voltage across t his re , ,
sis tance I ts effect i s limited howev er by th e d ecreas ing v olt a g e

.
, ,
dis tortion at r and thus at the cond en ser C ,

.
T hus th e s creening effect i s s t ill fu rth er i ncreased b y i nsert i ng

a second inductanc e L b eyond th e cond en ser C in series to t he
, , , ,
res is tanc e r as sho w n in F ig 74 B y making the second i nduct

, ,
. .
ance eq ual to th e first one and making the conden ser C of the , , ,
s am e reactanc e for th e fundam ental wav e as each of t h e t wo

, ,
inductanc es w e g et what probabl y is th e most eff ective wave

,
s creen T h i s T conn ection or res onat i ng circuit will b e dis cu ssed

.
-
more full y in C hapter XI V in i ts feature of cons tant pote ntial ,

-
constant current transformation

-
.
U nder the condition that t h e two i nductiv e reactances and the

,
(0) R e duction factor of t h e nt h harmoni c ,
60 { 11
That i s th e third harmoni c is reduced to less than 5 per c ent
,
.
,
t h e fif th to l ess than 1 per c ent and the higher on es are practically .

,
ent i rely ab s ent .
Whil e in the s uppl y vol tage wave 6 the vol tage peak (by adding , ,
t h e num erical val ues of al l th e harmonic s : l

is tim es that of th e fun damental wave it is reduced ,
by series reactanc e to l ess than tim es th e maximum of the

f undamental wave that is very greatl y reduced and by the
, , ,
co mpl ete wave s creen to l es s than times the max imum of

t h e fundam ental T hat i s in th e l as t cas e .
,
th e voltage i s practical l y a perfect sin e

wave .
78 By wave s creen s th e separation of

.
pul s ating currents into their al ternating and

th eir continuous compon ent or th e s epara ,
tion of compl ex al ternati ng cur rents and —

thu s voltages
— into th eir con s t i tue nt har
FIG 75
moni es can b e accompl ish ed and inv ersel y
. .
, ,
th e combination of al t ernating and conti nuous curr ents or v ol

t ages into res ul tant comp l ex al t ernating or pul sating currents .
T h e s imp l es t arrangem ent of s uch a wav e s creen f or s eparatin g ,
or combi ning al ternating and continuous currents into p ul s at in g

ones is the combi nation in s hunt with each other of a capacity
, , , ,
C and an ind u ctanc e L as shown in F i g 7

, ,
5 ,
I f th en a pulsat i ng . .
, ,
vol tage 6 is impressed upon the system the pul sating current 71
, , , , ,
prod u ced by it di vid es as the continuous component can not ,
pas s through th e conden ser C and the alternating compon ent , ,
i s b arred by the ind u ctanc e L th e more compl etely th e h i g h er , , ,
th i s inductanc e T hus the cur rent 23 in the appar atus A is a

.
, , , ,
true al ternating c u rrent whil e the current in the apparatu s C

, , , ,
i s a s l i ght l y pul s ating direct current .
I n v ersel y by p l acing a s our c e of al t ernating voltag e s u ch as

, ,
an al tern ator or t h e second ary of a tran sform er at A and a s ource , ,
of continuou s vo l tage s u c h as a s torage batt ery or di r ec t current

,
-
WA V E S CR E E N S . E V E N HA R M ON I CS 1 57
gen erator at C in the ex ternal circuit a puls ating vol tage 6 and
, , , ,
p uls ating current i res ult , ,

.
I f th e capacity C i s s o large as to practicall y s hort circuit the

, ,
-
al ternating vol tage and the inductance L so high as to practically

, , ,
- —
open cir cuit the al ternating vol tage the separation of combi ,
—
nation is practically complete and independent of the frequency ,
of th e al ternating wav e .
W ave s creen s b ased on resonanc e for a d efinite frequency by

se ries co nn ection of capacity and inductance can b e us ed to s epa ,
rate the current of this frequency from a compl ex current or

vol tage wave s uch as those given in F igs 5 6 to 63 and thus can
,
.
,
b e u sed for separation of

complex waves into their
c omponents by h armonic ,
“
”
a nalys is .
T hu s in F i g 7 6 if the .
,
s u cc ess iv e capaciti es and i n
d u ctan ces are chosen s uch

that
10 W f L 5
2n 1r a
wh ere f frequency of the fundamental wav e .
T h en through any of th e branch circuits C"L

, only th e n th ,
harmonic i can pass to an appreciabl e ex tent

, n, .
S uch res onant wav e s creen ho w ev er has th e s eri ous di sadv an , ,
tage to require very high con stancy of f sinc e th e resonanc e cond i ,
tion between C and L depend s on the s quare of f

” ,. ,
1
C.
7
9 . E v en
harmonics are produc ed in a c l o sed magn etic circuit
by th e s uperpos ition of a continuous current upon the al ternating
wave With an al ternati ng si n e wave impressed upon an iron
.
mag netic circuit s aturation or in general th e l ack of proportional

, ,
ity between magnetic fl ux and produces a wave s hape dis -
t orti on that i s high er harmonic s of vol tage with a sin e wav e of

, , ,
current of current with a s in e wave of impressed voltage T he

, .
con stant term of a wave however i s the first even harmonic and
, , ,
thus if the impressed wave comprises a fundam ental sin e and a

,
FI G . 77 .
constant term th e form er giv es rise to the odd harmoni cs the

, ,
l att er to th e ev en harmonic s .
L et th en on th e al ternating s in e wave of impressed voltage a

, ,
conti nuous cu rrent by s uperimposed T he magn etic fl ux then .
os cil l ates s inusoidal l y not b etw een equal and oppo s ite v al ues
, ,
but betw een two un equal val ues which may b e of th e s ame or of
, ,
oppos i te s i gns T hat i s it performs an un symmetrical mag n etic

.
,
cycl e N egl ecting again hys teresis that is as suming th e rising

.
, ,
current citing
ex coil s
and s aturated by one common direct cur rent -
ex cit i ng coi l s urround i ng both cores or th eir common return etc

, , , .
80 T h e prec eding may il l us trate s om e of th e num erou s wave

.
s hap e dis tortion s which ar e met in el ectrical engin eering th eir ,
characteris tics origin eff ects use and danger N umerous other
, , , .
wave d i storti ons such as those produced by arcs by uni direc

, ,
ti onal conductors by diel ectric eff ect s s uch as corona by Y con

, ,
necti on of tran s form ers for reactors by el ectro l yt ic polar ization

, ,
by pul sating resistance or reactanc e etc are dis cussed in other

,
.
chapt ers or may b e s tudied in a simil ar manner .

C H A PT E R X
I N S T A B IL I T Y O F CI R CU I T S : T HE A R C
A . G eneral
81 . uring th e earlier days of el ectrical engineering practi

D
call y all th eor etical i nv es tigation s wer e limited to circuit s in s tab l e
or s tationary condition and wh ere ph enomena of instabil ity

,
o c curred and mad e them selves fel t as distu rbanc es or troubl es in

,
el e ctric circuit s th ey eith er remain e d unund ers tood or th e th eo

,
r e ti cal s tudy w as limit ed to th e s p ecific ph enom enon as in th e ,
c as e of l ightning dr opping out of s t ep of induct i on motors hunt

, ,
i n g of s ynchronous mach i n es etc or as in th e d es ign of arc lamp s

, .
, ,
a n d arc light i ng machin er y th e opinion prevail ed that th eoretical

-
,
c alcu l ation s ar e impo ss ib l e and o nl y d esign by tryin g bas ed on ,
p r actic al ex peri enc e f ea s ib l e ,

.
T he fi rs t class of un s tabl e ph enom ena which w as systemat ,
i call y inv est i gated were th e tran sient s and ev en today it i s qu es

, ,
t i onab l e wh eth er a sy stematic th eoretical cl a ss ification and i n

v es t i g ati on of t h e condition s of in s tabi l ity in el ectric circuit s i s
y e t f e as i bl e O nly
. a pr el iminary c l a ss ification and di s cu ss ion
of s uch ph enom ena shal l b e attempt ed in th e fol l owing .
T hree main types of in s tab i l ity in el e ctric s ys tem s may b e

dis t i ng uis h ed :
.I T h e trans i ents of read j u s tm ent to cha nged circ u i t con
di ti ons .
II . n stable electrical equil ibrium that i s th e condi t ion

U , ,
in
w h ich the eff ect of a cause increases th e cause .
I I I Perman ent in s tabil ity res ul ting from a combination

. of
circuit cons tants which can not coex is t .
I . T R A N SI E NT S
82 T . rans ients are th e phenomena by which at the change of ,
cir cuit condition s current vol tage etc readj us t them sel ves
, , ,
.
,
from the values corres ponding to the previous condition to the

v alues c orres pon ding to the new c onditio n of the circuit F or in .
11 1 61
s tance if a s witch is clos ed and thereby a load put on th e circuit

, , ,
the current can n ot in s tant l y increas e to th e value corres pondi ng

to th e increas ed load but s om e time elapses during which the
‘
, ,
increas e of the s tored magn etic en ergy corres pondi ng to th e in

creased current is brought about Or if a motor s witch is closed
, .
, ,
a period of accel eration intervenes before the fl ow of current b e

comes s tationary et c ,
.
T h e characteris tic of tran s i ents th erefore is as impli ed in t he ,
term that they are of l i mited us uall y very short duration inter
, , ,
v eni ng b etw een t w o p eriods of s tationary condition s .
C on s id erabl e th eoretical work has b een don e m ore or less ,
s ys tematica ll y on tran si ent s and a g reat mass of information is

, ,
th us avail abl e in the literature T hese tran sients are m ore ex .
tens i v el y tr eated in T h eory and C alcu l ation of T r an s i ent E l ec

tric Ph enomena and Os cill ations and in E lectric D is charges ,
“
,
W aves and I mpul ses and th erefore will b e omitted in t h e fol

,
lowing However to s ome ex tent the trans ients of our th eor et

.
, ,
ical l iterature st il l are those of the phantom circuit th a t is

, , ,
a circui t in which the cons tants r L C q are ass um ed as con s tant , , , , .
T h e eff ect of th e variat i on of con s t an t s as found more or l es s in ,
actual circuits : the change of L with the current in cir cuits con
taining iron ; the change of C and g with the voltage (cor ona etc ) , .
t he change of r and g with th e frequency etc has bee n s tudi e d to ,

.
a li mited ex tent on l y and in s pecific cases ,

.
I n th e app l ication of the th eory of tran s ients to actual el ectric

c ircuits cons iderabl e judgm ent thus is often necess ary to al low
,
”
and correct for th ese secondary phenomena which are n ot in “
cl uded in the th eoretical equation s .
E s peciall y d efici ent i s our knowledge of th e condi tions u nder

wh i ch the attenuation cons tant of the tran sient becom es zero
or n egative and t h e tran s i ent th er eby b ecom es perman e nt or
, ,
becom es a cumul ative s urge and the phenomenon t hereby one of ,
uns tabl e equ il ibriu m .
II . U N ST A BL E E L E CT R I CA L E QU I L IB R I U M
83 . I f th e eff ect
brought about by a cause is s uch as to oppose
or red u c e th e cause th e eff ect mu s t limit itself an d stab i lity b e
,
finall y reach ed I f howev er the eff ect brought about b y a cause

.
, ,
increases the cause the eff ect continues wi th i ncreasi ng intensi ty

, ,
that is in s tab il ity resul ts

, .
cr a e se with
incr a ing rapidity up to short circuit that is until
e s ,
-
, ,
th e s upply s ourc e limits th e curr ent .
3 I n stabil i ty l eading again to in stability and thus pe riodi call y

.
,
repeati ng the ph enomena .
F or in s tanc e if an arc of th e volt ampere charac t eris tic A

,
-
, ,
in F ig 79 is Operated in a constant current circuit of s uffi ciently

.
-
h i gh direct voltage to res tart the are wh en it goes out and th e arc ,
FI G . 79 .
is hunt ed by a condenser the condenser makes th e ar e unstable

s ,
and pu ts it ou t ; the available supply voltage however starts , ,
it again and so periodicall y the arc start s and ex ting ui shes as

, ,
an o s cill ating are

“ ”
.
84 T h ere are c ertain c ircuit el ement s whi ch ten d to produce

.
in stab il ity s uch as arc s pyroelectric conducto rs condensers

, , , ,
indu ction and syn chronous motors etc and their recog ni tion ,
.
,
therefore is of great i mportance to the engin eer i n g uar ding ,

cumulative surges hunting etc T h ey may b e consi dered as

, ,
.
transi ents in which th e attenuation con stant is zero or n egat ive .
I n th e tran s ient res ulting from a change of circuit conditions ,
th e en ergy which represents th e diff erenc e of s tored en ergy of the

circuit before and after the change of circuit condition i s d iss i ,
pated by th e en ergy loss in th e circuit A s en ergy loss es always .
occur th e inten sity of a true tran sient thus must always b e a

,
max i mum at th e b eginning and s teadily d ecrease to z ero or per

,
manent condition A n os cill ation of constant intens ity or of

.
,
increasing int ens ity thus is poss ible only by an energy s uppl y
,
to th e o s ci l l ating sys tem b rought a b out b y th e o s cillation If .
this energy s upply is equal to th e en ergy d iss ipation con s tancy ,
of th e ph enom enon res ul t s I f th e en ergy s uppl y is g reat er than

.
t h e en ergy di ss ipation th e o s c il lation is cumulative and s t eadily

, ,
increas es until self destructi on of th e system result s or th e i n

-
,
creasi ng en ergy lo ss b ecomes equal to th e energy supply and a ,
s tat i onary condition of o s cillation res ul t s T h e m echa n is m of

.
this en ergy s upply to an os cill ating syst em from a sourc e of en e rgy

d iff ering in frequency from that of th e os cillation is still pra cti
cal l y unknown and very li ttle investigati ng work h as been done
,
to cl ear up th e ph enom enon I t is not even gen erall y real ized

.
that th e ph enomenon of a perman ent or cumulative l i n e s u rge

involves an en ergy s uppl y or energy transformati on of a f re
quen ey equ al to that of th e o s cil l ation .
Pos s i bl y th e ol des t and b es t known in stanc e of s uch cumul a tive

-
os c ill ati on i s the hunt ing of syn chronous machines .
C umul at i ve o s c ill ation s b et w een electromagn eti c and el ect ro

s tat i c en ergy hav e b een ob s erv ed by th eir d es tructive efi e ct s in
h igh vol tage el ectric c i rcuit s on transformers and other appar atus
-
,
and have b een in a numb er of ins tanc es wh ere th eir frequ ency
,
w as su ffici ently low record ed b y th e o s cil lograph

,
T h ey ob v i .
ousl y are th e mo s t dangero u s ph enomena i n h i gh volt age el e ctric -
circ u i ts R el ativel y l ittl e ex act knowl edge ex is ts of their origin

. .
— —
U su al l y ii not al ways an ar e s omewh ere in th e s ys t e m is
ins trumental in the en ergy s upply which mai ntain s th e os cilla
tion I n s ome in s tanc es as in wireless tel egraphy th ey ha ve
.
, ,
found industrial appl i cat ion A s ys tematic th eoretical inves tig a

.
tion of th ese c u mul ative el ectrical o s cil l ation s probab ly is one of

th e mo s t i mportant prob l em s b efore th e el ectrical en g i neer t oday . .
T h e gen eral nature of th es e perman ent and cumulat ive os cill a

tions and thei r origin by os c ill ati ng en ergy supply from th e transi
I N S T A BI L I T Y OF CI R C UI T S 1 67
ent of a change of circuit condition is best ill ustrated by the i n

,
s tanc e of t h e hunting of s ynchronous mach i n es and this will

, ,
therefore b e investigated som ewhat more in detail

, .
B T he A r c
. as U ns tab l e Conductor
86
. instabil ity of t he arc is th e resul t of its dropping volt
T he
a mp ere charact eris tic as dis cus sed in paragraph s 1 8 to 2 7of th e
,
FIG . 82 .
chapter on E l ectric C onductors A s s hown th ere

.
, t he arc is
a lways u ns tabl e on con s tant voltage impress ed upon it . Series
res istanc e Or reactanc e produc es stab ility for currents above a

certain critical value of current i o Such curves giving th e vol, .
,
tage cons umed by the arc and its seri es res is tance as function of
th e c u rrent thus may b e t erm ed s tabil ity curves of t h e arc
, T heir .
min imum val u es that i s the stabili ty lim its corres ponding to the
, ,
d iff erent resistances give the s tability characteris tic of t h e arc

,
.
T he eq uatio n s of th e are and of i ts stabil ity curves and s tab ility

,
characteristic are given in paragraph s 22 and 23 Of the chapter on

,
E l ectric C ond u ctors .
L et in F i g 82 A pres ent th e volt amp ere characte ris t i c of an

, .
,
-
ar e given appro ximat ely by t h e eq uat i on

,
c (l 6)
x /{
b
W
wh ere
b
/i
'
i s th e stream voltage that is voltage consumed by the arc stream

, , .
F ig . 82 is drawn wi th th e con stant s ,
133
17
6
.
:
?
A ss umi ng this ar e i s Operat ed from a circuit of con stan t -v o ltage
s uppl y
,
1 5 0 vo l t s ,
through a resistanc e r o ,
T he voltage c onsum ed by t he res is tanc e r o th en is , ,
62
and th e vo l tage avail abl e for th e ar e thus

E 701: ( )
4
L in es B , C and D of F ig . 82 give 6 for the values Of

1, a
res ist n ce,
T o 20 Ohms (B )
1 0 ohms (C)
1 3 ohms (D ) .
the tot al current , i , thus may b e called the stabi li ty coefi cient Of the
circuit ,
In a circuit of constant resistanc e ,

r, it is
a =
1,
that i s , th e s tabil ity coefficient of a circuit of constant res istance,
r, unity
is .
I n gen eral if the eff ective resi s tanc e

, ,
r , i s not cons tant but varies
,
with the current i it is , ,
e m,
de
El
hence ,
the s tabil ity coeffic i ent
thus in a circuit in wh ich the resi stance increas es with the current
, ,
the s tab il i ty co effic i ent i s great er than 1 Such i s that Of a con .
ductor with posit i ve temperature coefficient of resi sta nce in ,
which the temperature rise du e to the increase of current i n creases

the res i s tanc e A conductor with n egat i ve t emperature coeffi ci
.
ent of res is tanc e giv es a s tab il ity co efficient l ess than 1 b u t as long ,
as 6 i s s t i ll po s i t i ve that i s th e d ecreas e of resis t ance sl ow er t h an

, ,
th e increase of current the circuit is s ta bl e , .
6 > O
I N S T A BI L I T Y OF CI R C UI T S 171
is th e c ondition of s tabil ity of a circuit on constant vol tage supply -

,
and
6 < 0
is t he condition of I n stabil ity and ,
6 0
thus gives the stab ility characteristic of t he circuit .
I n t he ar e,
e :
the s tab ili ty coeffic i ent is , by

’
b e
2c
I
that is , e q uals hal f th e s tream vol tage ,

3 , di vid ed by th e are
voltage 6 ,
.
Or s u bs tituting for e in
,
and rearranging ,
( W)
a
2 1 1
1
20 Vi )
in Fi g 82 . .
F or i 0, it is 6
i it is 6 0co .
T he s tability co effici ent Of the are havi ng th e vo l t ampere -
ch aract eris tic A in F i g 82 is s hown as F in F i g 82

, ,
. . .
88 O n co ns tant voltage s uppl y E

.
-
1 5 0 volt s the are having , ,
t h e characteris t i c A F ig 82 can not b e Operat ed at l ess than

, , .
,
a m p eres At i . i s its s tabil i ty l imit that i s th e s tability , ,
co efficient of arc p l u s s eries res is tanc e r o required to giv e 1 50 , ,
v o lts changes from n egative for l ow er current s to pos itive f or

, ,
h i gher curren ts .
T h e s tabil ity c oefficient of s uch arc s o perat ed on con s tant ,
v oltag e s upply through vari ous amount s of series res is tanc e r o , ,
t h en woul d b e g iven by
w here
b
x/?
and the res istanc e ro cho sen so as gi ve

to
15 0 vol t s ,
from (1 7) foll ows ,
and subs t itut i ng from

,
60
I
I —
t
y
I
(1 9 )
wh ere eo is th e s uppl y vol tage cf the v ol tage given by t h e s tab i l i ty

, ,
characteris ti c S ,
.
6 th e s tab i l ity charact eri stic Of th e are A on E

0, 1 5 0 vo l t , ,
constant potential s uppl y is given as curve G in F i g 82 A s

-
, , , . .
s een it pas s es from n egat i v e

,
— — —
in stability to po sitive s t ab il ity
— at th e point 10 corres ponding to c and h on th e oth er c u rves
, , .
89 On a con s tant current s uppl y an arc is inh erentl y s tab l e

.
-
, .
I n s tability ho w ev er may res ul t by s hunting th e ar e by a res is t

, ,
anc e r T hus in F ig 83 l et I
, l . 5 amp b e th e con stant s upply
.
, .
current T h e vol t ampere characteristic of the arc is given b y A

.
-
,
and s hows that on this 5 amp circuit the arc con s um es 94 volts
-
.
, ,
point d .
L et now th e are b e s hunt ed by resistanc e r If e v oltag e , l .
consumed by the arc the current s hunted by the res is tance n is

, , ,
and the current availabl e for the are thus is

— 21
71 (I
'
i )
17
e volts th e limit of stability A t I

1 48 ,
5 amp th e point h . .
,
at c 1 48 volts thus gives the voltage cons umed by an are when

,
by shunting it with a res is tance the stability limit is reach ed .
D ra w in g th en from th e diff erent points of th e ab s c i ss a i , ,
tangents on A and transferring th eir contact points c b to the

, , , ,
abs ciss a from which th e tangent is drawn gives the points h

, , ,
g of
, t h e con s tant curr ent s tability ch
-
a ract eris tic of t h e ar e that ,
i s th e curve of arc voltages in a con stant current circuit I wh en

,
-
, ,
by s hunting th e arc with a res is tance r cons uming current i l , l, , ,
t he s tability limit Of th e arc with current i I — i is re ach e d 1 .
P th en giv es th e curve of th e arc current s i corres ponding to , ,
th e arc vo l tage 3 of c urve Q for th e diff erent val ues of t h e con

, , ,
s tant— circuit current I , .
T h e equat io ns of Q and P are d erived as fol l ow s

T h e stabil ity limit point 0 corres ponding to circuit c u rren t I
, , , ,
as giv en by
de
di
arc vol tage and i , ar e current .
I t is , however ,
5 I
I
<
F rom th ese three equation s foll o w s by el imi nating r , l an di or c,
Q .
i (3 b a ux/Z)
b
h ese curves are of lesser interest than th e con s tant voltage

T -
s tabil i ty curv e of th e arc S in F i g 82 , . .
I t i s int eres ting to not e that th e resi stanc e wh i ch

, ,
makes an are unstabl e as shunting resistance in a cons tant

current circ ui t h as t he s am e val ue as th e resi s tance ro
, w h ich , ,
as se ries resistance makes it un stabl e in a con stant voltage s uppl y

-
circuit .
90 D ue to th e dropping vol t ampere charact eris tic t wo arc s

.
-
,
can not b e operat ed in parall el unl ess at l ea st one of th em h as a

,
s uffi ci ently high res is ta nc e in seri es .
FI G . 84.
L et , as s hown in F i g 84 , two arc s b e

. connected in parall el into
t h e c i rcuit of a co ns tant current
I 6 amp .
A ss ume at first both arc s of th e s am e l ength and same elect rode

ma te rial , that is the s ame volt ampere characteristic
,
-
.
17
L et i current in the firs t are thus i I i current in ,

’
the second arc .
T h e vo l t ampere characteris tic of th e first arc th en i s g i ven by

-
, ,
A in F i g 84 that Of th e second are by A

’
. .
,
A s th e t wo paral l el arc s mu st have t he s ame vo l tage th e Oper ,
ating point is the point a of the intersection of A and A in , ,

’
T he arc s thus woul d di vid e th e current , e ach Operat i ng at 3

amp .
However the Operation i s un stable : if the firs t arc shoul d tak e a

,
little more current i ts vol tage decreases on curve A that of t he

, , ,
second arc increas es on A due to th e d ecrea se of i ts current and

’
, , ,
t he fi rs t are thus takes still more current th us rob s the se cond arc , ,
th e latt er go es out and on l y one are continues .
T h us two arc s in parall el are un stab l e and one of th em go es o ut , ,
only one persists .
Suppo se now a resis tanc e of
r 30 Ohms
is conn ect ed in se ries with each of t he two arc s , as s ho w n in
F ig . 84 .
T he volt ampere characteristics of arc plus res is tanc e r th en

-
, , ,
are gi v en by curv es B and B

’
.
T h ese int ersect in three point s : b g and h , .
Of th es e point b i s s tabl e : an increase of th e current in one of

,
t h e arc s and corres ponding d ecrease in th e oth er increas es t h e

, ,
vol tage cons um ed by th e circuit of the former decreas es th at con ,
s u m ed by th e circuit of th e l att er and thus ch ec ks it se lf , .
T h e point s 9 and h how ever are un stab l e , , .
A t b s table condition th e charact eris tic s B and B are ris in g ;

’
, , , ,
at a uns tab l e condition th e charact eris tic s A and A ar e drop

’
, , , ,
ping and th e stabil ity l i mit is at that value of res is t anc e r at

, , ,
which th e circuit characteris tics pl us res is tanc e are horiz ontal , ,
th e point c wh er e th e charact eris tic s C and C touch each oth er

’
,
.
, ,
0 i s th e s tabil ity l imit of C or C thus a point of the stab il ity ’

,
characteristic of ei th er arc or given by th e eq uation ,
x/ T
ho ws the case of two parall el arcs which are not eq ual

F ig 85 . s ,
an d do not hav e equal res is tanc es r i n s eries one b ein g a l o ng arc , , , ,

F urth ermore , a mall change in either of th e tw o curves A or C

s , ,
res ults in the tw o point s of intersection a and b v anis h i ng T hus .

,
if r i s reduc ed from 40 ohm s to 35 Ohm s the curve C changes to C ,

’
,
s hown dott ed in F i g 85 and as th e l att er does not int e rs e ct A

.
,
ex c ept at th e u ns tab l e point 0 parall el operation i s not po ss ible, .
T hat i s two s u ch arc s can b e Operat ed in parall el only o v er a

,
limit ed range of cond i ti on s and even then the parall el operat i on

,
i s not v ery s tab l e .
T h e prec ed ing may il l us trat e th e eff ect of res is tanc e on t h e

s tab il ity of Op eration Of ar cs .
Si milarl y oth er condition s can b e in v es t i gat ed as th e s tab il i ty

, ,
CA PA C IT Y S HU NT l NG A R C
FIG . 86 .
co ndition of arc s with resis tanc e i n series and in s hunt , on co n s tant ,
vol tage suppl y etc , .
91 . L et
e =
E
vol tage con s umed by a circuit

b e th e ,
A , F ig 86,
. when tra vers ed
by a c urrent
I .
I f, th en ,
in this circuit the current changes by 61 , to
I 61 ,
t he vol tage co ns umed b y th e c ircuit changes by°
6E , to
e E i 6E ,
and the change of vol tage is of th e s ame s ign as that of the c urrent
‘
producing it if A i s a resi stance or other circuit i n whi ch the

,
vo l tage rises with th e current or is Of opposi te sign i f th e circuit , , ,
A h as a dropping vo l t ampere characteris ti c as an arc

,
-
,
.
Suppo s e now th e circuit A i s s h u nt ed by a cond en ser C As , , , .
long as current i and vol tage e in the circuit A are cons tant no
, , , , , ,
current pass es through the co ndenser C I f however th e vol tage ,

.
, ,
of A changes a c urrent i passes through the cond enser given by

, , l , ,
th e e quation
I f, then , th e uddenl y changes by 61 from

s uppl y current ,
I ,
s ,
I to I 61 and th e ci rcui t A i s a d ead res is tanc e r without th e

, , , , ,
co nd en s er C th e vo l tage of A w ould j us t as s udd en l y change

, , ,
f rom E to E 6E B y (26) thi s would ho w ever gi v e an infinite

.
, ,
c u rrent i l in th e cond en s er
, ,
H ow ev er th e current in the con .
,
den ser can not ex c eed 61 as w i th ,
61
at moment of s uppl y current change th e total ex cess current

th e ,
w o uld in th e firs t mom ent fl ow through th e condens er and th e ,
c ircuit A thus in this moment not change in current or vol tage

, ,
.
A finit e current in th e cond en ser C requires a finit e rate of , ,
c hange of e in th e circu i t A s tarting from the previou s v al ue E, , , ,
a t t h e s tarting moment th e tim e t 0 , ,

.
T hus if i ,current e v o l tage of c ircuit A at time t after

, , , , ,
t he increase of th e s uppl y current I by 61 it i s , , ,
current in cond enser ,
current in ci rcuit ,
A ,
i I 61 i;
thus vol tage Of ci rc uit

, ,
A , Of res istance , r,
e =
ri
T I T CI
subs t i tuting (26) into gi ves

— rC
integ r ated b y
180 EL E C T RI C CI R C UI T S
e =
rI — r 6I (1
—E —6E (l — e
since e E for t 0 i s the termi nal condi ti on wh i ch d etermines

t he int egration con s tant .
With a s u dd en change of th e s uppl y current I by 61 as s hown , , ,
by the dott ed lines I in F ig 86 th e vol tage e and current i in , , .

, , , , ,
th e circuit A and t h e curr ent i

, in t h e cond
,
en s er C thu s cha n ge , l, , ,
by the ex ponential tran sient s s hown in F i g 86 as e i and i 1 .

,
.
92 Su ppo se now however that th e circui t A h as a dropping

.
, , , ,
volt ampere characteristic i s an are

-
,
A s u dd en d ecrease of the su ppl y current I by 61 to I 61 , , ,
b
woul d by th e arc characteristic cause an 1ncrease of
W
, 6 a ,
the vol tage of circui t A from E to E 6E Such a s udd en

, ,
.
increase Of E wo ul d send an infinite current thro ugh C that is , ,
all the s upp l y c urrent would momentarily go through th e con

denser C none thro ugh the arc A and the latter would thus g o
, , , ,
ou t and that no matter how s mall th e cond en ser capacity C

, , , .
T hus wi th the cond en ser in s hunt to th e circuit A th e v ol t ag e A

, , , , ,
can not vary i nstantl y but at a decrease of the supply curr ent I , , ,
by 61 th e vol tage of A at the firs t mom ent mus t remai n the s ame
, ,
E and the current in A thus mus t remain al s o and as th e s upply

, ,
current h as d ecreased by 61 the conden ser C thus mus t fee d the , , ,
current 61 bac k into the are A T his however requires a de

, , , .
, ,
creas ing vol tage rati ng of A at decreas i ng supply current and , ,
this is not th e case with an arc .
I nversel y a s udd en incr eas e of I b y 61 d ecreas es the vol tage

, , ,
of A thus causes th e co ndenser C to dis charge into A s till fu rther

, , , ,
decreas es i ts vol tage and th e cond enser momentarily s hort ci r ,

-
cuits t hrough the ar e A ; but as soon as it h as dis charg ed an d the ,
ar c vol tage again ri s es wi th th e d e creas ing curr ent th e cond e n s er , ,
C rob s th e arc A and puts it out

, , , .
T h us even a s mall cond en s er in s hunt to an arc makes it un

,
s tab l e an d put s it out .
I f a r es is tanc e r o is in sert ed in seri es to th e ar e in th e cir cuit A

, , , ,
s tabil ity r es ul t s if th e r es i s tanc e i s s u ffici ent to gi v e a ri s in g vol t
a mper e charact eri s tic as di s cu ss ed previousl y , .
R es i s tanc e in seri es t o the cond en ser C al s o produces s tab il ity , , ,
if s uffici entl y l arge : with a s u dd en change of vol tag e i n t he ar c

constant s uppl y c urrent I the cond enser thus mus t absorb

At -
, ,
the d ecr eas e of current in A that i s the con den ser current i s
, ,
With decrease of current ‘
a circuit wi th rising character

i If A is
i s ti c for in s tanc e an ohmic r es is tanc e th e vol tage of A d ecr eas es
, , ,
.
T he vol tage at th e cond en ser increas es by th e i ncreasin g char g ing

current i thus th e cond en ser vol tage tend s to rise ov er t h e ci r
, l ,
cuit vol tage of A and thus ch ecks the decreas e of th e v ol tage an d

,
thus of th e current in A T hus the conditions are stab l e

.
, .
S uppo s e how ev er A i s an ar e
, , .
A d ecreas e of the c urrent in A th en caus es an i ncrea se of t h e

voltage con sum ed by A th e arc vo l tage 6 , , 0 .
T he s am e d ecrea se of th e current i n A by d efl ect i ng th e curr e n t ,
into the cond enser causes an increase of the vo l tage con s ume d by
,
C th e cond en s er vol tage 6

, , 1.
I f now at a d ecrease of th e arc curr ent i th e arc vol tage 6 ri s es

, , , , , 0,
fas t er than the cond enser vol tage 6 the increase of co over 6 de , 1, 1
fl ects s till more current from A into C that i s the ar c c u rrent , ,
d ecreases and the condens er current increases at in creas ing rate ,
unti l th e arc current h as d ecr eased t o z ero that i s t h e arc h as , ,
been put out I n this case th e cond enser thus produc es i n

.
,
s tabi l ity Oi th e ar e .
I f howev er co increases s l ow er than 3 that i s th e cond en ser

, , 1, ,
vol tage increases fas ter than the arc vol tage th e conden s er C , , ,
s hif ts curr ent o v er into th e arc circ u it A that i s the decreas e of , , ,
current in the arc circ uit ch ecks its el f and th e conditio n be c om es ,
s tabl e .
T h e v o l tage ri se at th e cond en s er i s gi v en by
de
dt
hence by ,
from t he vol t ampere character ist i c of

-
t he arc ,
foll ows ,
t he vo l tage rise
a nd, by
di
dt
h enc e s ubstituted into

,
de [M
di 2 toi x/ i
T hecondition of stabil i ty i s that t he vol tage rise at, con

d e nser is g reat er than that at th e are
, thus , ,
H M
,
toC 2 toI V E
’
2
bC
or , s ub s tituting for t from equation gives

2 t0i \/ i (1 )
2
bC
as th e condi tion of s tabil i ty , an d
bC
t h us is th e s tab ility l imit .
94 . I n teg rating (3 3 ) and s ubst itut i ng th e t erminal condition

t 0; e E, gives
tl
z
2 toC
as th e quation of th e vol tage at

e the cond enser term i nal s .
S ubs titut e (3 1 ) i nto (3 4) gi v es
a +
as the e q ua tion Of the arc vol tage .
F or ,
h en ce,
E 15 1 ,
“
10 s ec .
,
and for the three val ues of capacity

, ,
C
—6
X 10
X
FIG . 88 .
t hecurves of the arc vol tage 6 , 0,
an d of th e cond en s er vol tag e 6 6 63 , 1, 2, ,
are s ho w n on F i g 88 .
,
together with the val ues of i and i 1 .
A s s een c i s b el ow co ov er the entire range

, l T hat i s 1 mi .
,
.
makes the ar e uns tab l e over the entire range mf ea gives . .

, ,
instab il ity up to about t X s ec then s tabili ty res ults .

,
.
Wi th mf 6 there is a narrow range Of s tab ili ty between

.
, 2, ,
( )
a to
h ch i s probab ly
w i the approx imate magnitude in th e car bon are .
T his giv es
C 26 mf .
which is probabl y the appro x imate magnit ude in th e mercury arc .
T his giv es
C mf .
95 . C on sid er the a circuit A F i g 87 s uppl ied by a

case Of , , .
cons tant current I b ut shunted by a capaci ty C inductance L

, , , , , ,
and resistance r in s eries , ,

.
R ES O N A T I NG C I R CU IT
SH U NT I NG A R C
FIG . 89 .
A s l ong as th e current in th e circuit , A — whether i t nce or

res s a
ar c— i s s teady , no c ur rent passes the cond enser circui t and the

,
c urrent and vol tage in A thus are con s tant i I e co , , .
Suppo se now a p ul s ation of th e current i s houl d b e produced , ,
in circ uit A as shown as i in F i g 89 T h en with co ns tant-sup

, ,
. .
,
pyl curr ent I an,

a l t ernating
,
curr en t ,
woul d trav erse th e conden ser circ uit C si n ce the continuous , , co m

ponent of c urrent can not traverse th e cond enser C , .
D ue pul s ation of current i in A the voltage 6 Of cir

to the , , , ,
cui t A woul d puls ate als o T h ese voltage puls ations are in the
, , .
sam e di r ection as th e cur r ent puls ation if A i s a r es is tanc e in , ,
op pos it e d i r ect i on i f A i s an ar e ; in eith er cas e how ev er th ey

, , ,
are in phas e with th e curr ent pul s at i on and th e al t ernatin g vol ,
tage on the condenser ,
60
thus i s in phas e w ith the al ternating current i that is capacity , l , , ,
C and inductanc e L n eutralize

, , ,
.
T hu s th e only pul s ation of current and vo l tage which could

, ,
occur in a circuit A shunted by capacity and inductanc e is that

, , ,
of t h e r es onanc e frequency of capacity and inductanc e .
Suppo se th e circ u it A i s a dead resis tanc e T he voltage puls a

, ,
.
tion produc ed by a current pul sation i in this circuit then would , ,
b e in th e s am e d irection as i that i s wou l d b e as shown in dott ed , ,
li n e by e in F i g 89 I n th e cond enser circuit C the alternat

’
. .
, ,
ing compon ent of vol tage thus w oul d b e

=
e
thus wo uld b e in opposition to the al ternating current i as s hown , ,
in F i g 89 in dott ed li n e T hat i s it woul d require a s upply of

. .
,
power to m aintain such puls ation .
T hus with a d ead resi stanc e as c ircuit A or in gen eral with A

, , ,
as a circuit of r is i ng volt amp ere charact eri s tic t h e maintenanc e -

,
of a res onance pul s ation of cur r ent and voltage b etween A and C ,
at con s tant current I requires a s uppl y of al ternating current

, ,
-
pow er in th e cond enser circui t and without such power s uppl y ,
the pul sa tion co uld not ex i st h enc e if s tart ed woul d rapid l y di e , , ,
out as o s cillation as s hown in F i g 87

, ,
. .
96 Sup pose however A is an ar e

.
,
A current pul s ati on i th en
,
.
, ,
g i ves a voltag e pul s at i on in oppo s it e d i r e ction as s hown by e ,
i n F i g 89 and t he al ternating current i

.
, I i and th e alt er , l ,
nat ing voltage 6 1 c co in th e cond ens er c i rc u it thus woul d

, , ,
b e i n ph ase with each oth er as s hown by i and el in F i g 89 , 1 . .
T ha t is they wo ul d repres ent power gen erat i on or rath er trans

, ,
formation Of pow er from t h e con s tant d i rect current s upply I -

, ,
i n to th e al ternating current res onat i ng cond ens er c i rcui t C

-
,
.
T hus s uch a local puls ation of th e arc current i and corre

, , ,
s pon di ng alt ernating current i in th e co n den ser circuit if onc e , l , ,
s t ar te d woul d maintai n itsel f w i thout external po w er s uppl y

, ,
and woul d even b e able to s upply the power represented by vol

tage 6 1 w ith current i l into an ex ternal circuit as the resis tance
, , , , , ,
r s hown in F i g 87 or through a tran s form er into a wir el es s send

,
.
,
ing circuit et c ,
.
T hu s du e to the dropping are charact eris tic an arc s hu nt ed

, ,
by capacity and inductance on a con stant current s upply b e ,

-
,
comes a generator of alternating current power of th e fre quency -

,
s et by th e res onanc e of C and L .
I f th e res is tanc e r or in gen eral th e load on th e o s cillati n g ci r

, , ,
cuit , C, i s greater than r 1

2 , that is, if a higher voltage would b e
required to send the current i through the resistanc e r tha n the , 1, , ,
voltage 6 1 generated by the os cillating are A the pul s ation s die

, , , ,
out as o scill ation s .
g
If r is less than — the
l
pulsation s increas e in amplitude that is
, , ,
1
current , i 1, and voltage ,

61, increase unti l eith er by th e internal
, ,
reaction in the are, th e rat i o ,

drops to equality with th e eff ective
1
res istanc e of th e load ,

r , an d s tability of os cillation is reached ,
—
5
1
or if,
never falls to equali ty with r for in stance if , r 0, the
1
O s c il latio ns i ncreas e up to the destruction of th e circuit : the

ex tinction of t h e ar e .
I f in th e latt er ca se th e voltage back of th e s upply cu r rent I

, , , ,
i s s u ffici ently h i gh to res tart th e ar e A th e ph enome na repeats , , ,
and w e have a series of s ucc ess ive arc os cil lations each ris ing until ,
it put s the are out and th en the are restarts ,

.
W e thus have h ere the mechani s m which produc es a cu mul ati ve

os ci ll ati on that i s a tran s i ent which do es not di e ou t but in
, , , ,
creas es i n ampl itude until the increas ing en ergy loss es limit its
,
furth er increas e or until it destroys th e circui t and in the

, ,
latt er case it may b ecome recurrent

, .
I t i s v ery im portant to realiz e in el ectrical engin eering that ,
any el ectric circuit with droppi n g volt ampe re char act eris tic is -
capable of tran sforming power into a cumulative os cillation and ,
th ereby is abl e under favorabl e cond it ions to produc e cumulative

os c ill ation s such as huntin g etc
, , .
W h ere th e arc o s cil l ation s limit thems el v es and th e alt ernating ,
current and vo l tage in the co n d en ser c i rcui t thus reach a con stant
value th e are often is cal l ed a si ng i ng ar c due to th e musical
,
“
,
not e gi v en by t h e alt ernat i ng wa ve Wh ere the arc os cill ations .

1 90 E L E CT RI C CI RC UI T S
Suppose this
h unted by capacity C in ductanc e L and
are is s , , , ,
resis tanc e r as s ho w n in F i g 87
, , . .
F or a s mall pul s ation of th e arc current around i ts av erage

value i I th e corres pond i n g v oltage puls at i on i s gi v en by
,
b
2 iv } :
Or , ingeneral for any puls ation of current i by 6i between

, , , ,
”
i and i around the mean value I the corres ponding voltage
’
, ,
pul s ation 66 between 6 and e i s given by the volt ampere

,
” ’
,
-
characteristic of the are A as , ,
el 66 voltage mad e a v ail able for th e condenser

thus i s th e ,
c i rcuit by th e arc pul s at ion and in phase with t h e current

, , ,
£1 6i in t h e cond ens er circuit an d ,
thus is the permissible eff ecti ve res istance in the condenser

c i rcuit that is th e max imum v alue of resis tance through which
, , ,
t he pul s at i n g arc can maintain i ts alt ernating pow er s upply :

wi th a l arger resi stanc e the os cillation s di e out ; w ith a s mall er
,
res istance th ey increase

,
.
F rom t h e are charact eri stic A thus can b e d erived a cur v e , ,
6e
of eff e cti ve resi stances R , ,
as the values of ? for pul s ations
61
between i 6i and i 6i , and s uch a curv e is s hown as R in
F i g 94
. .
W e may say, that the are wh en s hunted by an os cill ating,
circuit ,
h as an eff ective negative res is tanc e ,
and thereby gen erates alternati ng power from the c onsumed ,
direct c urrent po w er and i s abl e to s upply alternatin g pow er

-
,
through an eff ecti ve resistance of the os cillating cir cui t Of ,

T he ar e characteris ti c i n F ig . 94 is draw n wi th th e e quation

200
e =
35 +
x/ i
‘
and for
i I 3 amp . as mean val ue ,
th e values of th e eff ecti ve resistance , R , increas e from

d
c Ohm s
(I t
for very s mall o s cillat ion s to ,
R Ohms
for o s cill ation s of 1 amp between .
, i 2 an d i
R Ohm s
for o s cillations of 2 amp between i 1 an d i 5 et c .
, , .
T hu s if with this o s c i ll atin g arc F i gs 87and 9 4 a load res ist

, ,
.
,
ance r ohms i s used o sc il lation start s imm ediately and , ,
cumulatively increases .
I f th e res is tanc e r i s great er than ohms for i nstanc e is

, , , ,
r Ohms ,
then no os cillation starts s pontaneously but the are runs s teady , ,
and no appreciable current pass es through the cond en ser c i rcuit .
B u t if onc e th e current in th e arc i s brought b elow amp or .

,
abov e amp th e os cil lation b egin s and cumulati vely increases

.
, ,
s in c e f or o s cillation s of an amplitud e great er than b etw een and

amp th e eff ective resistanc e R is greater than
.
, Ohms , ,
.
I n eith er cas e however as s oon as an o s cil l ation s tart s it cumu

, , ,
l a tively increas es s inc e th e eff ectiv e res i s tanc e R s tead il y i n

, , ,
c reas es with increa se O f th e amplitud e of o s ci ll at i on T hat is .

,
s tab ili ty of o s cillation or a s ingi n g arc can not b e reach e d but “

, ,
a n o s cil lation onc e s tart ed proc eed s to th e ex tinction of t h e ar e

, , ,
a nd only a ras ping arc could b e produced

“ ”
.
98 H ow ever th e ar e charact eris tic A of F i g 94 is th e s ta

.
, , ,
.
t i onary characteris tic that i s th e v o l t ampere rel ation at con stant

, ,
-
c urrent i and voltage 6

, , ,
.
I f current i and thus v oltage 6 rapid l y fluctuat e th e arc char

, , , , ,
a cteri s ti c A ,
changes and more or l es s flatt en s out T hat is for
, ,
.
,
any value of th e current i the volume of the arc s tream and the
, ,
temperature of the arc termin als s till partly corres pond to pre
,
v iou s valu es of current thus are lower for ris in g higher for
, ,
decreasing current and as the result the arc voltage 6 whi ch de

, , , ,
FIG . 95 .
pends on the res is tance of th e arc stream and the potential drop
of the t erminal s is diff erent th e v ariation of voltage for the same
, , ,
v ariation of c u rrent i s l es s and th e eff ectiv e n egative ar c resist

, ,
anc e th ereby is lowered or may entirel y v anis h

,
.
F i g 9 5 s hows a numb er of s uch tran s ien t arc characte ris tics

.
,
F rom these cu rves of R F ig 95 the reg ul a tio n cu rves of the

,
.
,
al te rna t i ng curre nt g e nerat io n could now b e cons t ru c ted

- .
I t is in te res ti ng to no te tha t i n many Of t hese t rans ient arc

,
cha racte ris t i cs F i g 95 t he v oltag e does not i ndefini tely rise with
,
.
,
dec reas ing current but reaches a maximum and then decreas es
,
ag a i n i n B and C and the osc il lat io n resi s ta nce tha t is t h e t e

, , , ,
s is tance th rough w h ich an al ternat i ng current can b e mai ntai ned
by the oscillati ng are th us decreas es w ith i nc reas ing ampl itude of

,
the os c i ll a tion T hus if the res ista n ce i n the osc il l a t i ng con

.
,
denser circuit is less tha n the permis s ibl e maximum an os cilla ,
tion starts c umul atively inc reas es but finally li mi ts its el f in

, ,
amplitude .
T he d ecreas e of th e arc voltag e w ith d ec reas ing curre nt f or l ow ,
values of current in a rapi dly fluct uating arc is due to th e time ,
l ag of th e arc voltage behi nd th e current .
99 T he are voltage e consi s ts of the arc terminal drop a and

.
, , , ,
the arc s tream voltage c : , l
T he stream voltage 6 1 is the v oltage consumed in th e efi ect i v e

, ,
res istance of the arc stream ; but as the arc s tream is produced
by the current the vol um e of the arc s tream and i ts res is tan ce
,
thus depends on the current i in the are that is the s tream v ol , , , ,
tage is
b
/
'
x q:
and the resistance of the ar e stream thus
T h us , if ,
But, if the arc curr ent rapidly var i es , for ins tance decreases,
then, w hen the current i n the arc i s i 1 , the volum e of th e are st ream
and thus i ts resi s tanc e i s s ti l l th at corres po nd i ng to th e previous

c u rrent i ,
’
1.
I f thu s at t h e mom ent w h ere th e curr ent i n t h e arc h as b ecom e

,
2 amp .
,
the arc s tream s till h as th e vol ume and thus th e resi stance
c orres pondi ng to th e previous current ,
3 amp .
th i s res is tance i s
200
O hms
3v5
,
and th e s tream vol tage at ,

th e current
2 a mp .
b with the stream res is tanc e

ut ,
r 1,
’
corres ponding to the previous
c urrent i 3 amp thus i s
,
’
1 .
,
i n s t ead of 6 volts as it wo ul d b e under s tationar y

1 ,
c ond i tion s .
T hat i s th e s tream voltage and thus th e total arc voltage at

,
r apidly d e creas ing current i s low er at rap i d l y increa s ing current ,
h igh er than at s tationary curr ent .
W ith a p eriodicall y pul s ating cur rent it foll ows h erefrom that , ,
a t t h e ext rem e values of curr ent — max im u m and minimum the

v o l tag e h as not yet reach ed th e ex trem e val u es corr es ponding
to th es e currents that i s th e ampl itud e of vol tage puls ation is

, ,
r e duced T his means the tran si ent vol t ampere characteristi c

.
-
Of t he arc is flattened out compared with th e perman ent charac ,
t er i s ti c and caused to b end downward at l ow cur rent s as s hown

, ,
by C and B in F i g 9 5 . .
A ss u ming a sinus oidal pul s ation of th e current in th e arc and

'
ass uming the ar c stream res istanc e to l ag behind the current by a

s uitabl e di s tanc e w e th en g et from th e s tationary v o l t amp ere
, ,
-
cha racteris tic of the are the tran sient characteris tics ,
.
T hus in F i g 96 from th e s tationary arc charact eris tic S th e

.
, , ,
trans ie nt ar e characteris tic T is d eriv ed I n this figure i s s hown , ,

.
as S and T the eff ecti v e res is tan c e corr es ponding to th e s tationary
characteristic S res pecti vel y th e transient characteristic T

, , ,
.
A n
s s ee , thetationary charac teris tic S gi ves an ar c os cillation
s , ,
which is cumul ati ve and sel f d es tructi ve that i s th e eff e ctive

-
, ,
resis tance R rises indefinitely with increas ing amplitude of

, ,
puls ation T he trans ient characteristic however gives an eff ect

.
, ,
i v e res i s tanc e R which with increas ing amplitude Of p uls ation

, ,
FIG . 96.
firs t i ncreases but then d ecreases agai n down to zero so that the
, , ,
cum ul ati v e os c ill ations prod u ced by this ar e are self limiting -
,
incr eas e in ampl i t u de onl y up to t h e val ue wh ere the eff ective ,
resistance R has fall en to the value corres ponding to the load on

, ,
the o s cill ating circuit .

100 instance let i n F i g 9 7 A and B b e t w o condu ctors

. F or , ,
.
,
of an ungro und ed high pot e nt i al tran s miss io n li ne an d 2 e the -

,
voltag e impressed between these tw o conductors L et C re pre .
sent t he g round .
T h e capacity of th e conducto rs A and B agai ns t g round then , , , ,
may b e represented diagrammati cally by tw o condens ers C1 and ,
0 and the vol tages from t he l in es to g roun d by e, and 63

2, I n g en .
era] th e t w o li n e capac iti es are e qual C 1

, C and the t wo vol t , a,
ages to ground thus equal als o 3 ; 82 c with a si ng l e-p hase; , ,
2
w ith a three phase l ine -
.
A s s ume now t hat a ground , P , i s brought n ear one Of th e l inu ,

A , t o wi th i n th e s tri k ing d i s t anc e Of the volt ag e , 6 A dis charg e .
th en occurs over th e conductor, P Such may occur b y the punc .
ture a l in e ins ul ator as not i nfrequently the cas e L et r re

of .
s i s tan ce of d is charge path P While without th is di sch arg e path , .

,
t h e vol t age b et w een A and C would b e 6 1 6 (ass umi ng s ing l e
phas e circuit ) w ith a grounded conductor P approachi ng li ne A , ,
within s triki ng dis tanc e of vol tage 6 a dis charg e occurs ov er P , ,
formi ng an arc and th e circu it Of th e impressed voltag e 2 a now

, , ,
comprises the conden ser s eri es to th e multipl e circui t of con

,
den ser C 1 and are P and the cond ens er C 1 rapidly disch arg u .
, , , , , ,
vol tage 6 1 d ecreases and th e voltage e increases Wi th a de

, , , , z, .
crease Of vol t age e th e dis charge current i also decreases and

, l , , , ,
th e vol tage con s umed by th e dis ch arge arc e inc reases u ntil the
’
, ,
two vol tages 3 and e cross as s ho w n in the cur ve diag ram (1

, 1
’
, ,
F i g 9 7 A t this moment th e current i in th e arc v anis h es the

. .
, , ,
arc c eases and the shunt of th e condenser C formed b y th e dis

, , 1,
charge over P thus c eases T h e vol tage cl then ris es e, decree” .

, , ,
and th e t w o voltages tend to w ard equal ity e; e, 6 B ef ore , .
this point is reach ed ho w ever the vol tage cl h as pas sed th e dis
, , , ,
ru pti ve strength O f the d is charge gap P th e dis charg e b y the are , ,
over P again s tarts and the cycl e thus repeats indefini tel y
, .
I n F i g 9 7are d ia g ramm atic al l y s ketch ed voltag e 3 1 of con

.
, ,
dens er C the vol t age e con sumed by the dis charge arc over P
, 1, ,
’
, ,
and the current i of this are under th e ass um ption th at r is sufi ,
ci entl y high to m ak e t h e di s charg e non o s cill atory I f r i s smal l -

.
,
each of th es e s ucc ess iv e d i s charges i s an o s c ill ation .
Such an un s tabl e circuit gives a continuous seri es of su ccess i ve

d is charges which are singl e impul ses as in Fi g 9 7 or more com
, ,
.
,
mo uly are os c ill at ions .

s ystem and building up to high s tationary waves h ave frequently

, ,
been Observed .
T h e ar cing g round as recurrent single impul ses the arcing

“ “
,
g round o s cil lation ”

as mor e or l ess rapidly damp e d r ecur rent
—
oscillati on s in tran smiss ion lines o f frequencies from a few hun
—
dred to a few thousand cycl es and the stationary o s ci llations
“ ”
caus ing destruction in high potential transformer windin gs at

-
,
frequencies of to cycles thus are the s am e ph enom

,
ena of th e dropping arc characteris tic , causing perman ent in

s tabil ity of th e el ectric circuit and di ff er from each oth er merely
,
by the relati ve amount of resis tance in the dis charge path .

C H A PT E R XI
IN S T A B I L I T Y OF CIR CU I T S : I N D U CT I O N A ND S YN
CHR O N O U S M OT OR S
C . I n s tab il i ty of I n du cti on M otors

1 02 . I ns tabi l ity Of el ectric circ uit s may
resul t from causes which
are not el ectrica l : thu s m echan i cal r el ations b etw een th e torqu e
,
g iv en by a motor and t h e torqu e r e qu i r e d by i t s l oad may l ead t o ,
instabil ity .
L et
D torque given by a motor at s peed S and , ,
D
’
torque required by th e lo ad at s peed S , .
T h e motor th en coul d th eoreticall y operate that

, , , is , run at
con s tant s peed at that s p eed S wh ere
, , ,
(1 )
’
D D
Ho w ever , at this s peed and load the operation may b e s tab l e , ,
that i s th e motor continue to run ind efini tel y at con stant s peed
, ,
or t h e condition may b e un s tabl e that i s t h e s peed ch ange w ith , ,
i ncrea sing rapidi ty until s tab il ity i s reach ed at s om e oth er s p eed

, ,
or th e motor comes to a s tand s till or it des troys itsel f ,

.
I n gen eral th e motor torqu e D a n d t h e load torqu e

’
,
D , . , ,
change with th e s peed S ,

.
I f th en
, ,
’
dD dD
dS dS
th e condi tions are s tabl e that is any change of s peed S changes

, , , ,
t he motor torqu e less than t h e l o ad torque and i nv ersel y and , ,
thus ch ecks i tsel f .
I f howev er
, ,
’
dD dD
dS
(3 )
dS
the Operation i s un s tab l e as a change of s peed S changes the , , ,
mo tor torque D more than t h e load torque D and th ereby f ur

, , ,
’
,
ther increas es t he change of s peed etc ,

.
dD
’
dD
dS dS
thus i s th e ex pression of the s tabi li ty limi t .
F or ins tanc e as s umi ng a l oad re qu i ri ng a con s tant torque at al l

,
s p eed s T h e load torqu e thu s i s given by a hori zontal l in e

.
cons t .
in F ig . 101 .
L et then th e s peed torque curv e of th e motor b e represen te d by

-
th e curv e D in F i g 1 0 1
,
D appro x imately represent s the torqu e
, . .
curve of a series motor A t th e constant load torque D th e

.
-
,
'
,
motor runs at the s peed S point a of F i g 1 0 1 and the s peed

,
.
,
i s stabl e as any tend ency to change of s peed ch ecks itself

,
If , .
FIG . 101 .
th e l oad torque d ecreas es to D o the s peed rises to S ’

,
point G O; if the l oad torque increases to D 1 th e s peed dr ops to ’

,
S point C but th e condi tions are al ways stable until

I, ,
fi nally with increas ing l oad torque D and decreas in g s peed ,

’
,
s tand s till i s r each ed at point a z .
L et now th e s p eed torqu e curv e of a motor b e represented b y

-
D in F i g 1 02 : t he curv e O f a s quirrel cage induction motor with

.
- .
moderatel y high resis tance secondary T he horizontal lin e D .

,
’
corres ponding to a l oad torque of D 1 0 int ersects D at two

’
,
points a and b
,
.
With a load torq ue ,

D
’
o 5 , t he motor s tarts an d r un s up to
S peed cl , S
D
’
point 9 thus is th e max imum load torque which th e
, ,
motor can start .
1 03 Suppo se now whil e running in s tabl e condition at point

.
, ,
a with t h e l oad torq u e D 1 0 th e load torque is mom e ntarily

’
, , ,
increas ed I f th is increase l eaves D lower than the maximum

.
’
motor torque D o th e motor s peed slows down but r e

, ,
mains above c and thus w hen the increase Of load i s taken O ff the
, ,
motor again s peed s up to a .
I f however th e t emporary increase of l oad torque ex c ee d s the

, ,
max i mum motor torq ue D — f or in s tanc e by s tarting a

, O
l in e of s hafting or oth er mass Of con sid erabl e mom entum then —

th e motor s p eed contin u es to drop as l ong as the ex c ess load ex is t s ,
and wh eth er the motor will recover when the ex cess l oad is taken
O ff or not d ep end s on t h e l o ss of s p eed of t h e motor dur ing th e
, ,
peri od of overload : if wh en th e overl oad i s reliev ed th e motor

, ,
h as dr opp ed to po i nt d in F i g 1 02 i ts s p eed thu s i s s till abov e b

l .
, ,
th e motor recov ers ; if ho w ev er i ts s p eed h as droppe d t o d b e

, , z,
l ow th e s p eed b S at w h i ch th e motor torque drop s b elow

,
t h e l oad torq u e th en th e motor do es not r ecov er but s top s

, ,
.
W ith a l i ght er lo ad torq ue D o w hich i s l ess than the s tart in g ,

’
,
torq ue g ob viou s ly t he motor w ill al ways recover in s pee d

, ,
T h e amo u nt by wh i ch th e motor drop s in s p eed at t emporary

,
overl o ad n atu rally dep end s on the du ration Of th e overl oad

, ,
and on th e moment u m of th e motor an d its moving mas s es

t h e h i gh er t h e mom ent u m of t h e motor and of the mass es driv en
by it at th e mom ent of o verlo ad th e sl o w er i s the drop Of s peed ,
Of th e motor and th e h igh er th us th e s peed retained by it at the

,
mom ent w h en th e o v erl oad is reli eved .
T h us a motor of l ow s tart i ng torq u e that i s high s peed reg ul a , ,
t ion may b e thrown out of st ep by pi cking up a load of high

,
mom ent u m rapidly w h il e by addi ng a flywhe el to th e motor it

, ,
wo ul d b e en abl ed to p i ck u p th is l e ad Or it may b e troubles ome .

,
t o pick u p t h e firs t l o ad of h i gh mom ent u m wh il e t he s econd load ,
Of th is character may gi v e no trou bl e as due to the mom entum , ,
Of th e l o ad al ready p i cked u p th e s p eed wo ul d drop less ,

.
T h u s a motor c arryi ng no l o ad may b e th rown ou t Of s t ep by a ,
lo ad which th e s am e motor al ready part l y l oaded (with a load of ,
consi d erabl e momentu m) w oul d find no difficul ty to pick up , .
T h e ab ility of an induct i on motor to carry for a s hort time ,

wi thout dropping out of s t ep a temporary ex cess ive overload ,
naturall y als o depends on th e ex cess of the max im u m motor torque

( at c in F i g 1 02 ) ov e r t.h e norm al load torq u e of t h e motor A .
motor in which the max imum torque is very much higher

,
se v eral hundr ed per c ent — than the rated torque thus could
.
,
mom entarily carry overloads which a motor could not carry ,
in which th e max imu m torque ex c eeds t h e rat ed torque onl y by

5 0 per cent as w as th e cas e with t he earl y motors
.
, H ow ever .
,
very high max imum torque mean s l ow internal reactanc e and thus
high ex citing current that i s l ow power factor at partial loads , ,
-
,
a n d Of t h e two typ es of motors
( )
a H igh ov e r l oad torqu e but poor pow e r factor a n
, d effic i e ncy -
at part ial l oad s ;

(b) M od e rat e ov er l oad torqu e b u t good pow e r factor and ,
-
effici ency at part i al l oad s ;
t h e typ e (b ) giv es far b ett er av erage Operating cond i tion s ex c ept ,
i n tho s e rare cas es of Op eration at cons tant ful l load and i s th ere -
,
fore preferable tho u gh a greater care is n ecess ary to avoi d mo

,
mentary ex c ess iv e ov erl oads .
G radual ly t h e typ e (a) had more and more come into us e as ,
t h e cus tom ers sel ect ed th e motor and t he pow er s u ppl y company ,
n egl e cted to pay m u ch att enti on to power factor and i t i s onl y -

,
in th e las t few years that a real i z ation of th e h armful eff ect s of

,
l ow power factors on th e economy of op erat i on of th e sys t em s i s

-
again directing att ention to t h e n ee d of good pow er factors at -
parti al loads and the ind us try thus i s returning to type (b)
, ,
es pe ciall y in view of t h e increas in g t end ency to w ard ma x imum
output rating of apparatus .
I n dis tributing tran s form ers th e corr es pond i ng s ituation had ,
b ee n real iz ed by t h e c entral s tation s s i nc e t h e earl y d ay s and ,
good partial load efficiencies and po w er factors sec u red -

.
1 04 T h e ind u ct i on motor s peed torq u e c u rve th u s h as on a

.
-
c ons tant torque load a st abl e branch from th e max i mum torque
-
,
point c F ig 1 02 to synchronism ; and an unst ab l e branch from

, , .
, ,
s tands ti ll to t h e max imum torq u e po i nt .
H owever it woul d b e incorrect to as cri b e th e stab il ity or i n

,
s ta bili ty to t h e induction motor s p eed c u r v e ; b u t i t i s t h e char -
ac ter Of t he load the req u i rem ent of co n s t an t torq u e wh i ch

, ,
ma kes a part of th e s peed c u rve un st ab l e and on oth er kinds ,
of load no in s tabil i ty may exi s t or a d iff er ent form of in s tabil i ty ,

.
T hus consid ering a load requ i ri ng a torque proport i onal to

,
t he peed such as wo ul d b e gi ven approx imate ly by an electric

s , , ,
generator at con stant field ex citat i on and constant res istance as

load .
T h e load torqu e curv es th en would b e s traight lin es going

-
, ,
through the origi n as s hown by D 1 D 2 D 3 etc for in creas ingly

,
’
,
’
,
’
, .
l arger valu es of load in F i g 1 03 T h e motor torqu e curve D is

, . .
-
, ,
th e s ame as in F i g 1 02 A s seen all th e l in es D intersec t D at ’

. .
, ,
points c l az a , , at which the S pee d i s stabl e s ince

, s ,
FIG . 1 03 .
T hus with this character of load a torque requi red propor

, ,
ti onal to th e s p eed and th e motor torqu e curv e D n o i ns ta b il ity

,
-
, ,
ex is t s but condition s are s tabl e from s tands til l t o s ync h ro nis m

, ,
j u s t as in F i g 10 1 T hat i s with
. in cr ea
.s ing load t h e s peed d
, e ,
creases and increas es again with decreas ing load .
I f however t h e motor curv e i s as s hown by D o in F i g 1 03 that

, ,
.
,
i s low s tarting torqu e and a max imum torque point cl ose to

,
s ynchroni s m as corres pond s to an induction motor wi t h l ow

,
res ist anc e secondary then for a certai n range Of load between
, ,
starting d evices economi call y required on very s mall moto rs such ,
as fan motor s .
I nstabil ity and dropping out of s tep of induction m otors als o

may b e th e res ult of the voltage drop in the s uppl y lin es and ,
furth ermore may resul t from th e regulation of the gen erator v ol

tage b eing too slow R egarding h ereto however see T heory and
.
, ,
C al cul ation of E lectrical A pparatus in th e chapte r on S ta bility

”
,
of I nd uction M achines .
D . Hunti ng of S yn chronou s M achi nes
1 06 . In ind ction motor circuits in stability almos t always

u -
,
as s um es the form of a st eady change with increasing r apidity , ,
from the un stabl e cond i tion to a s tabl e condition or to s tand

s til l et c
, .
Os cil l atory in s tab il ity in induction motor circuits as t h e res ult -

,
of the rel ati on of l oad to s peed and electric s uppl y i s rare I t , .
h as b een ob s erv ed es pecial l y in s ingl e phas e motors in cas es Of

,
-
,
con sid erabl e overs aturation of the magn etic circuit .
Os cil l atory in s tabil ity however i s typ ical of the s ynchronous

, ,
machi n e and the hu nting of s ynchronous machi n es h as probabl y

,
been the firs t serious probl em of cum ul ative os cillation s in ele ctric
circ ui ts and for a l ong tim e h as l imited the industrial use of syn
,
ch ronou s machin es in i t s diff erent form s :

,
()a D i ffic u l ty and fai l ur e O f a l t ernat i ng c urrent generato rs to -
Operate in paral l el .
()b H u nting of s ynchrono u s conv ert er s .
()0 H u nt i ng O f s ynchronou s motor s .
Wh il e con sid erab l e theoretic al work has been don e pr actically ,
al l th eoreti c al s tudy of t h e h u nting of s ynchronous machin es
h as b een l imited to th e cal culation of t he fr equency of th e trans i

ent o s c il l ation of t h e s ynchronou s machin e at a chang e of load , ,
frequency or voltage at synchronizing etc H ow ever this

, , .
,
trans ient o s cill ation i s harml ess and b ecom es dangerous only if ,
th e o s cil l ation c eas es to b e tran s ient but b ecom es p erm ane nt and ,
cum ul ativ e and th e most important probl em in the s tudy Of hunt

,
ing th us is the d etermin ation of the cause which convert s the ,
trans ient os c ill ation into a cu mul ative one that is th e d etermina , ,
tion of th e source of th e en ergy and th e m echanis m of i ts trans ,
fer to th e o s cil lating s ys tem T o d es ign s ynchronous m a chines

.
,
so as to have no or v ery l i ttl e t end ency to hun ting Ob v i ously t e ,

qui res a knowledge Of those characteris tics of d esign which are

in strum ental in the en ergy tran sfer to the os cill ating sys tem and ,
thereby cause hunting s o as to avoid them and produce the g reat

,
es t po ss i bl e inh erent s tabili ty .
I f in an ind u ction motor runn i ng l oad ed , at con s tant s p ee d th e

, ,
load i s s udd enly d ecreased the torque of th e motor b eing in ex

,
c ess of th e reduced l oad causes an accel erati on and th e s peed i n ,
c reas es .A s i n an induction motor the torque i s a function of th e

s p ee d th e increas e of s p eed d ecreases th e torque and th er eby de
, ,
creases the increase Of s peed u ntil that s peed i s reach ed at which

t he motor torque h as dropp ed to equ al ity with th e load and ,
thereby acc eleration and furth er increase of s peed ceases and th e ,
motor continues Operati on at th e con stant higher s p eed that i s , ,
t he induction motor react s on a decreas e of l oad by an increase of

s p ee d which i s g radual and s t eady witho u t any o s ci l l ation
,
.
I f in a s ynchronous motor ru nning load ed th e load i s s udd enl y

, ,
d ecreas ed th e b egi nning of th e ph enom enon i s the s ame as in

,
t h e induction motor th e ex c es s of motor torque cau s es an ac

,
cel erati on ,that i s an increase of s p eed However in the

, .
,
s ynchronou s motor th e torq u e i s not a function of t h e s p eed but ,
in stationary condition th e S peed mus t always b e th e s am e ,
s ynchroni s m and th e torque i s a function Of t h e r el ativ e po s ition

,
of th e rotor to th e impres s ed frequ ency T h e increas e Of s p eed .

,
du e to t he ex c es s torq u e res ul ting from th e d ecreased load cau s es ,
t h e rotor to run ah ead of i ts previou s rel ative po si tion and th ereby ,
de creas es th e torque u ntil by the increased s peed th e motor

, ,
h as run ahead from th e rel ative po s iti on corres pondi ng to th e p re

vi o ns load to the rel ative position corres pondi ng to the decreas e d
,
l oad. T h en th e acc eleration and with it th e increas e O f s p ee d

, ,
s tops . B ut t he s peed i s h i gh er than in t h e b eginning that i s i s , ,
ab ove s ynchronis m and th e rotor continu es to run ah ead th e

, ,
torque continues to decreas e i s now b el ow that req u ired by t he

,
load and the latter thus ex erts a retardi ng forc e decreas es t he

, ,
s pee d and brings it back to s ynchroni s m B u t wh en s ynchron .
ou s s pee d i s reach ed again t h e rotor i s ah ead of i ts prop er po si tion

, ,
thus can not carry i ts l oad and b egins to sl o w down unti l it i s

, ,
brought back into i ts proper po si ti on A t th is po s it i on howev er .

, ,
th e s pee d i s now b elow s ynchronis m th e rotor th u s continues to ,
drop bac k an d the motor torq u e increases beyond th e lo ad

, ,
th ere by acc elerates again to synchrono u s speed etc and in th is , .

,
mann er conditi on s Of synchrono us s peed w ith t he rotor po s i tion ,
14
b ehind or ah ead of th e position corres ponding to th e load alter ,
nate with condition s of proper rel ative posi tion Of the rotor but ,
below or above synchronous s peed that i s an os cill ation resul ts , ,
which us uall y dies down at a rate depending on the en erg y losses

res ul ting from the oscillation .
1 07 A s seen th e characteri s tic of th e s ynchronous machine

.
,
i s that readj us tm ent to a change of load requires a change of

,
relative pos ition of th e rotor with regard to the immes s ed fre

q u en c y witho
,
u t any chang e of s p ee d w h il e a chan g e of r ela ti
, v e
po s ition can b e accompl i s hed only by a change Of s pee d and this ,
res ul ts in an over reaching in pos ition and in s peed that i s in an

-
, ,
o s cill ation .
D ue to th e en ergy lo s ses caused by th e o s c il lation th e s ucc es s ,
i v e s wings decrease in ampli tud e and th e o s c il lation di es down , .
I f however t he cau s e whi ch brings th e rotor back from t h e pos i

, ,
tion ah ead or b ehind its normal position corres pondi ng to the

changed load (ex c es s or deficiency of motor torque over t he
torque requ ired by th e load) i s greater than the torq ue w hich
opposes th e deviation of th e rotor from its normal position ea ch ,
s wing t end s to ex c eed t h e prec edin g one in amplitud e and if t he ,
en ergy loss es are in s u ffici ent t he o s cillation thus increas es in

,
ampl itude and becomes cumulative that is huntin g , , .
I n F i g 1 04 i s s hown di agrammatically as p the change O f t he

.
,
rel ative pos ition of th e rotor from p l corres pon di n g to the pre
,
v i ou s load t o p g t h e po s i tion furth er forward corr es pondi ng t o t h e
decreas ed l oad .
v th en s hows t h e o s cil l ation of s p eed corres pondi ng t o th e
os cil lation of po sition .
T h e dott ed c u rve w l th en s hows the energy loss es res ul ting

, ,
from the os cil l ation Of s peed (hys teres is and eddi es in the pol e
fac es currents in damper winding s ) that is the dampin g power
, , , ,
as s umed as proportional to the s quare Of the s peed .
I f th ere i s no l ag of t he s ynchronizing forc e behind the pos ition

dis pl acement the synchronizing force that is the forc e which
, , ,
tends to brin g the rotor back from a pos ition b ehi nd or ah ea d of

t h e po s ition corres pond i ng to t h e load woul d b e or may ap — ,
—
pro xi mat el y b e as s umed as proportional to the pos ition dis
plac ement p b ut with r everse s ign pos itive for acceleration when
, , ,
p is n egativ e or b ehind t h e normal po s ition n egativ e o r retard i n g ,
when p is ahead T he s ynchroni z ing power that is th e power

.
, ,
ex ert ed by t h e machin e to return to t h e normal po s ition th en is ,

or that part of it wh i ch is cu rrent times vol tage th en c eases to b e ,
continuously n egative or damping but contains a pos itive period , ,
and i ts average is greatly reduc ed as s hown by the draw n curve , ,
w , in F i g 1 04 that i s inducti vi ty of th e damp er wind i ng i s v ery

, .
, ,
harmful and it i s es sential to desi gn th e damper winding as n on

,
inductive as poss ibl e to gi v e efficient damping .
Wi th th e change Of po s i tion p the current and thus th e ar , , ,
matu re reacti on and with it the magn etic fl ux of th e mac h ine

, ,
changes A fl ux change can not b e brought about in s tantly

.
,
as it repres ent s en ergy s tored and as a res ul t th e magn etic fl ux ,
of th e machin e does not ex actly corres pond with th e po s ition p , ,
b u t lags b ehind it and with it th e s ynchronizing forc e F as

, , ,
s hown in F i g 1 04 lags more or l ess d epending on th e d es ign of t h e

.
, ,
mach i ne .
T h e s ynchronizing power Of th e mach ine F v in th e cas e of a l ag , ,
gi ng synchronizing force F is S hown by th e drawn curv e w ,

As
, ,
'
z.
s ee n th e po s i tiv e ranges of th e o s cillation are great er than t h e

,
negative on es that i s th e average of the os cil lating s ynchronizin g

, ,
po w er i s posi tive or s uppl ying energy to th e os cill ating s ys t em ,
whi ch energy tend s to increase th e ampl i tud e of the os cillation in —

other words tend s to produ ce cu mulative hunting
, .
T h e total res ul ting power w w 10 2 und er thes e condi , ,
tions i s shown by t he drawn c urve w in F i g 1 04 A s s ee n i ts , ,

. .
,
av erage i s s till negati ve or energy cons u ming that is th e os cilla -

, ,
ti on s til l dies ou t and stability i s finall y reach ed but th e av erage

, ,
val ue of w in this case i s SO much l ess than in the cas e above dis
cussed that the dyi ng out of the os cil lation is much slower
, .
I f n e w t he da mpi ng power w were s till s mal l er or t he av er

, , l , ,
ag e s ynchronizing po w er w g r e at er t h e av erag e 10 wo
,
ul d z, ,
b eco me pos itiv e or s u ppl ying energy to the os cill ating s ys tem .
I n oth er w ord s t he o s c i ll at i on wo ul d i ncreas e and hunting

,
res ul t .
T hat i s
I f th e av erage s ynchron i zing power res ulting from t h e lag of
th e s ynchroniz i ng forc e b ehind th e po si t i on ex ceed s th e av erage
dampi ng po w er h unti ng res ults T he condition Of stabil i ty of
,
.
t h e synchrono us mach i n e i s that th e av erage damping pow er ex ,
ceeds th e av erage s ynchron i zi ng pow er and t h e more thi s i s the ,
case the more s tabl e i s the machi ne that is th e more rapidly

, , ,
t he tran si ent os cil lation of read j u s tm ent to chan g ed ci r cui t con

di t i ons d i es out .
Or , if
a att enuation constant of th e os cillating system ,
a < o giv es cumulativ e o s cil l ation or hu nting .
a > 0 giv es s tabil ity .
1 08 . tim e t from th e moment of max imum b ack

C ounting the , ,
w ard po sition of th e rotor that i s t h e mom ent at which th e l oad

, ,
on t h e machi n e i s d ecr eas ed and a ss u ming sinu soidal variation , ,
a nd d enoting
w h ere
f frequ ency of t he os cill ation
t he rel ative posit i on of the rotor th en may b e represent ed by
m”
p oe cos
where
po p g pl posit i on d iff erence of rotor resul ti ng from
change of load ,
a attenuation cons tant of os cill ation .
T he vel ocity diff erence from that of uniform rotation then i s

d
? 33 m a ‘f’
(si n ¢)
-
0: a e ¢ a cos
z
CO S a
—M’
v w pe si n a ).
L et
7 Of damp
l agi ng curr ent s b eh i nd e . mf
. . indu c ed in
dam per wind i ngs
the damping power i s
evv
ca
z
,
p o
z
A z ‘
e
za "si n a )
Si n a 7) ( 0)
1
w here
ie dampi ng power u nit vel ocity and is
, p er tr y v
v
lagged by angl e 7 .
L et
6 lag Of synchron i zing force behind pos ition dis pl ace
ment p
and
h r
w e e
time l ag of synchroni zi ng force
to .
T he s ynchroniz i ng forc e th e n i s
F 5290 6 (d B)
“
COS )
w here
5 ?
rati o of s y nchroni zing force to p0
P0
S i ti on dis pl acement or S pecific synchroni zi ng forc e
, .
T h e s ynchronizing power th en i s
b wp e
—za ”S i n
F0 (d ) ( B)
‘
10 2 > (1 cos 4) .
T h e os cil lating m echanical power is

d mv dv
m(ov
dt 6 dd:
mwfip o A z ’ “
e
2 “ 4’
si n
{ cos a ) a s in (!b a )I
where
m movi ng mass reduced to th e radi us on ,
wh i ch p i s m easured .
I t is , however ,
w1 + w2 —w =
0 (20 )
h ence , s ubs ti tuting ( )
1 8 i nto ( )
20 and canc eling ,
b cos (4) — B) — 7)
mw A 2
cos a ) mw A 2
a Sin (d> a ) 0 .
( )
2 1
T h is gi ves , as th e coeffi ci ents Of cos and s in 6 th e e quat i on s

b B
cos c Sin (
a 7) ma A co s a
z
ms a s in a 0
b Sin 6 c cos (a 7) mw A S i n a
2
ms cos a 0
S ub s tit u t i ng and (7) and appro xi mating from

(6) f or
B as a s mall quantity ,
cos fi 1; Si ms
b — cw ( a c0 S 7
— S i n 7) — ma (l
2 — a )
2 =
0
bto + 2mwa =
0
C H A PT E R XI I
R E A CT A N CE O F I N D U CT I O N A P PA R A T U S
1 09 . l ctric current passing through a conductor is ac

A n e e
compani ed by a magn etic field s urrounding this conductor and ,
this magn etic fiel d is as integral a part of the phenom en on as is ,
t he en ergy dis s i pation by th e res is tanc e Of th e conductor I t is .
repres ent ed by the indu ctanc e L of the cond u ctor or th e num ber
, , ,
of magn e t i c i nterl i nkag es with u nit current in t h e conductor .
E very circuit thu s h as a res is tanc e and an ind u ctanc e how e v er , ,
s mal l th e l att er may b e i n th e SO call ed non inductive circui t “

- -
.
With continuous current i n stationary cond i tion s th e inductance , ,
L h as no eff ect on t h e en ergy flow ; with alternating curre nt of

,
frequ ency f the inductance L cons umes a voltage 2 1rfL i and is

, , , , , ,
th erefore represent ed by th e reactanc e a: 2 1rfL which is

, , ,
measured in ohms and diff ers from the ohmic resis tanc e r m erely
, , ,
by b ei ng w attless or reactive that i s representi ng not dis s ipat ion

, ,
of energy b u t surgi ng of energy

, .
E very alternating c u rrent c i rcuit thus h as a res is tance and a

-
reactance t he latter representi ng th e eff ect of the magnetic fi el d

,
of the c u rrent in the cond u ctor .
Wh en d eal ing w i th al t ernating current apparatu s es pe cially -

,
those having several c ircu its it mus t b e real iz ed however that

, , ,
t he magn etic fi el d O f th e c i rcu i t may hav e no inde pend ent ex ist

enc e but may m erge into and combin e w i th oth er magn etic fi elds
, ,
s o that it may b ecom e di ffic u lt what part of th e magn etic fi eld is
to b e ass i gn ed to each el ectric circuit and circuits may exist ,
wh i ch apparent l y have no reactance I n short in s uch cases .

, ,
t he magn et i c fi el d s O f t h e reactanc e of th e el ectric circuit may b e

merely a more or les s ficti t ious compon ent of th e resul tant mag
n etic fi el d .
T h e i ndus tr ial importanc e h er eof i s that many ph enom ena s uch ,
as th e l o s s of po w er by m a g net i c hys t eres is th e m m f re quired , . . .
for fiel d ex c itat i on etc are rel ated to th e res ultant magnetic
,
.
,
fiel d thus not equal to the s um of the corres ponding eff ects of the
,
com ponents .
RE A C T A N CE OF I N D UCT I ON A PP A RA T US 217
A s transform er is
th e th e S imp l es t a ternating current
l -
appara
tus, th e relat i on s are b es t s ho w n th ereon .
L eakag e F l ux of A l i
ternat ng curr ent T
- r an sf or mer
1 10 alternating current tran sform er cons is ts of a mag
. T he -
n etic cir cuit interlinked with tw o el ectric cir cuit s th e primary

, ,
c ircuit which rec eives power from i ts i mpressed voltage and

, ,
t h e s econdary cir cuit w hi ch s u pplies power to i ts ex t ernal cir cuit

, .
F or conv enienc e w e may ass un e th e s econdary circuit as re

,
du ced to th e pri mary circu i t by th e ratio of turn s that i s ass um e , ,
ratio Of turn s 1 1 .
L et
Yo g j b primary ex citing admittanc e ;
Z o j T o xo pri mary sel f i ndu cti ve impedance ; -
Z1 r; j l
x s econdary s el f induct i v e i mp edanc e (reduc ed-
to t h e primary ) .
T he transformer thu s comprises three magnetic fluxes : th e

mutu al magn etic fl u x which b eing int erli nked with primary , , ,
and secondary tran sforms the power from pri mary to secondary
, ,
and i s due to th e resul tant m m f of primary and secondary cir . .
cuit ; th e primary l eakage fl ux du e to th e m m f of th e pri mary , . . .
cir cuit F o and int erli nked wi th th e primary circui t only wh i ch is

, , ,
represented by th e self ind u cti ve or l eakage reactanc e x and the -

, 0
secondary l eakage fl ux due to th e m m f of th e secondary

’
I> ,
<
1, . . .
circuit F 1 and interl inked with th e secondary cir cuit only

, ,
w hich is repr esent ed by th e secondary r eactance a n ,

.
A S s een in F i g 1 05 0 th e m u tu al fl u x I < >— —

usuall y h as a closed
,
.
,
iron cir c ui t of low reluctanc e p th us low and high intens , ,
ity ; th e self inducti ve fl u x or leakage reactanc e fl ux I> o and

-
,
<
’
clos e t h rough the air c i rcuit b etween th e primary and secondary

electric circuit s thu s m eet w i th a h i gh r el u ctanc e po r es p ectiv el y
, , ,
p us ually many h undred t i m es h i gh er than p

l , T h ei r F0 .
and F 1 however are u suall y many ti m es greater than F ; th e l at

, ,
ter i s the m m f of the ex cit i ng c u rrent th e form er that of f ull

. . .
,
primary or secondary current .
F or in stanc e if th e ex citing c u rrent i s 5 per c ent of f ul l l oad

,
.
-
current the reactanc e Of th e tra nsform er 4 per c ent or 2 per c ent

,
.
,
.
primary and 2 per c ent seco ndary th en th e m m f of the l eakage .

,
. . .
fl ux i s 20 tim es that of th e mutual fl u x and th e mutual fl ux 50 ,
times th e leakage fl u x henc e th e rel ucta nce Of l eakage fl ux 50 ,
X 20 1 000 ti m es that Of t h e m u t u al or ma i n fl ux : p 1 1 000 p .

FI G . 1 05 .
pri mary m m f and in phase wi th it t h e primary

. . .
current .
primary voltage consumed by mutual fl ux ,
equal and oppo s ite to OE 1

’
.
pri mary reactance voltage 90 ahead of the ,

°
pri mary c u rrent OF o .
F rom I on, component and E o as resul tant foll ows th e other ’

as
compon ent OE o and adding thereto the primary resis tance v ol

, ,
tage I ,
gives primary s uppl y vol tage .
I n thi s diagram F i g 1 06 th e primary leakage fl ux is re pres ented

,
.
,
by in phas e with th e pri mary cur rent OF and th e s econdary , 0,
leakage fl ux is represent ed by in ph ase with th e s econdary

current OF , 1.
A s Shown in F i g 1 05 0 th e primary l ea kage fl ux . passes

, ,
through the iron core ins id e of th e primary coil togeth er with the ,
resul tant fl ux I> and the secondary l eakage fl ux pass es th rough
,
<
, ,
’
1,
th e secondary core togeth er with the mu tu al fl ux I ,

H ow ever ,
< >.
,
at th e moment S hown in F i g 1 05 0 1 and in the s econd ary .

,
’
core are Opposi te in d i recti on T his Obviousl y i s not po s si ble .

,
and th e fl ux in the secondary core in this mom ent is I <>

’
1,
that i s th e magneti c d is pos ition s hown in F i g 1 050 i s m erely

, .
nomi nal but the actu al magnetic dis tribu tion is as sho w n in
,
F i g 1 05 0 ; th e fl u x l n th e primary core o

. I th e fl ux l n ,
= <>
th e s e condary core i n
’
<1> 
1 .
,
A S seen at th e mom ent shown in F i g 1 05 0 and 1 05 0 al l th e

,
.
,
l eakage fl u x com es from and interl i nks with th e prl mary win d i ng ,
none with the s econdary winding and it thus woul d appear that , ,
al l th e s el f ind u ct i v e reactanc e i s in th e primary circuit non e i n

-
,
t h e s econdary circ u i t or in oth er word s that th e s econdary

, , ,
ci rc u i t of th e tran sform er has no reactance .
Ho w ever at a later moment of th e cycl e s hown in F i g 1 0 5 6

, , .
,
all th e l eakage fl ux com es from and interlinks wi th th e s econdary ,
and thi s figure th us woul d gi ve the impression that all th e lea k age ,
reactanc e of th e tran sformer i s in the secondary none in t h e ,
pri mary windi ng .
I n oth er w ord s the l eakage flu x es of th e tran sform er and t h e

,
m utual or m ai n fl u x are not i nd ep endent flux es but partly tra ,
verse the s ame m agn et ic c irc uit s o that each of them during a part ,
Of th e cycl e i s a part of any oth er of th e flu x es T hus th e re act .

,
anc e vol tage and the mutual i ndu ct i ve vol tage of th e trans fo r mer
RE A C T A N CE OF I N D UC T I ON A P P A RA T US 22 1
ar e notparat e
se but merely mathematical fictions com ,
p o ne n ts of t h e r es u l tant induc ed voltage OE ; and OE o induced , ,
by the resultant flux es O I>o in th e primary and ,

< in the sec ,
o n dary core .
1 1 2 I n F i g 1 0 7are pl ott ed in rectangul ar coordinates th e

. .
, ,
magnetic flux es
T he mutual or main magn etic fl ux ; ,
T he primary leakage fl ux 
,
T he res ultant primary fl u x I>o I ,

< <>
T h e secondary l eakage fl ux ;

’
, 1
T h e res ultant secondary fl ux 
1
MA G N ET IC FL U XES OF
T R A NS F O R ME R
d)
CI ¢i T 1
”
6
C3 L 9 M1
=
¢ o 76 =
an d magnetic di stribution in the transformer during the

the ,
m oments marked as a b c d e f g i n F ig 1 0 7 i s S hown i n

, , , , , , , .
,
F ig . 1 05 .
I n F ig 1 050 , th e primary fl u x i s larger than th e s econdary ,

.
a n d all l eakage flu x es (x 0 and x 1 ) come from th e primary fl ux ,
t h at is , there is condary leakage fl ux

no s e .
I n F ig l o5 b primary and s econdary fl ux eq ual and pr i mary

.
, ,
an d se condary l eakage fl ux eq u al and oppo s it e though s mal l ,

.
I n F i g 1 05 0 th e s econdary fl ux is larger all l eakage fl ux (23

.
, ,
0
a nd comes from the secondary fl ux that is there is no , ,
p rim a ry le aka ge fl ux .
I n F i g 1 05d, th ere i s
. no primary fl ux , and all t h e se condary
fl ux i s leakage fl ux .
I n F i g 1 056 , th ere is
. no mutual fl ux all primar y fl ux is ,
pri mary leakage fl ux , and all s econdary fl ux i s s econdary l eakage
fl ux .
I n F ig . 1 05f , there is no se condary fl ux , and all primary fl ux

Is leakage fl ux .
I n F i g 1 05 g , th e primary fl u x i s larger than th e s e co n dary,

.
and al l l eakage fl ux com es from th e primary , th e s ame as in 1 0 5 a .
F igs l 05 a
. to 1 05f thus Show the complete cycle corres ponding
, ,
to diagrams F igs 1 06 and 1 07, . .
T h ese figures are drawn with th e proportions ,
thus are greatl y ex aggerated to S how the eff ect more pl ainly , .
A ctual l y t he rel at i on s are u s ually of t h e magn i tude

, ,
P1 1 1 000 1 000
F1 1 20
'

1 1
s ymbol ic representation denoting , ,
I
<> m u tual magnetic fl ux .
E mutual i ndu ced voltage .
‘
P0 resultant primary fl ux .
I
<>o
'
pri mary lea kage fl ux .
E0 pri mary termi nal voltage .
Io p r i I n a ry curr e nt .
Z 0 ro j x o primary s elf i nduct i ve imp ed -
ance .
resul tant secondary fl ux .
s econdary l eaka ge fl u x .
s econdary t erm i nal voltage .
s econdary current .
r , j x s econdary
l s e lf inductiv e im -
pe dan ce .
where n numb er Of turns .

A igning however al l th e reactance to th e secondary cir cuit

ss , , ,
and ass uming the pri mary as non inductive the mutual fl ux and -
,
mutual induc ed vol tage woul d b e cT E E r oI o h ence 0 ,
larger and th e hys teresis loss cal cu lated th erefrom larger than
,
und er th e previous ass umption T he firs t ass umpti on would .
give too low and the las t too high a cal cul ated hysteres is loss in
, ,
mos t cases .
B y th e us ual tran s form er th eory th e hys t eres is lo ss und er load ,
i s calcul ated as that corres ponding to th e mutual induc ed volta g e ,
E . T h e proper s ubd i v i si on of th e total tran s form er reactanc e x , ,
into primary reactance x and secondary reactance 33 would then

, 0, , 1,
b e that which giv es for a uniform magn et i c fl ux T corres ponding

, , ,
to th e mutual ind u c ed vol tage E th e s ame hys teres is los s as , , ,
ex is t s with th e actual magn etic di s tribution of T o T T o in ’
th e pri mary and T I T ,

T 1 in th e secondary core T hus if ’
.
,
V0 i s th e volume of iron carrying th e pri mary fl ux T O at fl ux den , ,
si ty B o V th e vo l ume of iron carrying th e s econdary fl u x T

, , I at , I,
fl ux dens ity B t he fl u x d en sity of th e th eoretical mutual mag

, l ,
n etic fl u x woul d b e gi ven by

1 6
V OB o
l . 6
V 13 1
“ ;
B .
V0 V1
from B th en follows T E and thus mo and 331 , , .
T his do es not incl u d e con s i d eration of eddy current lo ss es -

.
F or th es e an appro x i mat e all owanc e may b e mad e by u s i ng

,
as ex pon ent in s t ead of ,
Wh ere th e magn etic s tray field und er l oad cau ses additional
losses by eddy currents these are not i ncl ud ed in th e loss ass igned
,
to th e mutu al magn et i c fl u x but appear as an energy com pon ent ,
of the leakage reactances that i s as an increase Of th e Ohmic re

, ,
s is tan ces of th e el ectric c i rc u it s by an eff ectiv e res i s tanc e , .
1 1 5 U s ual l y th e s u bd i vi si on of a: i nto s o and

.
, by thi s as
s umption Of as s ign i ng th e entir e core l o ss to th e mutual fl ux ,
i s s u ffici entl y c l o s e to equ al ity to p ermit thi s assu mption , T hat .
is th e tota l tran s form er reactanc e i s equall y divid ed b etween

,
primary and secondary circ uit .
T h i s how ev er i s not al ways j u s tified and in s om e c ases the

, , , ,
one circ u it may hav e a h i gh er r eactanc e than the oth er Such .

,
for i n stanc e is the case i n s ome very h igh voltage tran sformers
, ,
and usuall y i s the cas e in ind u cti on motors and similar apparatus .
I t is more common l y th e cas e wh ere tru e sel f in ductive fluxes ,

-
RE A C T A N CE OF I N D UC T I ON A PP A RA T US 225
ex si t that i s magnetic flux es produced by th e current in one

, ,
circ ui t and interl inked with this cir cui t clos ing upon themsel ves
, ,
in a path which i s entirel y dis tinct from that of the mutual mag
n etic fl ux that is h as no part in com mon w ith it Such for in
, , .
,
s tanc e fre qu entl y i s th e self ind u ctive fl ux of t he en d conn ection s

,
-
of coil s in motors tran s form ers et c T o il l u strat e : in th e high

, , .
voltage s hell type transformer shown diagr amm aticall y in

-
,
F i g 1 08 with primary coil 1 cl os el y adj ac ent to the core and

.
, , ,
high vol tage secondary coil 2 at considerabl e d is tance :

-
T h e primary leakage fl u x con si s ts of t he fl ux in s pac es (1 , ,
between the yokes of the transformer cl o sing through the iron ,
co re C and th e fl ux t h ro u gh th e s pac es b o u t s id e of th e t r
, , ans , ,
f orm er which ent ers th e fac es F of th e yokes and clo ses through
, , ,
th e ce ntral core C ,
.
T h e s econdary l eak age fl ux contain s th e s am e two compon ent s

the fl ux through th e s paces 0 b etween th e yokes cl o si ng howev er , , , ,
through th e outs id e sh ell s S and the fl ux throu gh th e s paces b , , , ,
outs i d e Of the trans form er and enteri ng the faces F but in this , , ,
case cl o si ng through th e sh ell s S I n addition to th ese tw o com , .
p o n en t s t h e s e condary
, l e akage fl u x contain s a th i rd compon ent ,
pas s ing through the s paces b between th e coils but cl o sing , , , ,
thr ough outsid e s pace c in a compl ete ai r cir cuit T h is fl ux

, , .
has n o corres ponding component in th e primary and th e total ,
secondar y l ea kage reactance in thi s cas e thu s i s l arger than th e
total primary reactance .
S imilar conditions appl y to magneti c s tru ctu res as in the i n

duction motor al ternator etc , ,
.
I n s uch a c as e as represente d by F i g 1 08 th e total reactanc e .

,
of th e trans form er w ith (2) as pri mary and (1 ) as secondary

, ,
woul d b e g reater than with (1 ) as pri mary and 2) as s econdary .
I n th is case wh en subdi v iding th e total reactanc e into pri mary

,
reactan ce an d se condary reactan ce it would appear l egiti mate ,
to divide it in proportion of th e total reactanc es w i th (1 ) and (2)

as pri mar y res pe ctiv el y ,T hat i s .
,
to tal reactanc e with coi l (1 ) as pri mary , ,
and (2) as se condary and ,
z
’
to tal reactanc e wi th coil (2) as pri mary , ,
and (1 ) as secondary then i t is : ,
Wi th coi l (1 ) as primary and (2) as se condary ,

Primary reactance ,
S econdary reactanc e ,
’ ’
x xx
’ x ’
x + :c x + x
With coil (2) as primary and as se condary ,
FI G . 1 08.
Primary reactanc e ,
S econdary reactanc e ,
’
x xx
’
x ’
x + x x + x
1 1 6 By t est , t e t w o tota reactanc es , x and x , can b e de i

. h l r ve d ’
by con sidering , that in F i g 1 07at the moments , I and d, the to

.
tal
fl ux i s l eakage fl u x , as more full y s ho w n in F i g 1 05 f and 105d, .
and the fl ux meas ured from gives the react ance 07 measur d
I ,
e
, ,
from d, gives th e reactanc e , d .

or , si nce i practi call y equal s i o

l ,
2 2
70 2
and inversel y impressing a vol tage upon coil

, , s, and short cir -
cui ti ng th e co i l p gi ves t h e l eakag e reactanc e z for s as pri mary

’
, , , ,
2
[ 00
hus the S O call ed impedance tes t of th e trans form er gives
T ,
-
the total l eakage reactanc e s o $ for that coil as primary 1, ,
which i s used as such in the i mpedanc e tes t .
Wh ere an appreci abl e diff erenc e Of th e total l eakage fl ux is

ex p ect ed wh en us ing th e one coil as primar as wh en us ing the
y ,
oth er coil the impedance tes ts s houl d b e made with that coil as
,
primary which i s intend ed as s uch Since however th e two

, .
, ,
l eakage flux es are usual l y appro ximatel y equal it is immaterial ,
which coil is used as primary in the impedance test and g ener ,
al l y that coil i s used which gives a more conv eni ent v olt ag e and ,
current for testing .
M ag neti c Cir cui ts of . I nducti on M otor

117 I n gen eral wh en d eal i ng with a closed secondar y win ding
.
, ,
as an induction motor s quirrel cag e w e con s i d er as th e mutual

- -
,
i nduct i v e vo l t age E th e v o l tage induc ed by th e mutual magn etic

, ,
fl ux T that i s th e magn eti c fl ux due to th e res ultant Of t h e pri

, , ,
mary and the secondary m m f T his voltage E th en is con . . .

, ,
s um ed in th e c l o s ed s econd ary winding by th e res is tanc e 7 1 , 1 1,
and the react ance 33 l thus gi v in g E ( j )I

°
r
,
x 1, , 1 l 1.
T h e rea ctanc e vol t age i i s con s um ed by a self in ductive , 1,

-
fl ux T , th at is a m agnet i c l eakage fl ux produced by t h e se cond

l
’
, ,
ary current and i nterl i nked with th e secondary circuit an d the ,
actual or res ul t ant m agn etic fl ux interl i nked wi th th e se condary

circui t th at is the mag neti c fl ux wh i ch passes beyond th e se cond
, , ,
ary cond u ctor thro ugh t h e arm at ure core th u s i s th e v e ctor dif ,
ferenc e T T , T a n
Id t h e act u al v o l t ag1 e i n du ce d i
’
n ,
t h e s eco nd
ary ci rcui t by the res ul t ant magn eti c fl ux interli nked with it thus
is E
, E jx l
1 T h i s v o l tage is con s umed by th e res is t a n ce
l 1 .
of the s econd ary ci rcuit E 71 and the voltage co ns u m ed by , 1 1 1,
s el f i nd u ct i on j x l
-
i s n o p art Of E but as s tated is due to t h e
, l 1, 1, ,
sel f i n d u ctive fl ux T wh i ch v ctoria ll y ubtract from t h

’
-
e s , s l ,
e
m utual magnetic fl ux T and th ereby leaves the fl ux T l w hi ch , , ,

'
,
induc es E 1 .
RE A C T A N CE OF I N D UC T I ON A PP A RA T US 2 29
In th er words
o
I n any clo sed secondary circuit as a s q uirrel cage of an induc ,
-
tion motor the true in duc ed e m f i n the circuit that is the e m f

,
. . .
, ,
. . .
induced by the actual magn eti c fl ux interl i nked with the circuit ,
i s t h e res i s tanc e drop of the circuit E T 1 , 1 1 1
T hi s i s tru e wh eth er th ere i s one or any n umb er of cl o sed s ec

ondary circui t s — o r s qui rrel cages in an inducti on motor I n each -
.
$
3
the current I is wh ere T is the resis tance of the circuit and
, I , 1 ,
l
E t
; h e vo l tag e induc ed by t h e fl u x which p as s es through t h e ci r
cuit T he E Of the diff erent s quirrel cages th en wo ul d diff er

. 1
-
from each other by the v ol tage induc ed by the l eakage fl ux

which pas ses b etween th em and which is represent ed by th e sel f ,
inductive reactanc e of the n ex t s qui rrel cage -
’ ' ’
E 1 E1 “
i z l 1 1
5
1
wh ere I i s th e curr ent in the inn er s q ui rrel cage of vol tage
'
-
1 ,
1
E
’
and
l, r es i s tanc e r and i s th e r ea
, ctanc e
’
of l,th e fl u x
be tween the two s quirrel cages -

.
T h e mutual magn etic fl ux and th e mutual i nduc ed e m f Of t h e . . .
co mmon induction motor th eory thus ar e math ematical ficti on s
a n d not phys ical real ities .
T he advantage of th e introduction of the mutual magn etic

fl u x T and the mutual induc ed vol tage E in th e induction motor
, , , ,
-
t h eory i s th e ease and conv enienc e of pass ing th erefrom to th e

,
se condary as w el l as t h e primary circui t W h ere howev er a .

, ,
n umb er of se condary circui t s ex i s t as in a multipl e s quirrel c age ,

-
,
i t is preferabl e to s tart from th e inn ermo s t magn et i c fl u x that is , ,
t h e magn etic fl ux pas s ing through th e inn ermo s t s quirr el cage -

,
a n d th e voltage induc ed by it in th e l att er wh i ch i s th e r esi s tan c e ,
d rop of this s quirrel cage -

.
I n th e s ame mann er in a primary circuit the actual or total , ,
m ag n etic fl ux interl i nked with th e circ ui t T o is th at due to the , ,
i mpresse d vol tage E 0 m i n u s th e res is t anc e drop r I o E o

’
, , E , O , 0
Of thi s magn etic fl u x T o a part T pass es as pri m ary l eak ’

r oI o .
, , , 0,
ag e fl u x b etween primary an d s econd ary without rea ch i ng t h e ,
s econdary and i s repr esent ed by th e pri mary react a nc e v ol tage

, ,
and h r maind — u a l l y h m or p rt— im pr d

fi s h t, e e er s u t e a j a i s ess e
u pon th e secondary circu i t as mutu al magn etic fl ux T

’
T o T o , ,
co rres ponding to th e mutual induct i v e v o l t age E j ol o

’
E o x ,
.
T he mutual magn etic fl ux T th en is i mpressed upon th e secon d , ,

230 E L E C T R I C CI R C UI T S
ary , tated above a part of it the secondary lea kage fl ux

and as s , , ,
T 1
’
i,s s hunt ed acro ss out s id e o f t h e s e condary circ u i t t h e re ,
mai nder T T,
‘
Pn
’
pa s s es through t h e se condary cir c ui t and
'
corres pond s to fi l l .
1 1 8 A pplyi ng thi s to the polyp hase induction moto r with

.
S in g l e s quirrel cage secondary - L et .
Yo g j b prima r y e x citing ad m i ttanc e;
Z o j x o primary se lf inductiv e imp e danc e ;

-
Z 1 r; j lx secondary self inductive imp e dance -
at ful l frequency reduced to the primary , .
E1 true induced voltage in the secondar y at full

th e ,
frequency corres ponding to the magnetic fl ux in ,
t h e armature core .
T h e s econdary current t hen i s
I1
T he mutual inductive voltage at full frequency ,
E E 1
“
I
“
Bl w
o z) — !
T hus t he ex citing current ,
as
—
( 4
)
9
1
(a j )
b 1 +3 E
(9 1 j 9 2)E 1
where
92 b
and th e total current
—J
]
8 0
“
I (h
“
Qz v
hence , the primary impres sed vol tage ,
E0 =
E I Z ol o
“ “
{
8 IC1
__I
E I 1 I “ “
j T ‘
“ “
(
T o + 3170) “
I 91
“
j Qz
E ( 1 cl + j 0 2).
C H A PT E R XI I I
R E A CT A N CE O F S YN CHR O N O U S M A CHI N E S
1 19 T — —
he s ynchronous machin e alternating current ge n e r at or
—
.
,
s ynchronous motor or s s ync hronou condenser con s is ts Of

an
armature containing one or more el ectric circuits trav ers e d by

al ternating currents and synchronousl y revo l vi ng relativ e to a
unidirectional magnetic field ex cited by direct current T h e , .
armature circuit like every el ectric circuit h as a res is tan c e r

, , , ,
in wh i ch power is being diss ipated by the current I and a n in , ,
ductan ce L or reactanc e a:
, ,
2 fL which repres ents t h e mag
, 1r ,
neti c fl ux prod uc ed by the current in the armature c i rcuit and ,
interl inked with thi s circuit T hus if E 0 voltage indu c e d in .

,
t he armature c i rcu i t by i ts rotation through th e magnetic fi el d

or as now more us ual l y the case the rotation Of the magn eti c
, ,
—
fiel d through the armature c ircu it th e t erminal vol tage Of t h e
armature c i rc uit is
E =
Eo
I n F ig 1 10 is. hown di agrammaticall y the path of th e field fl ux
s ,
in two d iff erent po s itio ns A with an armature Slot standing mid

,
way between two fiel d pol es B with an armature s l ot s tanding ,
Op po s ite th e fi el d pol e .
I n F i g 1 1 1 i s s hown d iagrammatically the mag n etic fl u x Of

.
armature r eactanc e that i s th e magn etic fl u x produc ed by t h e

, ,
c urrent in th e armat ure c ircuit and interl inked with this circ u it , ,
wh i ch is represented by th e reactance x for th e same tw o relativ e ,
po s it ions of fiel d and armature .
A s seen fiel d fl ux and armature fl ux pas s through the s a me ir on

,
s tru ct u res th us can not ha v e an ind epend ent ex i s tenc e but actual
, ,
i s on l y th ei r res ul ta nt T h i s res ul ta nt fl u x of armature s el f in

.
-
d uctio n and fiel d ex c i tation is shown i n F ig 1 12 for th e s am e two .

,
pos itio n s A and B deri v ed by s uperpos itions of the fl ux es in F i g s

, , .
1 1 0 and 1 1 1 .
A s s een i n F ig 1 1 2A all th e l i n es of magn etic forc es are in t er

,
.
,
l i nked w i th t h e fi el d c irc u i t b u t th ere i s no l i n e of magn etic fl ux

,
interli nked with the armature c ircuit onl y that is th ere is a p , ,
23 2
R E A C T A N CE OF S YN CH R ON O US MA CHI N E S 233
p a r entl y no slf i nductive armature fl ux and no true self induct

e -
,
-
i v e reactanc e x and th e self inductive armature fl ux of F ig 1 1 1

, ,
-
.
thus m erely is a math ematical fiction a th eoretical compon ent of,
th e res ultant fl ux F ig 1 1 2 T h e eff ect of th e armature current

,
. .
,
A R MA T UR E
A R MA T UR
F IG . 1 10 .
in chan g ing fl ux dis tribution F ig 1 10A to F ig 1 1 2A c on sists in

,
. .
redu c i n g the fi eld fl ux that i s fl ux in th e fi el d core

, ,
increas ing ,
the l ea kage fl u x of th e fi eld that is t h e fl ux which l eaks from fiel d

, ,
pole to field pole without int erl inking the armature circuit and
, ,
st ill further decreas ing the armat ure fl ux that is the fl ux is s ui ng

, ,
from the field and in terl in king with the armature ci rcuit .
I n po s ition 1 128 th ere is no self i nductive a rmature fl u x ei th e r

,
-
,
but every l ine of force which int erl in ks with the armature c i rc ui t
, ,
A R MA T UR E
A R MA T UR E
FIG . 11 1 .
is produced by and interl in ked with the field circuit T he efi ect .
of th e armature current in this cas e is to inc reas e th e fiel d fl u x an d
th e fl ux ent ering the armature at one s id e of th e pole and decr eas e ,
i t on t h e other s ide of th e pol e without c h angin g th e total fi eld

,
fl ux and th e leaka g e fl ux of th e fi eld I ndir ectly a redu cti on of

.
,
onl y with the armature circuit but it is the el ectrical re presenta ,
tion of the eff ect exerted on the fiel d fl ux by the m m f of t h e arma . . .
ture current .
C on sid ering th e magn etic dis po s ition an armature current , ,
which al on e woul d prod uc e the fl ux F ig 1 1 1 in the pres enc e of a , .

,
fiel d ex citation which al one woul d give the fl ux F ig 1 1 0 h as the ,

.
,
fol l owi ng eff ect : in F i g 1 12A by th e counter m m f of th e arma

.
,
. . .
ture current the resul tant m m f and with it the res ul tant fl ux are . . .
red uc ed from that due to the m m f of fiel d ex citation to that . . .

,
due to fiel d ex c i tation m i n us th e m m f of th e armatur e curr ent . . . .
T h e diff erenc e of th e magnet i c pot ential b etw een th e fi el d pol es is

increased : in F ig 1 10A it i s the s um of the m m fs of th e two air
. . . .
gaps trav ersed by the fl ux (pl us th e m m f cons umed in th e arma . . .
ture iron which may b e n egl ected as s mall ); in F i g 1 1 2A it is the

, .
s um of th e m m fs of th e two air gap s trav e rs ed by t h e fl u x

. . .
-
( wh i ch i s S l ight l y s ma l l e r than in F i g 1 1 0A du e to t h e r educ ed .

,
fl ux ) pl us th e count er m m f of th e armature T h e increas ed

. . . .
magnetic pot ent ial d iff erenc e causes an increased magnetic l e ak

ag e fl ux b etw een th e fi el d pol es and th ereby s t i ll fu rth er reduc es ,
th e armature fl u x and th e vo l tage induc ed by it .
I n F i g 1 12B t h e m m f of th e armature current add s it self to

.
,
. . .
the m m f of fi el d ex citation on one s id e and th ereby incre as es the

. . .
,
fl ux and i t s ubtract s on th e oth er s i d e and d ecreases th e fl u x and

, ,
thereby causes an un symmetri c al fl ux distribution that i s a fiel d , ,
d istortion .
1 20 B oth representation s of th e eff ect of armature current are

.
used that by a nom i nal magnetic fl ux F ig 1 1 1 which giv es rise

, ,
.
to a nomi nal reactance the synchronous reactanc e of th e a rma ,

“
ture c ircuit and that by cons idering the di rect magn etizing
”
,
action of the armature current as armature reaction and ”

,
“
,
both have th ei r advantages and d is advantages .
T h e i ntroduction of a s ynchr onous reactance mo and co r res p o nd , ,
i ng th ereto of a n omi nal i ndu ced eo i s mo s t conv eni e nt in ,
el ectric al cal cul at ion s b ut it mus t b e kept in mind that n e ith er

, ,
0 nor s o ha v e any act u al ex i s t enc e corres pond to actual ma g n etic

0 ,
fluxes and for i n s tanc e wh en c al cul ating efficiency and lo sses the
, , ,
core l o ss of the machin e do es not corres pond to co but corres pon ds ,
to the act ual or resultant magn et i c fl ux F ig 1 1 2 A l so in d eal ,

. .
,
i ng with tran s ients in v ol v i ng t h e di ss ipation of t h e magn etic

en ergy s tored in th e m ach i n e th e magn etic en ergy of th e r es ult ,
ant fi el d F i g 1 1 2 com es i nto con s i d eration and not th e

,
.
,
— much ,
RE A C T A N CE OF S YN C HR ON O US M A CH I N E S 23 7
—
l arge r e nergy which the fi elds corres ponding to co and s o w oul d
,
have T hus the short c ircu i t trans ient of a h eavil y loaded ma

.
-
ch i n e is ess ential ly the same as that of the s ame mach i ne at no

load wi th the s ame t erminal vol tage al though in the former the
, ,
field e x citation and th e nominal induc ed voltage may b e very

m u ch l arger .
T h e use of th e t erm armature reacti on in d eal ing with the eff ect
of load on th e s ynchronou s machin e is us ual ly more convenient
and useful in d es ign of the machin e but l ess so in the calc ulation ,
d eal ing with the machin e as part of an el ectric circuit .
E ith er h as th e dis advantage that i ts term s s ynchro nous react ,
a nc e or armature r eaction are not homogen eous as the different , ,
pa rts of the reactance field F i g 1 1 1 which make up th e difference , .

,
be tween F ig 1 1 2 and F ig 1 10 are very different in their action

. .
, ,
es pecially in th eir b ehavior at s udd en changes of circuit condition s .
1 2 1 C on s id ering th e magn etic fl ux of th e armature curr ent

.
,
F i g 1 1 1 A which is represent ed by the synchrono u s reactanc e s o

.
, ,
.
A part of this magnetic fl ux (l in es a in F ig I 1 1 A ) int erli nks .
with th e armature circuit onl y that is is tru e sel f inductive or , ,

-
l eakage fl ux A noth er part however (b) interl in ks with the

.
, ,
fi el d als o and thus i s mutual inductive fl ux of the armature cir

,
c u it on the fiel d circuit I n a pol yphase machine the res ultant

.
,
ar mature fl ux that i s the res ul t ant of the fluxes F ig 1 1 1 of all

, , , .
,
phas es revol ves s ynchronousl y at (appro x imat el y) cons tant i n

,
t e n s ity as a rotating fi el d of armature react i on and th erefore i s

, , , ,
s tationary with regard to th e s ynchronousl y revolving fi el d F ,

.
H enc e th e mutual inducti v e fl u x of th e armature on t he fiel d

, ,
though an al ternating fl ux ex erts no induction on the fiel d circuit , ,
is i nd eed a unidirect i onal or con stant fl u x with regards to th e

fiel d circui t T h erefore under stationary conditions of l oad no
.
, ,
di ff erence exis t s between the sel f i nductive and the mutual i n -
ducti v e fl ux of th e armature circ u i t and both are compri s ed i n th e ,
s ynchr onous reactanc e s o I f how ev er th e armat ure current

,
.
, ,
c han g es as by an increas e of l oad th e n with i ncreas i ng armat u re

, ,
c urrent th e armature fl u x a and b F i g 1 1 1 al s o increa s es

, ,a , .
, .
,
b ei ng interl inked with the armat ure current on l y increases s imul ,
t aneous l y with it that i s t h e armature c urrent can not increas e

, ,
without simul taneousl y increas ing i ts sel f i nductiv e fl ux a T he -

,
.
mutual i nductive fl ux b howev er i nterl i nks with the fi el d circ uit

, , , ,
and thi s circ ui t i s c l o s ed thro u gh t h e ex c i t er that i s i s a c l o sed , ,
secondary circuit with regard s to t h e armature c i rc u it as pr i mary ,

and the change of fl ux b thus induces in the field circui t an e m f , , . . .
and cau ses a current which retard s the change of this fl u x com
ponent b Or in other words an increase of armature current
,
.
, ,
tend s to increase its mutual magnetic fl ux b and thereby to de , ,
crease the fiel d fl ux T his decrease of fiel d fl ux induces i n the field

.
circuit an which adds itself to the vol tage impressed upon

the fiel d th ereby increases th e fi el d current and main ta ins the
,
fiel d fl ux again st the d emagnetizing action of the ar ma ture cur

rent cau s ing i t to d ecrea se on l y gradually
,
I nversely a d ec rease .
,
of armature curr ent giv es a s imultaneous decrease of t he self
inductive part of the fl ux a in F ig 1 1 1 b ut a gradual decrease of , .

,
t he mu tua l inductive part b and co rresponding gradu al increase , ,
of th e resu l tant fi el d fl ux by inducing a tran sient volta g e in the ,
fiel d in Opposition to the ex citer voltage and thereby d ecreasing

, ,
the fi el d cu rrent .
E very sudden increa se of the armature current thu s g iv es an

equal s udd en drop of terminal voltage due to th e self ind u ctive -
fl ux 0 prod u c ed by it (and the resi s tanc e drop in th e arm ature

, ,
circuit) an equal ly sudden increase of the field current and then

, ,
a gradual fu rth er drop of th e terminal vol tag e by th e gradu al ap
p e a ran ce of t h e mutua l fl u x b and corres ponding gradu al d e c rease , ,
of fiel d current to nominal T he reverse is the case at a su dden .
decrease of armature cu rrent .
T h e ex trem e ca se h ereof is f ou nd in the moment ary shor t cir -
cuit current s of al ternators which with some types of m achi nes ,

l
may mom entarily equal many times the val ue of the perm anent
s hort circuit current
-
H owever thi s phenom enon is not limi ted
.
,
to S hort circuit condition s on l y but every change of current in

-
,
an al ternator causes a momentary overshooting the more so the , ,
greater and more sudd en the change is .
1 22 T hat part of th e s ynchronous reactanc e T o whic h is due to

.
, ,
the magn etic l in es a in F ig 1 1 1 i s a tru e self inductiv e reactance

, ,
.
,
-
,
x and i s in stantan eou s b u t that part of 113 representin g th e fl ux

, , 1
l in es b i s mutual inductive reactanc e with the field circ ui t x and

, , ,
’
,
is not in s tantan eou s b u t com es into pl ay gradually and when , ,
ev er d eal ing with rapid changes of cir cuit con ditio ns the syn ,
chr onous reactanc e m o thu s mu s t b e divid ed into a t ru e or self

, ,
inductive reactance x and a mutual inductive reactance a: , , ,

’
23 1
1
See T h eo ry and Cal c ul at ion of Trans ient Phenomena .
ing and onl y the sel f inductive reactance 3 comes i nto pl ay

,
-
, ,
.
I ntermediate between the in s tantan eous eff ect and th e permanent

conditions for a time up to one or more sec the eff ective reactance
,
.
,
changes from a: to s o and this may b e considered as a transient

, ,
reactance .
D uring this p eriod mutual induction between ar mature cir

,
cuit and fiel d circuit occurs and the ph enomena in th e s ynchron

,
ous machin e thus are aff ect ed by th e con s tant s of t h e fi eld circ uit
outsi d e of the machine T hat i s resi stance and inductance of the

.
,
fiel d circuit appear by mutual induction as part of the armatur e

, ,
circuit of the s ynchronous machin e just as resis tance an d react ,
anc e of the secondary circuit of a trans former appe ar trans ,
form ed by th e rati o of turn s as res istance and reactanc e in th e pri

,
mary in th eir eff ect on the primary current and its phas e relation
,
.
T hus in th e synchronous machin e a high non inductiv e re ,

-
s i s tance in sert ed into th e fi el d circuit (with an increa s e of t he
ex cit er vol tage to gi v e th e s am e fi el d current ) whil e without
eff ect on th e p erm an ent current and on th e in s tantan eous curr ent
i n th e mom ent of a sudd en current change r educes th e duration ,
of the transi ent armat ure current ; an inductance in serte d into

th e fi el d circuit l ength en s th e duration of th e tran si ent and chan g es
i ts s hape .
T h e duration of t h e tran si ent reactanc e of th e s ync h ronous

machine i s about of the sam e magnitude as the period of hunting
—
of synchronous machi n es which varies from a fraction of a
s econd to o v er one see T h e reactanc e which l im it s t h e current
.
,
fl u ctati ons i n hunting s ynchronous machin es thus i s n eith er the ,
s ynchrono us reactanc e s o nor th e true sel f inductiv e reactanc e 12

, ,
-
, ,
but is an intermed i ate tran sient reactance ; th e current change is

s uffic i entl y s l ow that th e mutu al induction b etween s ynchron ous
machin e armatu re and fiel d h as al ready come into pl ay and the

fiel d b egun to foll ow b ut is too rapi d for the compl et e develop
,
m ent of th e synchronous reactance .
1 24 I n th e pol yphase m achin e on bal anc ed l oad th e mutual

.
,
inductive component of th e armature reactance h as no inductive

eff ect on th e fi el d as i ts res ul tant i s uni directional w ith reg ard
,
to t e fie d fl ux I n the sing e phas e mach n e however (

h l . l i o- r
,
pol yphase machin e on unbal anc ed l oad ) s uch inductive e ff ec t

,
ex i s ts
, as a p erman ent pul s at i on of doubl e frequ ency T h e .
mutual ind uctive fl ux of th e armat ure circuit on the field cir c u it
is al ternat i ng and th e fi el d circuit revol ving s ynchrono y u sl

, ,
RE A C T A N CE OF S YN CH R ON O US M A CHI N E S 24 1
through this alternating fl ux thus has an e m f of double fre ,

. . .
q u e n c y induc ed in it whi ch produc es a doubl e fr equ e,

ncy curr ent -
in th e field circuit s up erimposed on the direct current from the

,
ex cit er T h e field fl ux of th e singl e phase al t ernator (or poly

.
-
ph ase al ternator at unbal anc ed load) thus pul s ates with double
fre qu ency and by b eing carried synchronously through the
, ,
armature circuits thi s doubl e frequency puls ation of fl ux in

,
-
duc es a tripl e frequency harmonic in th e armature

-
.
T hu s s ingl e phase alternators and pol yphase alt ernators

,
-
,
at unbalanced load contain more or l ess of a thir d harmonic ,
in th eir voltage wave whi ch i s induced by the double frequency ,

-
puls ation of th e fiel d fl ux res ul tin g from the p ul s atin g armature ,
rea ction or mutual armature r eactanc e x

’
.
, ,
T h e s tat em en t that three phase al t er n ators contain no third

,
-
har monic s in th eir terminal vol tages s in ce such harmonics neu ,
t ral i z e each oth er i s corr ect onl y for bal anc ed l oad but at u n
, ,
bal anced l oad three ph as e al ternators may have pronounc ed

,
-
third harmonics in their terminal voltage and on s ingl e phase ,

-
s hort circui t
-
th e not short Circuit ed phas e of a three phas e
,
- -
al te rnator may contain a thi rd harmonic far in ex cess Of th e

fundamental .
1 25 L et in a Y conn ected three phase s ynchrono u s machin e

.
- -
,
th e magn etic fl u x per fiel d pol e b e T o I f thi s fl u x i s dis tribut ed .
s inus oidal ly around th e circumferenc e of t h e armatur e at an y ,
"
time t represent ed by angl e 03 2 11 f t the magnetic fl ux en cl osed
, , , ,
by an armature turn is
T o cos c
w h en counting th e time from t h e mom ent of maximum fl ux .
T h e vol tage i n duc ed in an armature c i rcui t of n turn s th en is
C ‘Po si n (I)
wh ere
however th e fl ux dis trib uti o n around th e armature circum

I f, ,
f erenc e i s not S inu s oidal it n ev erth el ess can as a p eriodic func, ,
tion b e ex pressed by
,
) I “ '
a4 cos 4 (¢
and th e vol tage induced in one armature conductor by , t he
10
s ynchronous rotation through th i s fl ux , i s

dT
1r fT o [sm 2 (1 2 a n 3 as a n —d a)
dl
4 a si n —a , )
hence the , induc ed in one vol tage

armature tu r n or i n fu pitch
l l -
,
two armature conductors displ aced from each oth er on t h e ar ma

ture s urface by one pol e pitch or an odd mul tipl e th ereo f ,
e = 2 Ir fT [
o si n a s si n —a 3) + 5 as S i n —a 5 )+
that ven harmonics cancel

i s , th e e .
T h e voltage i nduc ed in one armature c i rcu i t of n eff ect i v e s e ri es

turn s then i s
[ si n b e si n 0. si n
wh ere
b3 =
3 if all th e n turns are mass ed toge th er
a s, b5 =
5 a b , et c .
, ,
and are less if th e armature turns are di stributed du e to the

, ,
overlapping of the harmon i cs and partial canc el l ation c a used ,
thereby A s kno w n by causi ng proper pitch of the turn or

.
, ,
prop er pitch of th e ar e covered by any phase any harmonic can ,
b e enti rel y el iminat ed .
T h e s econd and third phas e of th e three phase machine then -
w oul d hav e th e vol tage ,
cT o s i n [ (c: b » sin
, a s
“
I
b 5 s in as
c T o si n [ (4 ) b 3 si n as ) b 5 s in
(5 M as ]
cT o s i n [ (c: b 3 S i n 3 (<p
D 5 si n as]
A s see n
thi rd harmonics are all three in phas e with each
, th e
other ; the fif th harmonic s are in three phase rel ation but with -
,
backw ard rotation ; the s eventh harmonics are again in three

phas e rel ation l ike th e fundamental s the ninth harmonics in
, ,
phase etc , .
T h e t erminal vol tages of th e machi n e th en are

— b co s 5 (¢ — a a) + a
b 7oo s 7(¢ — a7 ) I “ “
and corres ponding th ereto E e e and E e, 3 differ

2 l s ; 1,
i ng from E 1 merel y by s ub s titutin g 240 for 6

° °
1 20 an d 4, .
th e terminal v ol tages thus are,
E 1 es V3 cT o
[ cos (cp a ) cos (p c a )
3
]
a
2
cos ( ¢
3 a )
and i n th e s ame manner , th e oth er two phas es ,
E2 cT o
[ cos (41 a cos (c: a
cos (3 ct:
E. v s cT o
[ cos (d) a cos (p a
cos (3 T
F or a 0, thi s gi ves
E1 V 3 cT [ ( 5)
o 1 cos c} :
E2 cT o
[ ( 3)
1 cos (d) cos (3 1 20
a
cos (¢ — 24 0 )
O
cos ( ¢
3 — 24 0 )
An al l three phases have pronounced third harmonic s

s s ee , ,
and th e third harmonic of the l oaded phase E i s opposite to , 1,
that of th e unl oad ed phases .
If a 1 which corres pond s about to S hort circuit condition s

,
-
,
as it makes th e minimum value of T o equal z ero th en th e q uadra ,
ture phase of the short circuit ed phase E b ecomes -

, 1,
3 C CPO
(
si n c} : si n 3 ct),
2
that is the thi rd harmonic becomes as large as the fundamental

, .
T hu s on unbalanc ed l oad such as on S ingl e phas e short circuit

, ,
- -
,
tripl e harmonic s appear in the termi nal vol tages of a three ph as e -
generator though at balanc ed loads th e three phase terminal

,
-
voltag e can contain no third harmonics .

S E C T I ON I I I
C HA P T E R XI V
C O N ST A N T -
P OT E N T I A L C ON S T A N T - CU R R E N T T R A NS
F OR M A T I ON
1 27 T he gen eration of a ternating current el ectric power prac

. l -
t i cal l y always takes plac e at con s tant voltage F or s om e pur .
p o s es
,
how e v e r a s for
, Op erating s eri es are circuit s and t o a li m ,
i t ed ex tent als o for electric furnac es a con stant or appro x imat ely
, ,
c on stant alt ernatin g current is required While con stant alter

.
n ating curr ent arc s have largely come out of us e and th eir plac e
-
taken b y cons tant direct current luminous arc circuits or incan

-
,
d es c ent lamps th e con s tant direct c urrent is u s ual l y d erived b y

,
rectification of con s tant alt e rnatin g current supply circuit s

-
.
S uch con stant alt ernating c u rrent s are usually produc ed fro m
co nst ant voltage supply circuits by means of constant or variable
-
in ductive reactances and may b e produc ed by th e comb ination of

,
inductive an d condens iv e reactances ; and the inves tigation of

diff erent methods of producing cons tant alternating current fro m
co ns tant alter nating voltage or inv ersely
, con s titutes a good ,
appl ication of the terms impedance admittanc e etc and

“ ” ”
, , .
,
offers a large number of problems or exampl es for the sym bolic

method of deal in g wi th alternating current ph enomena -
.
E v e n outs i de of arc lighting s uch comb inations of in ductanc e

,
an d capacity w hich te nd toward cons tant voltage constant cur - e
rent t ransf orma ti o n are of co ns id erabl e i mpo rtan ce as a [ xm s i hl e
sour ce of da nger to the syste m I n a con stan t cu rrent circu it -
th e l oad is ta ken 0 6 b y s ho r t—
.
,
c ircuiting w hil e op en circu i t i ng

,
-
causes the v ol tag e to rise to the max imum value per mitted by
the power of th e g enerati ng source Hence wh ere t he ci rcuit
.
,
cons tants w i t h a cons ta n t vol tage s uppl y source a re s u ch as t o

-
—
, ,
app roa ch con s ta n oltag e co ns ta nt cu rren t t rans for ma i

t v - t o n a s is
for instance the cas e i n very long t rans miss ion l in es open c i r : ul t ,
- l
i ng ma y l ead to dan g erou s or even des t ruct ive voltag e f iat

1 28 “ fith an induct i ve reac tance inserted I n series to
. an al t er
2 45
nati g ur nt
n -
c i ductive circuit at co ns tant-suppl y v ol tag e
re non- n , ,
t he current in this circuit is appro x imately cons tant as l ong as the ,
res is tanc e of the circ uit is small c ompared wit h t he seri es inductive
reactance .
L et
E, n tant impressed alternating voltage ;
eo co s
r res istance of non inductive receiver cir cuit ; -
33 0 inductive reactance inserted in series with th is circ ui t .
T h e impedanc e of thi s circui t th en is

Z T j z o,
and abs ol ute
, ,
and thus th e c u rrent ,
and th e abs o l ute v al u e is
th e phase angl e of th e su ppl y circui t is given by

tan 00
and th e pow er factor ,
cos 00
I f in this case ,
r is s mall compared w ith (t o, it is
or , ex pand ed by th e b inomial theorem ,
2 ‘
34 r 3 r
4
2 270 2
8 330
4
r 3 r
2 117
0
2
that is for s mall values of

, r, the c u rrent ,
i , is appro x imately
cons tant and is ,
A s illustrat ions are s hown in F ig 1 1 3 for the cons tants

,
.
,
6600 volts applied

79 2 ohms series reactance
th e current
amp .
;
and th e power factor -
cos 0
wi th th e vol tage at th e se condary terminals

e ri
as ab s cissas .
1 29 . receiver circuit i s inductive that i s contains in

I f th e , , ,
addi t i On to th e res i s ta n c e r an inductiv e reactan c e x and if

, , , ,
th is reactanc e i s proportio n al to th e res istanc e ,
x z
kr ,
as iscommo nl y th e cas e in arc c i rcuit s due to th e in ductiv e ,
reactan c e of th e regul ating mechanis m of th e arc lamp (the

eff ectiv e res i s tanc e r an d th e i nd u ctiv e r eactanc e at i n this
, , , ,
case are both proportional to the number of l amps h ence pro ,
port io nal to each oth er) it is : ,
total i mpedan c e :
or th e ab sol ut e v al ue i s
2 V
th us ,
the current
’
r je t. kr)
and the abs o l ute val ue is
( )
2
‘
V T 230 kT 2
CON S T A N T C UR R E N T -
T R A N SF OR MA T I ON 249
r
008 00
( so ler) 2
By t he binomial theorem it is ,
i for r
2
(2 k
?
)
230 4 $0
2
Henc e , th e current
Q k) 2
I
.
80
EO
1
$0 4 230
2 ( )
1 0
that is , th e ex press ion of the current ,

i contains th e ratio ,
230
i n the first power , w ith k as coeffi cient and if therefore ,
11:
is very s mall that is the inductive reactance 33

not ,
kr a , , ,
very small fraction of the resis tance r the cur rent i is not , , , ,
even appro ximately con s tant but b eg ins to fal l 0 3 imm edi atel y , ,
even at s mal l val ues of r .
A s s uming for instanc e, ,
T hat inductive reactanc e x of th e receiver circuit equals

i s , th e , ,
40 p er c ent of i ts resi stanc e r and t he power factor of th e

.
, ,
-
r ece iver c i r cui t a cc or dingly i s

T
cos 0 2 2
r x
1
1 19 2
9 3 per c ent .
;
i t is , s ub stituted in
I
330
A sillustrations are shown i n th e s ame F i g 1 1 3 for th e con stants

,
.
,
6600 vo l t s suppl y
792 ohms s eri es reactanc e ;
t h e current
amp .
T his current is S hown by dotted l in e .
I n th is case in an inductiv e c i rcui t t h e current

, ,
i h as decreased
250 E L E C T R I C C I R C UI T S
by 10 per cent b elow . the o

n -l
oad or s ort circuit v a
h -
lue of
amp that is has fallen to
.
,
amp , at the res istance r 1 87ohm,
.
or at th e voltage of the receiving circuit ,
c = i
while in ,
case of a non inductive load the current has fallen
th e -
,
OR to amp or by 1 0 per cent at the resis tance r 3 95 ohm

.
,
.
,
or at the vo l tage of the rec eivin g circ uit : e 29 50 v ol ts .
1 30 A s seen a moderate cons tant c urrent reg ul ati on can

.
,
-
b e produced in a non inductive circuit by a co ns tant series-

,
inductive reactance at a considerable s acrifice h owev er of the

, , ,
power factor whil e in an in ductive receiver ci rcuit the con

-
, ,
stan t current regulation is not even approx imate

- .
T o produc e cons tant al ternatin g current fro m a constant ,
potential s uppl y b y a series inductive reactance ov er a wide

, ,
r ange of l oad and wi thout too g reat a
sacrific e of power factor theref ore re -

,
qui res a variation of the series in ductive

reactance with the load T ha t is with .
,
increas ing load or increas ing res is tance ,
of th e receiver circuit the seri es induc ,
tive reactance has to b e decreas ed so as ,
to maintai n the total impedan ce of the

ci r cuit and th ereb y the current co ns tant , , .
FI G 1 1 4
I n cons tant current apparatus as trans
. .
-
,
formers from cons tant potential to constant current or reg ula ,
tors this variation of series inductive reactan ce with th e load

,
i s us ually accomplish ed automatic al l y by the mechani cal motion

caused by the mechanical forc e ex erted by the mag netic field of
the current u pon the conductor in which the curren t exi s ts
, .
F or ins tance in th e con stant current trans for mer as sh own

,
-
,
diagrammaticall y in F i g 1 1 4 the secondary coil s S are arranged

.
, , ,
so that th ey can mov e away from th e primary c oi ls P or i n , ,
v ers el y Primary and secondary curr ents are pr opor tional

.
t o each oth er as in any tran sform er and th e magn eti c fiel d

, ,
between primary and secondary coils or the magn etic s tr ay field , ,
in whi ch the secondary coils float is proportional to eith er c urrent , .
T he magn etic repuls ion b etween primary coils and secondar y coils
is proportional to th e current (or rath er i ts ampere tur ns ) and -
to th e magn etic s tray fi eld h enc e i s proportional to th e s q uare

,
of the current but independent of th e voltage T he secondary

, .
E L E CT RI C CI R C UI T S
T he c u rrent in the circuit th en is

60
1 ’
r + j <z o x )
or ,
t he abs ol ute val ue ,
and to mai ntain

, th e c u rrent i con stant (i
then requires
or trans posed
, ,
x kr ,
hr ( )
12
2
r
that is to produc e p erfectly co ns tant current by m eans of a

,
v ariabl e series i n d u ctive reactan c e th is series reactanc e must b e ,
vari ed with th e l oad on th e c i rcuit accordin g to equation (1 1) or ,
F or non -
i n d u ct i v e l oad , or a: 0, it is
2
th e max i mu m l e ad ,
w hi ch can be carried ,
is given by
and i s
2 :
As n from equat ion

s ee th e d ecrease of inductive rea ctance ,
mo required to maintain co nstant current with non inducti ve

,
-
load i s small for small val ues of resis tance T when th e r under
, , ,
2
t h e root i s n egl i g i ble W ith inductiv e load equation

. th e ,
inductive reactanc e s o h as still furth er to b e d ec reased by t h e

, ,
induct ive reactance of th e load 13 ,

.
Sub sti tut i ng
as value of the series inductive reactance at no

th e - l oad or S hort
circuit equat ion s, (1 3 ) a ss um e t h e form :
CON S T A N T C U R R E N T -
T RA N SF OR MA T I ON 25 3
General inductive load
I nductive l oad of
N on -
inductive l oad
131 . n a constant s eries inductive reactance g ives an

As see ,
approx imately con s tant current regul ation with non inductive - -
l oad but if the l oad is inductive this regulation is s po iled

,
.
I nversely it can b e shown that condensi v e reactanc e that i s a , , ,
sourc e of l eading current in th e load improves the c onstant ,
cu rrent regulation .
W ith a non inductive load series condensi v e reactanc e ex erts

-
,
th e s ame eff ect on th e current reg ulation as series inductiv e re

act an ce ; th e equations dis cussed in t h e prec eding paragraph s re
mai n th e sam e ex cept that the S ign of T o is reversed and the cur
,
ren t always leading .
W ith seri es condens i v e reactanc e con densi v e reactanc e in the ,
l oad S po i l s inductive reactanc e in th e l oad i mproves th e con stant

,
c urr ent regulation .
T hat is in gen eral a con stant series reactanc e gives approx i

, ,
mately Constan t current regul ation in a non inductive circuit

- -
,
a n d with a reactiv e l oad this reg ulation i s impaired if th e react
a nc e of th e load i s of th e s am e S ign as t h e s eries reactanc e and th e ,
r egul ation is improv ed if th e reactanc e of th e loa d is of oppo s it e
s ig n as t h e series reactanc e .
S in ce a con s tan t current load i s us ually somewhat inductive it

-
,
f ol lo ws that a con stant s eries condensi v e reactanc e gives a b ett er

c ons tan t c urrent regulation
- in th e av erage case of a some ,
w h at inductive arc circuit than t he con s tant series inductive ,
r ea ctan c e .
L et
E0 co con stant impressed or s upply voltage ,
.
Z r j x imp edanc e of h
t e load or t h e r ec eiv er ,
cir cuit and ,
a: kr ,
t h at is ,
Z r (1 j k)
E L E CT RI C CI R C U I T S
or abs olu te
, ,
L et a constant condensiv e reactanc e b e in serted in series with

now
this circuit of the reactance s then th e total impedance of the

, , o,
circuit is
r . 7( xc
T he current is
or , th e absol ute value is
phase angl e is
"
th e
tan a.
"
a “ " I
r

is
CO S 00
0,
or non i nduct i ve load

-
, equation s (1 9 ) and (2 1 ) ass ume the form
r
and cos 0
/r
\
2
that is the same as with series inductive reactanc e

, .
F rom equation (1 9 ) i t fol lo w s that with increas ing current i , , ,
from no load : -
r 0 h enc e : i o ( )
22 ,
th e current i o first increases reach es a max imum and th en

, , , ,
d ecreases again W h en d ecreasing it once more rea ch es t h e

.
,
value i o for the res istanc e r of the load which is g iven by

, , , l , ,
Co
henc e , ex panded ,
2 km.
1 It 2
and the maximum value thro u gh w hich i passes betw een r
and r rl , is given by
T his constant current reg ulation and the power factor of the
-
,
-
circuit are best if the reactance of the receiver circu it is of Oppo

,
s ite s ign to the seri es reactanc e and poores t if of th e s ame Sign

,
.
T hat i s seri es condensiv e reactanc e in an inductive ci rc ui t and

, ,
seri es inductiv e reactanc e in a circuit carrying leading current ,
FI G . 1 15 .
give th ebest regul ation ; series inductive reactanc e with an in

du ct i v e and s eries condens iv e reactanc e w i th l eading cu r rent in
,
th e c i rc u i t gi ve th e poores t regul ation

, .
Sinc e th e rec eiver circu i t is u s uall y inductiv e to g et b es t r eg ula ,
tion eith er a s eries condensiv e reactance h as to b e used as in F ig

, , .
1 1 5 or if a s eri es inductiv e re actance

, ,
i s u sed the current in th e rec eiv er cir

,
c uit is made l eading as for in s tance , , ,
by S hunting th e rec eiver circui t by a

condens i v e reactanc e .
F G 1 16
I . A ss uming th en as s ketched diag ra m , ,
mati cal l y in F i g 1 16 in a c i rcuit of .

,
con stant impressed E eo con stant a cons tant in

0 ,
du cti v e reactanc e x in sert ed in s eries ; and the receiver ci rc u it

, 0, ,
of impedanc e ,
Z = r + jx r ( +
1 j )
k
where
k tangent of the angl e of l ag
CON S T A N T - CU R R E N T T RA N SF OR MA T I ON 25 7
receiver circuit b e shunted by a cons tant condensi v e react

l et th e
ance l et th en :
,
E pot e ntia l di ff er enc e o f r ec e i v er c i rcu i t or t h e cond en ser
terminals ;
I curr e nt in t h e r ec eiv er circu i t or t h e s e condary curre nt , ,
I ; cur r ent in th e cond e n s e r ,
I o to tal s upp l y curr e nt o r primary curr

, ent .
T h en Io I I I 1 “ “
and th e e m f at rece iver circuit is

. . .
E Z I
at the conde n ser ,
jc 1
and in , th e mai n ci rcuit , th e impressed e m f . . . is
E0 60 E I J
i lo
fi
“ “
H enc e , s ubstituti ng (27) and (29 ) in

Z I + j xo I + 1
( 52 ) 1
Z + j $o
g} I Z
17
I j$0 1
}
0
“ '
If 3 , that i s if th e shunted condensi v e reactance eq ual s

s o, ,
th e se ries inductive reactance equati ons (3 2) assum e th e form

, ,
I
an d th e abs ol ute val ue i s
t h at is , the current , i , is con stant i ndependent, of th e l oad and

the power factor -
.
17
T hat is if i n a cons tant potent ial circui t of impressed

,
-
, eo,
an inductive reactanc e x 0 and a condensi v e reactance

, , , x., are
connected in series with each other and if ,
xc $ 0, ( )
35
that is the tw o reactances are in res onance condition with each

,
other any circuit s hunting the capacity reactance is a constant

,
current circuit and regardl ess of the imped ance of this circuit
, ,
Z r j x t h e current in
, t h e circui t i s
1 33 Such
. a combination of tw o equal reactances of opposite
s ign can b e con sidered as a trans forming d evice from con stant
potential to cons tant current .
Sub stituting th er efore (3 5 ) in the preceding equation gives

, ,
( )
3 3 s ub s titut ed in ( )
2 9
C urr ent in shunted capacity
I.
or absol ute
, ,
and substituting (3 3 ) and (3 6) in (26)

,
primary s upply current is

Z j xo
2
$0
or the absol ute val ue i s
and th e power factor of the suppl y current

- is
x
tan 00 , 00 8 00 (40)
In this c ase the hi her , e
receivi n g circuit the lower 18 the su pply current 5 at th e , same

resistance r and the high er is the power factor and if a:
, ,
-
, so
and cos 0
that is the primary or s upply circuit is non inductive

, ,
-
, and the
primary current is in phase with the supply an d the
receiving circuit T he con s tant s econdary current i l ags 90

.
, ,
°
b ehind t he con s tant primary eo .
I nversel y by rev ers ing the s ign s of

, and x in the preceding .
equat i on s that is ex changi ng inductive and conden si v e react

, ,
an ces , it foll ows that shunt ed inductive reactance s o and , ,
series con densiv e reactance if of equal reactance to , , ,
tran sform con s tant potential eo into con stant curre nt i and , , , ,
inversel y I n this case the main current lags th e more the

.
,
high er the inductive reactance of the rec ei ving circuit and ,
th e co ns tant s econdary current i i s 9 0 ah ead of th e cons tant

°
, ,
primary co .
I n gen eral it fol low s that if equal inductive and condensive

, ,
reactances s o ar that i s in res onance condition s are con

, e, , ,
nected in s eries acro ss a con s tant pot ential circuit of impressed -
eo, cir cuit conn ected to the common point between

any
th e reactanc es is a con stant c urrent cir cuit and carries the -

,
c urrent i 9 9
,
27
0
I ns et ad of co n n ecti n g
this secondary or con s tant current -
ci rc ui t with i ts oth er terminal to lin e A so shunting the con , ,
den s i v e r eact anc e with it an d ca us ing th e mai n c u rrent to lead,
( I i n F i g . or to lin e B s o s h u nting t h e inductiv e r e

,
actanc e ,
with it an d c au s i ng th e m ai n c urrent to l ag (I I in F i g
,
it .
can b e conn ect ed to any point int erm ediate b et w een A and B ,
by a au totransformer as in I I I F i g 1 1 8 I f conn ected to the mid ,

. .
dl e point b etw een A and B th e mai n current i s n eith er l agg i ng nor ,
l ead i ng th at i s is non ind u ctiv e with non inductive load and

, ,
-
,
-
, ,
with ind u ctive lo ad h as the same power factor as th e l oad

,
-
.
T h e two arrangem ent s I and I I can als o b e combin ed by , , ,
connecti ng th e con st ant c u rrent cir cuit across as i n I V F i g 118

-
, ,
. ,
and in this cas e th e tw o i nd u ct ive reactances and t w o conden

CON S T A N T -
C UB R E N T T RA N SF OR M A T I ON 26 1
s ive reactances di ag rammatical ly form a s quare with the con ,
s tant pot ential eo as on e th e con s tant current i

, , as th e other , , ,
diagonal as s hown in F ig 1 1 9 T hi s arrangem ent h as been

,
. .
call e d the monocycli c squ are .
T h e in sertion of an e m f into th e con stant curr ent circuit . . .

-
,
in s uch arrangem ent s obviously does not ex ert any eff ect on , ,
th e con s tancy of th e secondary current i but m erel y changes , ,
th e primary cu rrent i o by the amount of power s uppli ed or , ,
con s um ed by th e e m f in serted in the secondary circuit

. . . .
Wh ile th eoreticall y th e s econdary current i s abs ol utely con

s tant at cons tant primary
, practicall y it can not b e per
fectl y con s tant du e to the po w er ,
con s um ed i n th e reactanc es but ,
fall s off slightl y with increase of

l oad th e more th e great er th e
, ,
l o s s of power in the reactances ,
that i s the l o w er the efficiency of

,
th e tran s forming d evi ce .
T w o typical arrangement s of
such con s tant current tran s form -
ing d evi ces are the T connecti on -
or the resonati ng ci rcui t diag ram -

,
F ig 1 1 7 and the monocycl i c

.
,
FIG 1 1 9 . .
square diag ram F ig 1 1 9 F rom

, . .
th es e a very l arge number of di ff erent combination s of i n

,
du cti v e and condens i v e reactanc es with add i tion of au tot ran s ,
form ers and of impressed

, can b e devised to transform
from con stant potential to con stant current and inversel y and ,
by th e use of quadrature e m fs taken from a second phase of . . .
th e polyp hase sys t em th e s econdary output for th e s am e amount

, ,
of re actances increas ed ,
.
T h ese combination s aff ord v ery conv en i en t and i ns tr u cti v e

exa mpl es for accu s toming on es el f to th e u s e of th e s y mbol i c
method in the sol ution of al tern at i n g c urrent probl em s -

.
O n l y tw o typical cas es th e T conn ecti on and th e monocyc l i c ,

-
square wil l b e more f ul l y d i s c u s s ed .
A T .
-
C onnecti on or R es onating Circui t
1 35 General
.
— A comb i n ation i n a co ns tant potenti al circuit -
,
.
,
of an inducti ve and a condens iv e reactanc e in series with each

other in res onance condition that i s with the condensi v e react

, ,
anc e equal to the inductive reactanc e g iv es con s tan t current in ,
a circuit shunting the capacity T his circuit thus can b e called .
”
secondary circuit of the constant potential constant
“
th e
c urrent transf orming devi ce while the cons tant potential supply
,
-
”
circuit may b e called the primary ci rcuit “
.
I f th e total inductiv e reactanc e in the co ns tant c urrent cir -
cuit is equal to the condensi v e rea ctance the pri mary supply ,
c urrent is in phas e with the impressed e m f . . .
L et as s hown diagrammatically i n F i g 1 1 7 .
,
value of the inductive and the condensi v e reacta nces which

are in seri es with ea ch oth er .
the additional inducti ve reac tan c e i n ser ted in th e co nstant

c urrent circuit .
j V h e a bs olute value of th e im
’ 3
t
‘
r z
v or z ,
r x
h —
pedan ee of t e cons tant cu rrent load .
A ss uming now in the con s tant current c i rc uit th e i nductive -
reactanc e and the resis tance as proportional to each other as ,
for in s tance is approx imately the case in a seri es ar e circuit ,
in w h ich by varying the number of lamps and therewith the

,
l oad reactance and resi s tanc e chan g e proport i on ally

, L et then .
, ,
23
k ratio of inducti ve reactance to res s a i t nce of the load ,
or tan g ent of th e angle of lag of the con s tant -

curre nt circui t .
I t is then
Z r (1 j )
k
E 0 n ant
co prim ary impressed
co s t or s up
ply volta ge ,
E pot
; enti a l diff ere nce at cond ens er ter min als ,
E se co nda r y o r vo l tag e at cons tant e cur r ent
circuit ,
Io primary s upply current ,
I; cond en ser curren t ,
I s econdary curren t ,
then in the secondary or receiver circuit

, ,
E = Z I
at t he co ndenser terminals
264 ELE CTR IC CI R C U ITS
This phase angl e 01 0, that i s , t he primary supply current is
non inductive if
-
,
xl a: 0,
that is ,
$0 ( )
1 6
T he primary supp l y
can in this way b e made inductive for non-
any desired v al ue of secondary load by ch oosing the reactanc e 3 , , 1,
according to equation
If x 0 that i s a non inductive sec ondary circuit (s eri es in
, ,
-
cand es c ent lamps for in stanc e) x am that i s with a non in , 1 , ,

-
du cti v e s econdary circuit th e primary suppl y current i s al ways ,
non inductive if th e secondary reactance

-
, i s made equal to the ,
pri mary reactance am ,
I n th i s case x wi th an i nducti ve secondary c i rcuit

1
a:
tan 00 tan 0; that i s , th e primary suppl y current h as the
r
s ame phase angl e as th e secondary l oad if all three re actances ,
( t w o i n duct i v e and on e co n dens i v e r eactanc e) ar e mad e e qua l .
I n gen eral 33 wo ul d probabl y b e chosen s o as to make I 0 non

, 1
i nd u ctiv e at full l oad or at s ome av erage l oad

-
, .
1 3 6 E x amp l e
.
— A 1 00 l amp arc circui t of 75 amp i s to b e
-
. .
operated from a 6600 vol t con stant potential supply 60 -

6600 -
vol ts and z amp

’
, .
A ss um i ng 7 5 vo l t s per l amp inc l uding l in e r es i s tanc e g iv es a , ,
max imum secondary vo l tage for 1 00 l amps of e 7500 volts , ,

’
.
A ssumi ng th e power factor of t h e arc circ uit as 93 per c ent

- .
l aggi ng giv es ,
cos 0 or tan 0
and Z r (1 0 4j ),
.
at r f ul l - l oad ,
7500 v o l t s ,
I
a
. 1000 ohm s ,
t
h ence
or $ 0 880 ohm s .
CON S T A N T -
C U B REN T
'
T RA N SF OR M A T I ON
T omake the primary current i n non i nductive at full l oad or for - -

,
37 2 ohms thi s requires

'
z ,
an, 5 08 ohms .
T hi s g iv es the equation s
15 amp .
,
e 2 r vo l t s .
372 r
tan 00
hence leading current bel ow full l oad non i nductive at full l oad
,
-
,
- -
and lagging current at overload .
1 37 A pparatus E conomy
.
— D enoting by z r x t h e res pective .
’
,
’
,
’
full l oad values the volt ampere o utp ut at full l oad is

-
,
- -
2 ,
80 2 16 2
Q ,
x0
2
x0
2
volt ampere input

-
,
hat i s
T volt ampere input i s
, th e -
l es s than the vol t ampere -
output s ince the input i s non inductive

,
-
, w h i l e th e output i s not .
T h e power output i s
P i z ’
r
which is equal to th e
volt ampere input s ince t h e l osses of po w er
-
,
in the reactances were n egl ected i n the preced i ng equati on s .
T h e volt amperes at the cond en ser are

-
henc e sub s tituting (1 3 )

,
” ’
)
’ ’2 ’
Q r (a: an ) r (kr n
a
z
mo 3
x0
3 ( )
20
vol t ampere con sumption of th e first or primary inductive

T he -
,
reactanc e m o is , ,
266 ELE CTRIC CI R C U ITS
hen ce , su s b tituting
’
(t o
’z ' :
r z r
Q ( )
21
the vol t ampere co ns umption of

- th e second , or secondary i nduct
i v e reactan ce is ,
( )
22
T hetotal vol t ampere rating of the reactances requi red for the
-
transf ormation from cons tant potenti al to const ant c urrent thenia
“
e =
c + c +0
2
’ 2
(1 7
6 )
2
2 kf
'
( 231
2 0
7 23 2
)8
3
r “ x!
“
1
0
2
(23)
and the apparatus economy or the ratio of volt amperes output ,

-
to the vol t ampere rating of the appar atus i s

-
2 3
’
r x o\ /1 k ’
’z '
Q 2T (1 k )
2
2 ICT (2 231 $0 ) (2270 2
$ 0 1 31 2 $ 1) 2
(24)
this appar atus economy depends upon the load r the pow er ,
’
,
factor or phase angl e of the l oad 19 and the secondary additional , ,
inductive reactance x , 1 .
T o d etermin e t he eff ect of th e secondary i nductive rea ctan ce ,
T he apparatus economy is a max imum for that v al ue of

di
se condary inductive reactance z] for which 0
, ,
E
.
of directly diff erentiating f it is preferabl e to s impl ify

I nst ead ,
th e function f fir s t by dropping all those factors ter ms et c

, , , .
,
which ins pection sho w s do not change th e position of th e m ax i

mum or the minimum value of the function T hus the nume ra .
tor can b e dropped the denominator made numerator an d i ts , ,
first term dropped l ea ving ,
7 ’
1 2 kr (2 x1 so) (
an,
z
x 03 , 2 3 1
3
)
as imples t function which has an ex treme val ue for th e sa me
the s ,
value of as I T h en .
'
df
dx l
(Co 4
4
268 ELECTR IC CI R C U I T S
by s ubs tituting these val ues in the apparatus economy is
xo
’
)
wh i ch is a maximum for
which i s rath er l ow
T hat i s non inductive load and s upply ci rcui t do not g ive very
,
-
high apparatus economy b ut inductive reactance of th e l oad and, ,
phas e dis pl acem ent in the s uppl y c i rcuit g ives far higher appa ,
ratus economy that is more output with the sam e vol t amperes
, ,
-
in reactance .
By in serting in with the quantities Q Q an d Q '

, ,
coefficients m 11 2 which are proportional res pe ctively to the

, ,
cost of the reactances per kil ovol t ampere the ex press ion -
,
'
ni Q a
‘
na Q
P
then represents the comm ercial economy that i s the max imum , ,
of th is ex press ion deriv ed by anal ogous consid erations as b efore

, ,
g iv es t h e arrang em ent for m i n i mum co s t at g iv en output .
1 38 P ower L
. osses in R eactances .
I n th epreceding equations th e l o sses of power in the rea ctances ,
have been n eglected However s mal l th ese may b e in accurate

.
,
inves ti gati o ns th ey require cons ideration as to th eir eff ect on th e

,
regul ation of th e tran sforming d evice and on the efficiency ,

.
L et
a power factor of inductive reactance that is loss of power
-
, , ,
as fraction of total volt amperes -

.
b power factor of condensiv e reactance that is l os s of power

-
, , ,
as fract i on of total volt amperes -

.
Here a and b are very s mall q uan ti ti es in gen eral b th e l oss in , ,
th e conden si v e reactanc e being far s maller than th e l o ss i n t h e

,
inductive reactance .
A pprox imatel y th e induct i ve reactanc es are (a

, fi n a n d
( j ) r p ctiv ly and h d i r actanc i (b — )
a + x 1 es e e t e con en s ,
v e e e s j ox .
A ss uming th e sam e d enot at i on s as i n the preceding par a gra ph s ,
rec eiver circuit

E =
Z I
T RA N SF OR M A T I ON 269
at conden ser terminals

E1 =
E + (a )
j 11
x
{ Z ( a j) }1
x1
and al s o
E1 (b 171 330 1
henc e
Z “
"
l (0 + j )$ 1
1
(b 13230
Io I 11
Z — )
(b j o
x (
0 + j) 1
x
b
1
( j) xo
Z J( xo $ 1) b
( xo 0 331 )
I
(b “
175
5 0
and th e impressed e . mf . .
E 1 ( a 13 330 10 ;
henc e s ubs tituting (3 5 ) and (3 7)
,
—
j xo a (
b j
( )
3 8
S inc e a and b are very s mall q uanti ti es their products , and
s q u ares can b e negl ected then ,
80
930 { Z ( a b) j ( xo a b) j (
x1 a b )}
b —
j
1 + j b
( + b
a ) —
i ( a a + b)
}
hen ce
I { H m ig —
j s “ ) (4 1 )
that is due to the l oss of po w er in the reactances th e s econdary

, ,
current is l ess th an i t w o ul d b e oth erwi se and decreases with ,
increasing l oad s till further .

270 EL E CTR IC CI R C U I T S
E quation (4 1 ) can als o b e written

—
j [ <
a + b >
h ere the imaginary component is very s mal l in the parenthesis ,
that is the secondary c urrent remains practicall y in quadrature

,
with the primary vol tage .
T h e abs o l ute val ue is n egl e ct i n g t erm s of secondary orde r

, ,
primary current is , by equation (3 7) and

Z 331) (b it e l"0
“
131)
£0 Z ( a b) j (
x o a b) j x1 a ( b)
1 39 E x ample
—
. .
C on sid ering the ame ex ample as before : a cons s enti al tant pot
ci rcuit of co 6600 vol ts s upplyi ng a 1 00 l amp series arc cir cu it -
,
with i 75 amp and e

'
. 75 00 vol ts at full load of 9 3 per cen t
.
,
’
- .
po w er factor that is k
-
,and Z (1 j )r , A ss umi n g .
now ho w ever th e loss in the inductive reactance as 3 per cent

, , .
,
and in the capacity as 1 per c ent that i s a b th e .

, ,
full l oad val ue of the secondary l oad impedance is : z

-
1 000
’
ohms r 9 30 ohm s and x 3 72 ohms

,
’
=
'
=
.
T o g ive non ind u ctive primary suppl y at full load th e f oll ow

- -
,
ing equation mus t b e ful fill ed :

xc
F rom e quation th e se condary current at ful l load ,

-
,
is
9 30 X
7
330
hence
840 ohms and ,
468 ohm s .
su ch cases it i s therefore necess ary to inves tigate the effect of a

change of freq uency on the res ult : for ins tance in a resonating ,
circ uit of very s mall power loss a s mal l change of frequency at ,
cons tant impressed e m f may change the current over an enor

. . .
mous range .
Sinc e in the prec eding con s tant current reg ulation i s produced ,
-
by ind u ctive and condensi v e reactances in series with each other ,
the eff ect of a variati on of freq uency req uires inves tigation .
L et th en th e freq u ency b e increas ed by a s mall fraction 8

, , ,
.
T h e ind u cti ve reactanc e th ereby changes to zro(1 s ) and
x (l s ) and Z,
r j( 1 s )x r es pe ctiv ely and t h e co ud en ,
xc
si ve reactanc e to 1 s
'
L ea v ing other denotati ons the same and neglecting

al l th e ,
the
l oss of power in the reactanc es ,
E Z I
E 1 { +
Z i(1 S k i ll
3
3 01
5
’
1 s
( ) { Z + J(1 kul l
'
1 8 s
330
I
—j
i
z:
E 1 + j (1
[Z + j (1 s x1 ) s
2
Z
) + j (1 3 {
) 0x
( 9 0”
2
1 33
hence , ex pandi ng and droppi ng term s of hi gher order ,
co =
+j I { 230 s m
( o 2 x1 —
4 Z j ) s (3
’
at;
I ( )
45
Hence, c u rrent i s not gr

th e e atl y aff ected by a c ang
h e of
freq uency T hat i s the cons tant c urrent
.
,
-
regul ation of the
above dis c ussed d evi c e does not depend or req uire a constancy
-
, ,
of freq u ency b eyond that availabl e in ordinary alternating
current ci rc uit s .
CON S T A N T -C U R R E N T T R A N S F OR MA T I ON 273
B . M onocyc S quare
A combination of four equal reactan ces tw o condensiv e and ,
t w o in ductive ar ran ged in a s quare as s hown diag rammatically

,
in F ig 1 1 9 pag e 26 1 transforms a con s tant volt age impressed

.
, , ,
upon one diagonal into a cons tant current acro ss th e other

,
diag onal an d i nversely

,
.
L et th en
, ,
E 0 cons tant p rimary impressed or s upply
voltage ,
s econdary te rminal vo l tage ,
voltage across the condensi v e

reactan c e ,
voltage across the inductive

reactan ce ,
and
Io primary s upply c urrent ,
I se condary current ,
11 c urrent in condens i v e reactance ,
I3 current in inductive reactanc e ,
these c urrents and e m fs being ass umed . . . di rection as
indicate d by the arrows in F i g 1 1 9 . .
L et
condensi v e and inductive reactances ;
j Z 1 r eactanc e xo condens i v e
Z j x o in d u3ctiv e r e actanc e
T hen at the dividing points

, ,
10 11 I:
I =
Is — I1
I n t he e . m f triangl es
. .
,
80 = Z 1 11 Z12 2
27
4 ELECTR IC CIR C U ITS
E 2 1 1 1 2 21 2
E Z 1
su bs ti tuti ng (l ) and (2) i n (7) and (8) gives
j xo (I x 1 2)
— j $ 0 (1 1 + 1 2)
and , su b stituti ng herei n the cu rrent
i Io
henc e , th e se condary c u rrent is
th e pri mary c urrent ,
th e cond en s er c urrent ,
I1
and the current i n th e i nd u cti v e reactance ,
Z j xo
2 330
2
T he se co ndary ter mi n al vol tage i s

E
the cond en ser vol tage ,
E1 — j x0
11
and th e i nd u cti ve reactance v ol tage ,
j (Z j x o)
E 2 + j x 01 2
2 230
T he tangent of th e pri mary phas e angl e i s

a:
_
t a n 00 ta n 0
7 '
henc e , th e absol ute val ue of the second ary current is

276 ELEC TR IC CI R C U IT S
hence
and ,
apparatus economy ,
Q 22 0
I ( )
34
Q 2
,
£0
,
henc e a maxi mum for z (35)

and this ma ximum i s equal to fo } 6 or 5 0 per c ent ( )
36 ,
.
T hat is th e ma xi mum apparatu s economy of the monocyclic

,
s q u are as di s c uss ed h ere i s 5 0 per c ent

, or in oth er word s for
, .
,
every kilo v olt ampere o u tput 2 kv amp in reactanc es have to

-
,
.
-
.
b e provid ed .
T his apparatus economy is high er than that of th e T connec -
tion in which under th e same conditi on s that is for x 1

,
23 the , 0,
apparatus economy w as only 25 per cent .
T h e comm ercial or co st economy would b e given by

,
Q0 maximum
2 (M Q I
‘
a z )
where
nl pric e per kilo volt ampere of condensi v e reactanc e -
,
n,
pri c e per kilovol t ampere of i nd u cti ve reactanc e

-
.
1 43 . E xamp le .
C on s id ering th e
ame problem as under A F rom a constant
s .
impres sed e m f 6 6600 volt s a 1 00 lamp arc circuit of 93

. . .
0 ,
-
,
p er c e nt po w er factor
. i s t o b e op
-
erat ed r equiring , ,
i amp .
Z r jx
r (1 j )
k
w here
henc e
r (1 j) ,
and at full load -
75 00 vo l ts .
T hen from
,
880 ohms , 1 000 oh ms ;

CON S T A N T -
C UR R E N T T RA N SF OR M A T I ON 277
ohms 37 oh ms
’
r 93 0 ,
2 ,
and, therefore ,
amp .
,
2
amp
g
.
,
)
6 2,
and at full load or -

,
r 9 30 , when denoti ng ful l l oad val ues by -
prim e ,
amp .
,
amp .
,
amp .
amp .
7500 v ol ts ,
5 85 0 vol ts ,
3 9 80 vol t s ,
kv .
-
a mp .
amp kv .
-
.
kv amp .
-
.
kv amp .
-
.
’
f
or pe r c ent that i s practica
. l l y t h e ma ,
x i mum .
1 44 P ow er L oss i n R eactances
. .
I n t he prec ed i ng as firs t appro x imati on th e l o ss of pow er in

, ,
the r eactanc es has b een n egl ect ed and so th e con s tancy of ,
current i w as perfect and the output equ al to th e input C on

, , ,
.
s i de ri n g however the l o ss of power in th e reactanc es it is

, , ,
foun d that th e c u rrent i varies sl i ghtl y decreasing with i ncreas

, , ,
i n g lo ad and th e input ex c eed s th e o u tp ut

,
.
L et th en
, ,
Z ; (b j ) x co n d en s i v e r eactanc 0 e ,
Z (a j)
2 33 ind u ct i v e r eact a nc
0 e ,
o t h erwis e retai ning t h e s am e d enot at ion s as i n t h e pr ec ed i ng
p a ragraph s ,
T hen s ub s tit u ti ng i n (7
, ) a n d
6°
(b
27
0
(b ( + 6 1.
a
278 ELE CTR IC CI R C UI T S
A ss umi ng
}
a C1 62
b 61 62
a b
2
Su b s t i tu t i ng i n (3 8) and (39 )
— j (1 1 1 ) 2 61 0 1 1 2) 02 (I l 1 2)
il
J l + 1 2) C1 1
61 1 2) 02 (I l
su bsti tuti ng h erei n from equ ation s (3 ) and (4) gives
( 02 J)! 01 10
61 1 ( 02 + j )I o
an d from th ese tw o eq uati ons wi th th e tw o variables I and Io

,
it foll ows fro m (43 ) that -
Z 6 1 ; Co
IO
(j )
(32o
Su b s ti tu ti ng (44) i n tran s posi ng and dropping terms of ,
se condary ord er that ,

is , produ cts and s quares of c and 62 gives ; ,
J
60
2
Z 2
Z C1
z
a
th en ,
su bs ti t ut ing (45 ) an d (46) i n (5 ) and
Z 2 02
{
eo l
-
x
y o
z + xo + jZ
Z
{
60 1 1 0
x
2
27
0 JZ
2
and the abs o l ute v al ue i s

280 ELECTR IC CI R C UI T S
C . G eneral D is cu s s i on ofCons tant potential Cons tant

-
current T ransf ormati on
1 46 I n the
. preceding methods of tran sformation between
cons tant pot ent i al and con s tant current by reactanc es that is , ,
by combinations of inductive and condensiv e reactances the ,
constant alternating current is in q uadratu re with th e constant

e mf
. . E ven in con s tant current control by seri es ind u ctive
.
-
reactances the con stancy of current is most pe rfect for l ight

,
load s wh ere the reactance vol tage i s l arge an d thus th e con stant
,
current vo l tage almos t in quadrat ure and the con stant c urrent ,
-
control is impaired in direct proport ion to th e shift of phase

of th e con s tant current from q u adrature relat i on .
FI G . 1 21 .
T he cause h ereof is the storage of en erg y required to change

t h e ch aract er of t h e fl ow of en ergy T hat i s th e en ergy s u pplied
.
,
at con st ant potential i n th e pri mary circ u it i s s tored in th e react ,
ances and ret u rn ed at con s tant c u rrent i n t h e secondary circuit

, , .
T he s torage of t h e tot al tran sform ed en ergy in th e reacta n ces

al lows a determinat ion of the theoretical minimum of react ive
power that is of ind u cti ve and condens iv e reactanc es required
, ,
for con stant pot ent ial to con stant c u rrent tran sformation s ince
- -
,
t he en ergy s u pp l i ed in th e con s tant c u rrent circ u i t mus t b e s tored

-
for a q u arter period after being rec eived from the cons tant po -
tential circuit .
CON S T A N T C U R R E N T - T R A N S F OR MA T I ON 28 1
P (I cos 2
Power upplied to the constant current c ircuit ;
s -
thus n eglecti ng losses

, ,
P (I cos 2 0)
Power consumed from t he constan potential t- cir
cuit and ,
po
— p
=
2 P cos 2 0
Pow er
in th e reactances .
T hat i s to produc e t h e con stant current power P from a

,
-
, ,
s ing l e pha s e con stant pot ential c i rc u it the apparent pow er 2 P

- -
, , ,
m u s t b e u sed in reactanc es ; or in other word s per kil owatt con , ,
stant current pow er produc ed from a singl e pha s e con s tant po

- - -
ten t i al circ uit reactanc es rat ed at 2 kv amp as a minimum are

, .
-
.
requ ired arranged so as to b e shifted 45 again st the constant

,
°
potential and the cons tan t cu rrent circuit -

.
T e reactanc es u sed for the con stant pot entia con stant cur
h l — -
rent tran sformation may b e divi ded b etween inductive and con
densi v e reactanc es in any d es i red proportion .
T h e additional wattl ess compon ent of con s tant pot ential -
power i s obviously the differenc e between the wattless volt am -
peres of the inductive and that of the condensi v e reactanc es .
T hat is if th e wattl ess vol t am peres of reactanc e i s one half of

,
- -
indu ctive and one half of con den si v e the res ultant wattl ess volt
-
,
amperes of th e main circ uit i s zero and the cons tant potential ,
-
circuit is non inductive at non i ndu ctive load or con s umes cur
-
,
-
,
rent proporti o nal to th e l oad .
I f A is th e condensi v e a n d B th e inductive volt amp eres th e -

,
—
res ultant wattless volt amperes is B A ; that is a l aggi ng watt
-
,
— —
’
l ess v ol t amperes of B A (or a l eading volt ampere of A B )

w -
ex is t in th e main circuit in add i t i on to the wattl es s volt amperes

'
-
,
of th e secondary circuit which reapp ear in th e primary c i rc u i t

,
.
1 47 T h es e th eoretical con si d eration s p ermit th e critic is m of

.
th e d iff erent m ethod s of con stant pot ent i al to con s tant c u rrent- -
tran sformation in regard to what may b e call ed their apparatus

economy that i s th e kilovolt amp ere rating of th e reactanc e u s ed
, ,
-
,
compared wi th the th eoretic al m inimu m rating requ ired .
1 S eri es i nducti ve reactance th at i s a reactive coil of con s tant

.
, ,
i nductive reactanc e in series with the circuit T hi s arrangem en t .
obv iously g ives only imperfect con s tant current control Per - .
28 2 ELECTR IC CI R C U I T S
mitting a variation of 5 per c ent in the val ue of th e current (that .
i s full load current in 5 per c ent l ess than no load c urrent)and

,
-
.
-
ass uming 4 per c ent loss in the reactive coil a reactanc e rated at .
,
kv amp is req u ired per kil owatt con s tan t cur rent l oad
.
-
.
-
.
T hi s apparatus operat es at p er c e nt e co nomy an d 3 0 per .
c ent power factor

.
-
.
A s suming 1 0 per c ent variation in the valu e of th e current .

,
reactanc e rat ed at kv amp i s required per kil owatt con stant .

-
.
current load T h is arrangement Operates at an economy of

.
p er c ent and a pow e

.r factor
, of pe r c ent -
.
I n th e firs t cas e th e apparatu s economy that is the ratio of, , ,
th e th eoretical m i n i m u m k il ovolt amp ere rating of th e rea ctance -
to th e actu al rating of th e reactanc e i s 88 per c ent and in th e last .

,
case 9 2 per cent thus th e obj ection to this method i s n ot th e high

.
,
rati ng of th e reactance and the economy but the poor cons tant ,
current control and esp ecially the very l ow po wer factor

,
-
.
2 . I nducti ve and condens i ve r eactances in r es ona nce condi ti on,
th e reactanc e b eing sh u nt ed by the con stant current

conden s iv e -
circuit I n this case condensiv e reactanc e rat ed at 1 kv amp

.
, .
- .
and ind u ctive reactanc e rat ed at 2 kv — amp are required per kilo . .
watt constant current l oad and the main circuit gives a con stant
-
,
wattless lagging apparent power of 1 kv amp A ss umin g again .

-
.
4 per c ent lo ss i n th e ind u cti v e and 2 per c ent lo ss in th e cond ens

. .
i v e reactanc es gives a ful l load effi ciency of 9 1 per c en t and a

,
-
.
power factor (lagging) of 74 per cent T he apparatus economy

-
.
by this method i s p er c ent .
3 . I nducti ve an d condens i ve r eactances in res ona nce condi ti on,
th e i nducti ve by the con stant current circuit

reactance s hun ted -
.
I n thi s cas e as a minim u m per kil owatt con s tant curre nt load
, ,
-
,
condens i v e reactanc e rat ed at 2 kv amp and ind u ctiv e reactance .

-
.
rated at 1 kv amp i s required and the mai n circuit gives a con

.
-
.
,
s tant watt l ess leading apparent po w er of 1 kv amp T h e effi .

-
.
ciency of tran s format i on i s at fu ll l oad p er c ent t h e pow er -

.
,
factor (l eadi ng) 73 per c ent the apparatu s economy p e r c ent .

, .
4 T connecti on that i s t w o eq ual ind u ct i ve reactanc es in se

.
-
, ,
ries to th e cons tant current c ircuit and sh unted midway by an -
eq u al con den si v e reactanc e I n th i s ca s e per ki lowatt con s tant .
c ur rent oad co de s v e reactance rat d at 2 kv amp and in

l n n i ,
e — . .
du cti v e reactanc e rat ed at 2 kv amp ar e requ i red .

-
. .
T h e mai n circuit i s non ind u ctive at all non inductive loads - -

,
that i s the power factor i s 100 per c ent

,
-
.
no-
load the transformati on is from con stant current to constant
potential .
Obviously with thi s arrangement th e effi ciency i s greatly

increas ed by the red u ction of the l o sses to one hal f and th e con -
,
s tant cu rrent contro l improv ed

-
.
CO NST A NT CU R R ENT
S INGL E -PHA S E
F m 1 22 .
A t the ame tim e th e sen siti ven ess of the arrangement for dis
s ,
tort i on of th e wa ve sh ap e as wil l b e d i s cu ssed l ate r i s gre atl y

, ,
redu c ed due to the in sertion of a con stant potential e m f into

,
-
. . .
th e con s tant current circ ui t -

.
Obvi o u sl y th e arrang ments in F igs 1 22 and 1 23 are not th e .
onl y on es b ut many arrangement s of in serting a con stant q u ad

,
-
rature e m f into the monocycl i c squ are or triang le are s ui tabl e

. . . .
OOND .
CON ST A NT OU R R ENT
S ING L E -
PHA S E
F ro . 1 23 .
D iff erent arrangements can al so b e u sed of the con s tant cu rrent -
contro l for in stance th e i nd u cti ve and con den si v e reactan c es in

, ,
res onanc e condi ti on wi th their co mmon conn ection con n e cted

to t h e c ent er of an a u totran sform er or tran s form er with t h e ,
insertion of the con stant potenti al qu adrature e m f in the latte r

- . . .
circ u i t as s hown i n F i g 1 24 or the T conn ect i on s hown a pplied

.
,
-
,
to a q uart er pha se s ys t em i n F i g 1 25
- . .
CON S T A N T -
C UR R E N T T RA N SF OR M A T I ON 285
C on s tant potential apparatus and con stant current single

- -
phas e c irc u it s can al so b e operated from the s ame transformer

s e co ndari es i n a s i m i l ar mann er as ind i cat ed in F i g
, 1 24 for a .
three phase secondary system

-
.
I n F i gs 1 22 to 1 25 th e arrangement h as b een s hown as applied

.
t o s t ep down tran sform ers b u t i n th e es ti mate of th e effici ency

-
,
FI G . 1 24 .
the l o ss es in th ese transformers ha ve not been inclu ded smce ,
t h es e tran s form ers are ob v io usl y not ess ential b u t m erely for th e
co nvenienc e of s eparating el ectri cal ly th e co n s tant c u rrent cir -
c u it from t h e h i gh pot enti al l in e

-
I t i s evi d ent for i n s tanc e in
.
, ,
F ig 1 24 that th e con stant c u rrent and con s tant potential cir

.
,
- -
CONST A NT CU R R ENT
S INGL E -PHA SE
FI G . 1 25 .
c u its in stead of being operated from the three phase secondaries -
of t h —
e s tep do w n tran s form ers can b e operat ed d i rectly from t he
t hree ph as e pri mari es by replac i ng th e c entral conn ect i on of

-
t h e on e tran sform er by th e c entral conn ection of th e a uto

t ransf ormer .
286 ELE CTR IC CI R C U I T S
D . Prob l ems
1 49 . following problems referring to cons tant potential

I n th e -
to con s tant current tran sformation by reactanc es it i s recom

-
,
mend ed :
( ) T o d erive the equation of all the currents and
a in
complex quantities as well as in absolute t erms whil e negl ecting ,
the lo ss of pow er in th e reactanc es .
( ) T o d etermin e the volt amperes in the d iff ere nt parts of

b -
the circuit as load reactanc es et c and th erefrom d e riv e the

, , ,
.
,
apparatus economy to find its maximum value and on which

, ,
condition it d epend s .
( ) T o d et ermin e the eff ect of inductive load on th e power

c
of th e primary supply circuit to inv es tigat e th e ph as e angle ,
of th e primary supply circuit and t h e condition s und e r which ,
it becomes a minimum or th e primary supply becomes non ,
inductive .
( )
d T o r e d et ermin e t h e eq uation s o f th e probl em wh il e con ,
si deri ng th e pow er lo st in th e reactanc es and apply th es e e q ua ,
tion s to a numerical ex ample plotting all the interes tin g val ues , .
(e) T o inves tigate th e eff ect of a change of frequency on the

equation s more particularly on t h e con s tant current reg ulation
,
-
.
(f) T o inves tigat e the eff ect of dis tortion of wav e s hape ,
that is the ex istence of high er harmonics in th e impressed

,
and th eir suppression or reappearance in th e s econdary

circuit .
(9) T o s tudy t h e rev e rs ibility of t h e probl em that i s a pp l y , ,
( ) (f)
a t o to t h e revers ed problem of tran sformation from con s ta nt
current to con stant potential .
Some of th e tran s forming d evic es betw een con s tant po te n tial

and con stant current are :
A .S i n g le p hase -
.
(a) T h e r es onating circuit or condensi v e and in d u c tive ,
reactances of equal values in series with each other i n th e con

, ,
s tant pot ential circuit

-
and th e one reactance shunte d b y the
,
con stant c u rrent circui t

-
.
()
b T conn e ction as-
part ia lly di s
, cu ss ed i n ( )
A .
()
c T h e monocyclic s q uar e as part i ally dis cu ssed in (B ), .
( )
d T h e monocyclic triangl e : a c on d e ns i v e reactanc e an d an
inductiv e reactance of equal values in series with each other ,
across the con stan t potential circuit the cons tant cu rrent
-
,
-
288 ELE CTR IC CI R C UI T S
ratus economy can b e greatly increas ed in the max imum can ,
b e doubl ed ; that i s th e E gives constant power output

, 3
-
,
and from no load to half load th e tran sformation is from con

- -
,
stant current to con s tant pot ential that i s a part of th e power , ,
s upply E i s tran sformed into the circuit of

, 3, co that , ,
i s the c i rcuit eo rec eives power

, , A bove hal f load th e circuit
, .
-
of co tran sform s power from con s tan t pot ential to cons tant
current into the circuit of e m f E 3

,
. . . .
Sinc e i is in time q uadrature with co with non i n ductive ,

-
secondary load that i s the secondary terminal voltag e E in

, , , ,
phase with th e secondary current i E 3 should also b e i n phase , ,
with i that i s E
, j ea W ith in ductiv
, e3 s econdary load o f .
,
phase angle 0 E should b e in phase with E that is l eading i

, , 3 , ,
by angle 0 or should b e : E
, j (
ea 1 kj) 3 .
I t i s int eres ting th erefore t o inves tigate how th e eq uation of

, ,
th e con s tant pot ential con s tant current d evices are chan g ed
- -
by th e introduction of such an e m i E 3 at non inductive as . .

, ,
-
w ell as at inductive load if E j eg o r E 3 j(e3 j )

e i,n 3 ,
’
s ,
eith er ca se and al so to determin e how such an

, E of 3,
th e p rop er pha se relation can b e d eriv ed directly or by trans ,
formation from a two phase or three phase system - -

.
2 I f in th e con stant pot ential con s tant current t r an sform

.
- -
ing devic e one of th e reactances is gradual ly changed in creased ,
or d ecreased from its proper v alue th en in eith er case th e regula ,
tion of th e system is impaired T hat i s the ratio of full load .

,
-
current to no l oad current fall s 0 6 but at the same time the

-
, ,
no load current al s o changes

-
.
W ith increas e of l oad th e frequ ency of the sys tem d ecreases

, ,
due to th e d ecreas ing s p eed of th e prim e mover if th e output ,
of th e syst em i s an appreciable part of the rated outpu t If .

,
th erefore the reactanc es are adj u s ted for equality of th e frequency

,
of full load at th e h i gh er frequ ency of no load th e inductive

-
,
-
,
reactanc e is increased and th ereby th e no load current d ecreased

,
-
b elow the value wh i ch it would have at con stant reactance and ,
in this mann er th e increase of current from full load to no l oad - -
i s reduc ed .
Such a drop of s peed and th erefore of frequency 8 can there , ,
fore b e fou nd that the cu rrent at full l oad with perfect equality
,
-
,
between th e reactanc es equ al s th e current at no load where ,

-
,
the reactanc es are not qu i te eq u al T hat i s the variation of .

,
frequency compen sat es for the incomplete regulation of the

T RA N SF OR M A T I ON 289
current caused by the energ y lo ss in the reactanc es F urth er

, .
more with a given variation of frequency 8 from no load to full

, , ,
-
load th e reactances can b e cho sen so as to b e slightl y u n equal

,
at full load and more un equal at no load the change of current

-
,
-
caus ed h ereby compens ates for the incomplete current reg u

lation that is with a given frequency variation 3 (within
, , ,
c ertain limits) th e current reg ulation can b e mad e perfect from

,
no load to full load by th e proper d egree of in equality of t h e

- -
,
reactances .
I t i s interes ting to inves tigate thi s and ap ply to an ex ample , ,
a to d etermin e th e prop er s for p erf ect equal i ty of reacta n c e at

, ,
ful l load ; b with a given val u e of s

-
, to d et ermin e th e i n
e q uality oi reactanc e required A ss uming a b .
3 I f one point of th e con s tant c u rrent circuit eith er a

.
-
,
terminal or an interm ediate point conn ect s to a point of the ,
con s tant potential circuit eith er a terminal or som e int ermediat e

-
,
poin t (as in sid e of a tran sform er w inding) th e con stant current ,
is not changed h ereby that i s th e regul ation of th e sy s t em i s , ,
not impaired and no current ex is t s in th e cro ss b etw een t h e two

,
c i rcuits T h e distribution of pot ential between th e reactanc es

.
,
how ever may b e cons id erably changed some reactanc es re

, ,
cei v in g a high er oth ers a l ow er vo l tage ,

.
I t follows h erefrom that a grou nd on a con s tant current ,

-
sys t e m do es not act as a grou n d on th e con s ta n t pot ential s y s t em -

,
but el ectric al l y the t w o syst ems although connected with each ,
oth er are es sential l y ind ep end ent j u s t as if s eparat ed from each

, ,
oth er by a tran sform er So for instanc e in the monocyclic .

, ,
sq uare one s id e may b e s hort circuit ed witho u t chang e of

,
-
current in the secondary but with an increase of cu rrent in th e ,
oth er three sides I t is interesti ng to investigate how far th i s

.
i nd e pend enc e of th e circuit s ex t en d s .
I n g en eral as an ex ample th e fo l l owi ng con s ta nt s may b e

, ,
cho sen : I n th e c on s tant pot en tial c i rc u i t : c 6600 vo l t s and -

c
1 0 amp at ful l l oad

’
i o .
-
.
I n th e con stant current circ u i t : i am p 6

- 75 00 vo l ts .
,
’
at full load -
.
Or es pe cial ly in po l ypha s e s y s t em s e res pectivel y i 0 ’ ’

, , , ,
corres ponding to th e max i mu m eco nomy po i nt ,
and a b
E . D i storti on of Vol tag e W ave

1 61 . interest to investigate what eff ect th e dis tortion
I t is of
of th e voltage wav e that i s th e exi s t enc e of high er harmonics

, ,
in th e wave of supply vol tage h as on th e regul ation of the con ,
s tant pot ential

-
constant current tran sformation s ystems dis -
cussed in the prec eding .
Wh ere con s tant current i s produc ed by inducti ve reactance

only high er harmonic s in the voltage wave naturally are sup
,
pressed th e more th e larger th e inductive reactanc e and t h e hig her

,
th e ord er of th e harmonic .
A n increas e of th e int en sity of th e harmonic s in th e current

wave over that in th e voltage wave and with it an i mpairment
, ,
of th e con stant cu rrent reg ulation co uld thus b e ex pected only

- .
,
with d evic es u sing capacity reactance .
A s ex ample may b e inves tigat ed th e effect of th e dis tortion

of th e impres sed voltage wave on the T connection and on the ,
monocyclic s qu are .
T h e symbolic m ethod of treating gen eral alt ernating waves

may b e u s ed as di s cu ssed in C hapter XXV I I of T h eory and
, ,
“
C alculation of A ltern at i ng current Ph enom ena fifth edition

” -
, ,
page 3 79 T hat i s th e voltage wave i s represented by

.
,
00
E 2 )
’
2a 1
j ne n
and th e i mp edanc e by
r (
c wm + xc +
wh e re
n ord er of h armonic .
A . T Conn ecti on or R e s onatin g Circui t
1 52 uming th e s am e d enotation
. A ss as before , we ha ve
,
for
th e n th harmonic
primary indu ctive reactance ,
Z o
se condary i nductive reactance ,
j nx l ;
conden si v e reactance ,
j ( n e.. j n eu
‘
)
n
2
1 ) [ n (:r l kr ) j ] r
t he quation of th e secondary current

e .
F or in s tanc e l et ,
E 0 6600 { 11 j al
con stant impressed - e . mf . .
or , abs olute ,
X 6600
70 1 0 vol ts ,
choo sing the s ame val ues paragraph
it is , s ubstituti ng ,
— 48 8 j 3
I 75 j.
5 08 + 0 4 . r
or absolute
, ,
”
(5 0 8 )
r
0 4 r) ”
(5 08 .
h nc
e e, at no lo ad -
,
X
a n d , at full l oad -
,
r 93 0,
i X
That is th e cu rrent wave is as perfect a sine wave as pos s ibl e
, ,
regardl ess of th e distortion of th e impress ed which for ,
instanc e in the above exampl e contains a third harmonic of 3 2

, ,
p er c e nt O r in.oth er word s i n t h e T conn ection or th e res o n at ,
ing circuit all harmonic s of e m f are wipe d out in th e current

,
. . .
wave and this method indeed ofi ers the best and mos t co n v en
,
i ent m ean s of producin g perfect sin e waves of current fro m any

s hap e of e m f wav es . . . .
C ON S T A N T C U R R E N T -
T RA N SF OR M A T I ON 29 3
B . M onocycli c S quar e
A ss uming the s ame denotation as before , we have for th e nth

harmon i c
inducti ve reactance ,
“
i j nx o;
“
con de ns i v e reactanc e ,
Z r (1 i nk );
cu rrents ,
Io I ,
2
E 0 Z I l l Z 1 2:
2
Z I Z 11 1 Z 2I 2 ;
h ence s ubsti tuti ng
, ,
we have
E 0 33 21) 1
r (1 M )!
k 7
1 1) 2
{ t I
r < +
1 j nk )1 n
)
th e n combin ing , we obtain
se we t e) e nt er ( —
-
rM u n
m t s) .
o (n ?
1)
2 mm, j (
r n
2
+ j n k)
and h e refrom I 1 1 ] , 1, 2 , et c .
A pprox imately , for higher values of n and for high loads , ,

r,
hat is the higher harmonic s of current decrease proportion

T ,
—
all y to th eir order at h eavy load s that is large valu es of r For .
, ,
l ight load s however or s mall values of r and in th e ext reme case

, , , ,
at no load or r 0 it is
-
m
, ,
I 27
1 330
and ,
a ppro x imat ely ,
hat is th e current i s increased proportional to th e order of the

T ,
harmonic s or in oth er words at no l oad in th e monocyclic square

, ,
-
, ,
t he high er harmonic s of impressed e m fs produc e increased . . .
val ues of th e high er harmonic s of current that i s th e wave shape , ,

-
distortion is increased th e more th e high er th e harmonic s , .
I n gen eral ex press ion

If
on
2 impressed
'
E0 ( j ne a )
1
w
”(e
o
01
’
)
2
3 j e
2l 2 nzc
7
1 n n u
I I
and herefrom I o I 1 , 1, 2 , e c.t

F or in s tanc e l et ,
Eu 6600 { 11 ja
con stant impressed -
or abs o l ut e
, ,
70 1 0 vol ts ,
and choos i ng
, the s ame values asb efore ,
880 ohms ,
9 3 0 ohms ,
it is , s ub s tituted ,
2 j 3 ) 6600
I 75
5 280 8 j )r 8800 (48 24 j 5)r
tort ion i sless and very high harmonics are fairly well sup
,
pressed and the operation of an arc circuit so feas ible

, .
A ss uming th en that in th e monocyclic s q uare of con sta nt

, ,
potential con stant current tran sformation with a dis torted wave
-
,
of impres sed w e in sert in seri es to th e monocycl i c s quare

into the main circuit I two reactances of oppos ite s ign which , 6, ,
are equal to each oth er for th e fundam ental frequ ency

’
£27
3
that 18 , a con dens w e reactanc e , Z 3 Jfi, and an md uctrve
- '
reactance Z j n,
x a T h e n4for t h e f u ndam enta l th ese.two ,
reactanc es togeth er off er no res ul tant impedanc e but n eutralize ,
each oth er and th e on l y drop of vo l tage produc ed by th e m is that

,
du e to th e s mall l o s s of power in th em A t t he nt h harmonic .

,
however the resul tant reactanc e i s

,
Z 3 Z 4 + j xa
( 9
n + ,
or , approx imately ,
j x 3 n1
and tw o such impedanc es so obstruct the h i gh er harmoni cs th e ,
more the high er th eir ord er whil e pass ing th e fu ndamental s in e

,
wave .
Such a pair of equal reactanc es of oppo s it e s i gn s o can b e c all ed

a w ave screen
“
.
'
F urther probl em s for inves tigation by th e s tudent then ar e

1 T he inves t i gation of th e eff ect of th e di s tortion of t he w ave
.
of impr es s e d e m f on th e con s tant c u rrent w ith oth er trans

. . .
,
forming d evic es and al s o the revers e probl em the inv es ti g a tion

, ,
of th e eff ect of th e di s tortion of th e con s tant c u rr ent wav e as -

,
cau sed by an are on the sys tem of tran sformation ,

.
2 W hat mu s t b e th e val u e 23 of th e reactanc e of a w av e

.
, 1,
s creen to reduc e th e wav e s hape di stortion of th e sec o n dary

,
-
current in the monocyc l ic s qu are to the sam e perc entage as th e

distorti on of the impressed e m f wave or to any desire d per . . .
,
c entage or to reduc e th e variatio n of th e co ns tant current with

,
t h e l oad as due to the wave s hap e d i s tortion b el ow a g ive n

,
-
,
perc entage ?
3 D eterminat io n of effici ency and regu l ation in t he mo n o
.
cyc l ic s quare with interpo sed wave s creen at ass umi ng again , ] ,
3 per c ent l o s s in th e i nd u ctanc es 1 per c ent l o s s in th e ca p aciti es

.
,
.
and choos ing 13 s o as to fill given condition s regarding w av e

4 ,
L
s hape di s tortion or regu l at i on or effic i en cy etc

, , ,
.
C HA PT E R XV
CO N S T A NT -
VO L T A G E S E R I E S O P E R A T I O N
1 55 .
°
W h ere a consid erable numb er devices dis tributed over of ,
a l arge area and each consuming a small amount of power are to

, ,
b e Op erat ed in th e s ame circuit l ow voltage s upply 1 1 0 or 220 ,

— -
—
vol ts usually i s not feas ible due to th e distances and hig h , ,
v ol tag e dis tribution — —

2300 volts w ith individual s tep down -
t ran s form ers at th e con s uming dev ic es u s ual ly i s uneconomical , ,
due to t h e small power con s umption of each d evic e .
I n s uch a c ase series connection of the d evic es i s the mo s t eco

,
n omi cal arrangement and th erefore commonly u s ed

,
.
S u ch f or in s tanc e is th e cas e in lighting th e s treet s of a city etc , .
M o s t of the street lighting h as b een done by are l amps operated

o n con s tant current circuit s and as th e un iver sal el ectric power
-
,
s uppl y today i s at con s tant voltage tran s formation from con s tant ,
v ol tag e to con s tant current thus is of importanc e and h as b een ,
dis cussed in C hapter X I V .
T h e co ns tan t current s ystem thus is used in this cas e

-
( )
a B e cau se by s eri es conn e ction of t h e con s uming d evic es as ,
t h e arc lamps in s tree t l i gh ting it permit s t he u se of a s u ffi ciently

,
h i g h voltage to make the dis tribution economical .
()
b T h e dropping vol t amp e r e charac
-
te r i s t i c o f t h e arc mak es it
uns tab le on con s tant vol tage as fu rth er di s cu ss e d in C hapters 11
,
an d X and a con s tan t current circuit thu s is us ed t o s e

,
-
cure sta
b il i ty of operation of series are c i rc ui t s .
T h e condi tion (b) th e use of con s tant current thus appl ies on l y
, ,
w h ere th e co ns umi ng d evic es are arc s and c eas es to b e p e rtin ent ,
w h en t he cons u ming devic es are i ncand es c ent l amp s or oth er con

s t a nt vo l tage d evic es
-
.
T h e modern incand es c ent l amp however i s primaril y a con , ,
s t a nt voltage d evic e that i s at con s ta n t vo l tage s upply t h e l ife

-
, ,
-
,
o f th e l amp i s great er than at co n s t a n t c u rrent s upp l y a s s umi ng -

,
t h e same perc entage fluctu at i o n from con s tancy T h e reaso n i s : .
a v ari a tion of voltage at th e lamp t ermin al s by p pe r c ent

. gives ,
.
,
a v ar ia t ion of current of about 0 6p per c ent an d thu s a vari ation

. .
,
2 97
of power of about 1 . 6 p pe r c ent whil e a variation of current i n the

.
,
l amp , by p c ent giv es a variation of vol tage of ab ou t 1 9

p er , per
06
.
—1
c ent and thus a v ariation of pow er of about (1 )p 2 67 p .
06
.
,
p e r c ent .
T hu s with th e increasing u se of incand es c ent lamp s for s treet

,
i l l umination series operation in a con s tant vo l tage circu it b e

,
-
comes of increas ing importanc e .
If e rated voltage i rated current of l amp o r oth er con ,
e9
su mrng dev 1ce, and co s uppl y voltage n l amps can be 0 p
,
2
c rated in series on the con stant vol tage supply eo I f n ow one - .
lamp go es out by th e fil am ent breaking al l the l amps of t h e series ,
c i rcu it woul d go out if 6 i s small ; if co i s l arge an arc will hold in

, 0 ,
t h e l amp or th e fi x ture and more or l ess d es troy th e c i rcuit

, .
T hu s i n series con nection es pe cially at high er s uppl y voltage , .

,
eo s om e s hunt prot ectiv e d evic e i s n ec es s ary to maintain circuit

,
i n case of one of th e cons u m i ng d evic es open circuiting -
O n co n s tant c u rrent s u pply a s hort circu i ting d evic e s uch as a

-
,
-
,
fil m c u tout takes care of this , W ith series conn ection on con .
s t ant vol tage su pp l y

-
it is not permiss ibl e how ever to s hort
, , ,
c i rcuit a d is abl ed con su ming d ev ic e as this would increas e the ,
voltage on the oth er d evices T hus the shunt protectiv e de vice .
in th e co nstant vol tage series system must b e s uch that in cas e of

-
,
one l amp burni n g out th e sh u n t co ns um es such a voltage as to

,
maintain the vol tage on the oth er devic es th e s ame as b efore A .
fil m cuto u t with a noth er l amp i n series would a ccompli s h t his :

, ,
if a l amp burns ou t i ts sh u nting fil m c u tout punctures and puts

,
t h e s eco n d l amp in circ u it However in gen eral s uch ar ra nge .

,
m ent is too compl icated for use .
A s pra ct i cal l y al l su ch c i rc u it s would b e alternating c u rrent -
c ircu its and thus al ternat i ng c u rrent s onl y need to b e cons id e red
, ,
t he ques tion arises wh eth er a reactanc e s hunting each l amp

,
would not give the d es ired eff ect Su ppo s e each lamp of r es is t .
,
anc e r is shunted by a reactanc e x which i s s ufficiently la rg e not

, , , ,
to withdraw too m u ch current from th e l amp : ass u ming t h e cur

rent shunted by a: is 20 per c ent of th e current in th e lam p or a: .
,
5r W ith
. amp in r 2: thu s woul d take . amp a nd th e, .
,
total or l i n e cu rrent woul d b e : i

, V amp .
,
thus onl y 2 per c ent more than the l amp current I f now a l am p
. .
vol tage consumed by Operative devic es
n u p m I f
vol tage con s umed by d evic es with burn ed o ut
-
lamps
thu s total c i rcuit voltage

,
P) E 1 7
7 1
4 2
9 3
f}
1 i
1
-
6
+
or absolute
, ,
60
wh ere
admi ttanc e of Operative devic e absol ute , , ( )
10
i s t he current in th e circuit and

, the current i n th e lamps thus is
f or
p 0, or all d vic es Operati ve ( ful l load
e
“
-
,
as we may say) it
,
1, or al l lamps out no- l oad i t is

C ON S T A N T VOL T A GE S E R I E S OP E RA T I ON 30 1
Cog b
" 4!
thus s maller than at ful l l oad -

.
A s seen from eq uation th e current s teadily d ecreases from ,
p 0 or fu ll load t o p 1 or no
-
load and
,
no valu e of s hunt ed -
,
reactanc e b ex is t s which maintain s con s tant current

, , , With de .
creas ing load the current i d ecreas es the slower the high er b i s
, , l , , ,
that is the more current is s hunted by the reactive susceptance b

, , ,
and th e poorer th erefore t h e pow er factor i s -

.
T hu s s hunted con s tant reactanc e can not g ive con stan t voltage -
g u l at i on .
H ow ev er , with b g at no load t h e s hunt ed r eactanc e ,

-
would g et fiv e times as much c urrent as at load and thus have fiv e ,
tim es as high a voltage at its t erminals .
T h e latt er how ev er is not feas ibl e ex c ept by making th e

, , ,
reactanc e abnormall y large and th erefore uneconomical .
I n gen eral long b efore fiv e tim es normal voltage i s reach ed

, ,
magn etic saturation will hav e occurred and the reactanc e thereby ,
decreased that is th e s us c eptance b increased as more full y dis

, , , , ,
cussed i n C hapter V I I I .
T his actual condition would corres pond to a valu e b of th e , l ,
shunt ed s u s c eptanc e wh en s hunt ed by th e l amp and a diff erent ,

,
higher value b z of the s hunted s us c eptance when the lamp is
, ,
burn ed out .
T h e q uestion th en arises wh eth er such valu es of b and 17, 2 can b e l
found as to give vol tage regulation T he increase of Oz over b

, . l
natural ly d epend s on the d egree of magnetic saturation in the t e

actan ce that i s on th e valu e of magn etic d ens ity cho s en and
, , ,
thus can b e mad e anything d epending on th e d es ign ,

.
1 5 7 L et th en as heretofore
.
, ,
co con stant s upply vol tage - .
c urrent in series circuit .
numb er of cons uming dev ic es (l amps) in seri es .
—
fraction of burn ed out l amps .
conductanc e of l amp .
s hunted s us c eptance with the l amp in circuit ,
that is ex citing s usceptanc e of reactor or auto

,
tran sformer and ,
\/ g
2
b admitta
l
2 n ce O f compl et e con s uming
d ev ic e .
s hunt ed s u s c eptanc e w i th t h e lamp burn ed out
ex citing current as fracti on of l oad

current : c 1 .
s aturation factor of r eac tor or

a u totran s form er : a 1 .
it i s , then
vol tage of l a mp and reactor
'
I
9 b
j l
vol tage of reactor with lamp burned out
I . I
b
7b
j o
fl .
thus ,
with n l amps burned out and (l —p)n l amp s burni ng it is

p , ,
total vol t age ,
60 ”(l —P)E 1 ”P E2
1
}
p p
I _ b1 Jb
9 j z
s ubsti t uti ng
p(1 as ) j ar .
1 j c
hence absol ute, ,

—
V [1 pu a ces a w
1!
th us , th e cu rr en t i n th e se ries circuit ,
”
v [1 p( w)] 2
c 1 fl
2
0 1
0
I f q is s mall (3 1 ) resol ved by the binomial , g iv es
1
( )
32
As n with the shunted susc eptanc e increased b y saturation

see ,
at open circuit the current and thus l amp voltage are ap proxi
,
matel y constant ov er a range of p T hat is with d ecreas ing l oad

.
, ,
from full load p -

0 th e current i and proportional th ereto the
, ,
lamp voltage increases from i o to a max imum value at p
th en d ecreases again to i o at p p o and decreas es furth er to i

, , , ;
at no load p
-
1 , .
T hus th ere ex ist s a regul ating range from p

, 0 to p a little =
above p o where the current i s approx imatel y cons tant

, .
I n s tanc e :
FIG . 12 6 .
A s ill u s trat ion s are s ho w n in F i g

,
. 1 2 6 , th e regulation curv es ,
fro m eq uat ion (26) for

a
CON S T A N T V OL T A GE S E R I E S OP E R A T I ON 305
1 59 . preceding equations it is poss ible now to calcul ate

B y th e ,
th e values of ex citing s us c eptanc e b and saturation b req uired l , z,
by th e s hunting reactors to give desired val ues of regul ation w ith

in a giv en range .
F rom (32 ) foll ows
S ub s t i tut in g (3 3 ) into (27) giv es
1 0“
7 2 9)
C
Po (l + 2 9)
“
49
2 x6
F rom chosen values of q and p o a and c th us can b e cal culated

, ,
from a and c and the conductan ce g of th e con suming d evic e b , l ,
b z i et c foll ow
, ,
.
, .
I n s tanc e :
n 1 00 l amps of i 1 6 amp and e 5 0 volt s are to b e Op er
.
l ,
ated in series on con stant vol tage s uppl y with n egl igibl e l in e re
-
,
s i s t an ce and reactanc e T h e regu l ation s hal l b e with i n 4 per c ent

. .
in a range of 3 0 per c ent T hat i s q . and p o

,
I t thu s i s
F rom ( )
3 4 fo ll ow s
H enc e by (1 7)
a nd by (16)
y
eo 5 000 vol ts
and by (25 )
io amp .
thus by (26)
,
F ig . 1 27 s how s , as curve 1 , the values of q 1 , in per
cent that
. i s , th e regul ation with , p as abs cissa .
FI G . 1 27
.
1 60 . general the resis tance and reactance of the circuit or

In ,
lin e i s not n egligible as assumed in the preceding and th e re

, ,
actors es pecially if used at the same time as autotran s formers

, ,
contain a leakage reactance which acts as a series reactanc e in the

,
circuit and the lamp circuit of conductance 9 also may con tain a
,
s mall seri es reactanc e .
L et th en :
l in e res is tanc e ;
l in e reactanc e ;
series or l eakage reactanc e per auto t ran s fo rmer
or con s umption devic e .
T h e mo st conv enient way is to represent r o x 0 and a: b y th eir ,
eq u i valent in l amps or reactors T h e admittanc e Of each con

.
s umpt ion d evic e com ri s ing l am a nd ac to o u t t

, p p re r r a o rans
former , is
nz
However , in this case , th e full load current
-
, for p
37 ,
already b e slightly high er than in a circuit without line impedance ,
and all the current values woul d thus have to b e proportionally

reduc ed .
I n s tance
I n t h e case
a
given as curve 1 11 of F i g . 1 26 l et
1 00
50
b; cg
b g [me n (1 —p) a:
n;
T hus , th e reg ul ation curv e s tart s at p of curve
%
1
111 , F ig . 1 26 , and end s at p 1 of this curve .
F or p it is by equation
,
thus all values of curve 1 1 1 F ig 1 26 are reduc ed by dividing

, ,
.
,
with an d th en plott ed from p on and th en give ,
th e regul ation curv e inc l us iv e l in e res is tanc e s hown as curv e I V .
A s s een the regul ation range i s reduc ed b ut th e reg ulatio n

, ,
greatl y improved by th e lin e impedance T his is don e ess en .
t ial l y b y th e l i n e reactanc e and l eakage reactance b ut n ot by ,
th e res is tanc e .
161 I n st ead of approx imating th e eff ect of lin e impe dan ce

.
and l eakage reactanc e by equiv alent l amps and reacto rs it can b e ,
directl y cal cul ated as fol l ows : ,

CON S T A N T V OL T A GE S E R I E S OP E R A T I ON 3 09
line resistance
line reactance
leakage or series reactance per
autotran s form er
the oth er symbol s b eing t h e s am e as (1 6) and
I t i s th en :
vol tage con sumed by l ine resistance r o
vol tage con sumed by line reactanc e x 0

i zo I
vol tage cons umed by leakage reactanc es a: of th e n (l p) l amp
devi ces :
p)I }
thus total circuit voltage

,
(1 m
{
v
I — p)
nx
g b
j 1
s ubs tituti ng the abbrevi ation
ha 239
and substituting (1 7) and (40 ) into gives

1
1;
1
9
I—n —
1 p ( 1 P)C
(4 1 >
g
h e nc e absol ute
, ,
1 6
2 170 + M (1 m] ks ( )
42
h e nc e , the current ,
0 ( )
42 and ( 3)
4 gives th e full -
l oad curr en t and voltag e,
2
1 + c
ll
9
is thefull load
-
l ine
curr nt e , for i ; fu l oad l amp
ll - cu rrent .
162 L et in th e i n s tanc e paragraph

.
, 1 59 and F ig . 1 26 ;
th e other con s tants remaining t he s ame as in paragraph 1 59,

that is :
I t is then (40)
5 200 x
55 40 volts
and by
circuit the entire circuit is practically

,
ductive t h at is the non-in , ,
current has the same wave shape as the voltage A ss umi ng a .
s in e wav e of i mpres s ed voltage co th e current i at and n ear full , , , ,
load thus is practically a sin e wave and the s hunting reactance , ,
b thus h as the value corres pond i ng to a s ine wave of current

z,
travers ing it that is the value denoted as constant current

, ,
“
-
reactance in Chapter V I I I
, .
A t no load with all or n early all conductanc es g Open circuited

-
, , ,
-
,
the entire circuit con s is ts Of a series of n reactive su s c eptanc es be , .
I f th en the impressed voltage eo is a sin e wave each s u s c eptance

, , , , , ,
b z rec eives 1 n of the impresse d voltage thus al s o a sin e wave

, , .
T hat is at and n ear no load the s hunt ed reactance b h as the

,
-
, , z,
value corres pondi ng to an impressed sin e wave Of voltage that ,
i s th e value d enoted as con s tant pot ential reactanc e

“
,
x in -
, , ,
Chapt er V I I I .
m however is materially larger than

e, , and the sh unting re
actance thus d ecreases that is th e s huntin s us c eptan ce b z i n
g , , , ,
creases from full load to no load or with increas ing p

- -
, .
D ue to th e changing wav e s hap e distortion b z thu s is not con -

,
s tant but increases with increa s ing p thu s can b e d enot ed by

, ,
60 0 SP ) 7
( )
4
this gives
a
1 sp
( )
48
Sub stituting (48) into (43 ) gives , as th e eq uation of cu rrent ,
a owing for e chan g e Of wav e shape distort ion ,

l l t h -
(I
A ss um e,
in th e in stance paragraph s 1 5 9 and 1 61 and F i g 1 2 7 , .
,
that the s hunted s us ceptanc e b increases from full load to no , z,

-
l oad by 40 per c ent T hat is .

,
it is , then ,
do
1 + 04 p .
A ssuming now that at

, th e en d of th e regul ating range ,
CON S T A N T -
VOL T A GE S E R I E S OP E R A T I ON 3 13
a h as the s ame v al ue as b efore
this g i ves
l p
S ubs t i tu t i n g now t h e n umer ca i l val ues in eq a u ti o n i v
g es
F ig . 1 27s hows , as cur ve I I I , t he val ues of

6 24 from uation
eq
at is the reg ula ti on as mod ified by

th , the ch anging w a ve
s hape ca used by t h e sa tur ate d reactan c e .
T he max i mum val ue Of current , occu rs at

and is g i v en by s ubs ti tuti on into (50) and as ,
that is ,
q
th us th e
,
reg ulation 18 st ill fu rth er improved by chang ing
, w ave
s h ap e to , per cent .
C HA PT E R XV I
L OA D BA L A N CE OF P O L YPHA S E S YS T E M S
1 63 . total fl ow of power of a b alanc ed symm etrical poly

T he
phase system is cons tant T hat i s the sum of the ins tantaneous
.
,
valu es of power of all the phases is con s tant throughout th e cycle .
I n th e s ingl e phas e syst em however or in a polyphas e sys t em with

-
, ,
unbalanc ed load that is a sys tem in which the diff erent phases
, ,
are un eq ually load ed th e total fl ow of power is pul s ating with

, ,
doubl e freq uency T o balanc e an unbalanc ed polyphas e system

.
thus requires a s torage of en ergy h enc e can not b e don e by ,
any method of conn ection or tran sformat ion T hus m echanical .
momentum acts as en erg y s toring devic e in th e use as ph as e bal

-
anc er of the induction or the synchronous machine E lectrically

,
.
,
en ergy i s s tored by inductanc e and by capacity T h e q u es tion .
th en arises wheth er by th e use of a reactor or a conden ser con

, , ,
us et ed to a suitabl e pha se of th e sys tem an un equally load ed ,
pol yphase sys tem can b e balanc ed so as to g ive cons tant power ,
duri ng th e cycle .
I n int erlin ked polyphas e circuit s such as the three ph as e s ys

,
-
tem with unbalanc ed load carried ov er lin es of appreciabl e i m

,
pedan ee the voltages of the three phases b ecome unequal T his

, .
makes voltage regulation more complicated than in a balan ced

s ys t em A great unbalancing of th e load such as produc ed b y
.
,
operating a h eavy s ingl e phase load as a s ingle phase railway or

-
,
-
el ectric furnac e gr eatly r educ es th e pow er capacity of lin es t r ans

, ,
form ers and gen erators U nbalanced load on the gen erators
.
caus es a pul s ating armature reaction : at s ingl e phas e load the -

,
armatu re reaction pulsates b etween more than twice the ave rage
val ue and a smal l reversed val ue between F (cos a
,
1 ) and,
F (cos a wh ere cos a is th e power factor of th e s ingle p hase - -
load E s pecial l y in alternators of very high armature rea c tion

.
,
as mod ern s t eam turbin e al ternators a p ul s ation of t h e ar m ature

-
,
reaction is very obj ectionabl e I t causes a pulsation of th e field

.
fl ux l eading to ex c essive eddy current loss es and conseq u ent re

,
-
d u ct ion Of the output T he use of a sq uirrel cage win ding in the

.
-
314
and an alternatin g component ,
Q cos (2 ¢ a );
it th us pulsates between a small neg ative and a large po sitive
value P Q and P , Q .
I f the circuit is compl etely inductive that is t he current lags , ,

‘ '
Il
90
°
or behind th e voltage th e current is
2
,
—
i = I cos
( g)
and the in stantan eous power thus ,
p EI
w
cos ¢ cos
( I
2 )
DI
Z -
si n 2
i
( g) (9)
1
Q cos 2¢
hus the power comprises onl y an alternating com ponent but

T , ,
no continuous compon ent ; i n oth er word s no pow er i s con s umed , ,
—
but the power s urges or al ternates b etween + Q and Q that is , ,
power is stored and th en again returned to the circuit .
I f the circuit is clo sed by a capacity C the current lea d s the , ,
1
i mpress ed voltage by thu s is
5 ,
i I cos
( g)qt
a nd the i ns tantan eous power thus ,
p EI cos ¢ cos
( 5)
¢ +
Q cos
( 2 ¢ + 1
5 )
thus comprises only an al ternatin g component s urgi ng b e
, ,
—
tw een Q and + Q with doubl e freq uency , .
T he power con s umed by a cond en ser eq uation is o p pos ite ,
i n s i gn and thus in direction from that con s umed by a reac to r ,
—
—Q cos
( 2 ¢
g)
.
1 65 . If a number Of vol tages ,
E ; COS 7)
1
1 “
Eng in ering M ath e e mat i c s , Chapt r I I I paragraphs 66 to 75
e , .
L OA D BA L A N CE OF POL YP HA S E S YSTEM S 3 17
of a pol yphas e system produce currents , ,
Ii 00 8 ‘
Vi
th e ins tantan eous power of each vol tage e . is
6 de
Qi { 0 0 3 a . cos (2 4; 2 7,
and the total i nstart aneous po w er of the sys tem thus is
Q. cos a
Z Z Q; cos (2 . 2 7.
P + Q cos (2 ¢ — a)
wh ere
P E Q; cos a .
i s the total eff e ctive power of th e s ystem and ,
Q =
E Qe cos ( )
1 7
i s th e total res ul tant alternating compon ent of power or the ,
res ultant power pul sation of the s ys tem .
T hus th e pow er of th e po l yphas e sys tem pul s ates with doub l e

, ,
frequency bet w een P

, Q and P Q .
I n this cas e P may b e great er than Q and frequentl y i s and th e

, , ,
power th us puls ates bet w een tw o posi ti ve val ues w h i le in the ,
s i ngl e phas e circuit (6) it pul s at ed b etween po s i t i v e and n egat i v e

-
val ue .
I t th us can b e seen that i n any sys tem pol yphas e or s ingl e

, ,
phas e with any kind of load th e total instantaneous po w er of the

, ,
s ys t em can b e ex press ed ,
(1 8)
wh ere P i s th e con stant compon ent of po w er and Q th e ampl i tud e ,
of t h e doubl e frequency al t ern at i ng compo nen t of pow e r and Q

-
,
may b e larger or s mal l er than P .
I t mus t b e not ed th at Q is not t he tot al react i v e pow er of the

,
s y s tem — w hich w oul d hav e to b e con s id ered for i n s tanc e in , ,
o w r factor
-
comp n ation t — but Q i t h cto r u l tant
p e e s e c s e ve r es .
of t he reactive po w ers of t h e individual circ ui t s w h il e t h e total ,
r eactiv e pow er of th e sy s t em i s t h e al gebra i c s u m of th e i ndivi dual
r eactiv e pow ers (s ee T h eo ry and C alcul ati on of A l terna ting

c ur r e nt P h enomena C hapt er X V I )
’
, .
T hus for ins tance in a s ys te m of balanc ed l oad even if t h e

, , ,
load is reactive Q 0, T hus Q i s th e u nbal anc ed rea ctive

.
,
3 18 E L E CT R I C CI R C UI T S
power of the system and does not include the reactive power
, ,
which is balanced between the phases and thereby gives zero

as v ector res ultant .
1 66 T h e ex press ion of the pow er of a polyphas e s ys t em of g en

.
eral unbal anc ed load i s by (1 5 )
— a) ( )
1 9
this also i s th e pr ion of pow r of

ex es s singl ph ase load e th e e- of
l ag angl e a , of the impressed v ol tage and current ,
6 E cos ¢
=
i I cos (¢ — a )
wh ere from
,
P Q sin a
EI
Q 2
while in the general case 1 9) P and Q may have any values .
Su ppo se now w e select from the polyphase system a voltag e ,
’
E cos 5) (22)
and load it with an inductive load of zero power factor -
,
—
( 2)
'
I cos ¢ B
’
E
that i s connect a reactor of a: nto the phase 6 ’
,
we
7 ’ i
T he power of (22) (23 ) then is
(
’ ’
p Q cos 2¢ 2 48
where
’ ’
E I
2 ( )
25
and th e total power of the system comprising (1 9 ) and (25 ) thus ,
is
’
p p
—
Q cos (2 ¢ )+ Q ( g)
'
P + a cos 2¢ 28
and th is would becom e constant and the double freq u enc y term ,
-
el im i nat ed that is the sys tem woul d b e b alanc ed i f Q an d Bare

’
, , ,
cho sen so that
—
Q cos ( ¢
2 2¢ 26
(
of lag angle , a , in general the unbalanc ed load of a polyphase

or ,
sys t em with th e res ul tant in stantan eous pow er of lag angl e a , ,
—a)
can b e balanced by a wattless reactive l oad p having t h e same ,
’
,
vol t amperes Q as the al ternating component Q of t h e unb al

-
,
’
, , ,
anced l oad and having a phas e of voltage lagging b y

,
or by 45 plus half the lag angle a of the unbal anc ed l oad or nu

°
, ,
—
bal anced single phas e current .
Jus t as t he unbal anc ed pol yphase l oad 19 (24) may b e single , ,
phase l oad on one phase or th e vector res ul tant of t h e loads on

,
diff erent phases so th e wattless reactive compen s at i ng volt

,
amperes (33 ) may b e due to a singl e reactor conn ect ed into the
compen sat i ng vol tage e or may b e the vector res ul tant of
,
’
,
s everal vo l tages l oad ed b y reactanc es x so that their

'
e 1, , 1,
vector res ul tant I S p ’
I f a capacity is us ed for en ergy s torage i n bal a n c i ng u nbal anced

l oad the compen s ating vol tage
'
E cos (ah B),
i mpress ed u pon the capac ity gives th e reactive l ead i ng current ,
(
’
I cos d; B
hence the co mpens at i ng reactive power ,
(
' ’
E I cos 2¢ 23
a nd th erefro m, by the s ame reas on ing as before ,
3 7
r
l (3 f ”
i
‘
E ms
l ( ll
a
°°S ¢
a
‘ ‘
h at is wh en using a capac ity for bal ancing th e load

T , , t he m
co
pe n s a t i ng vo l tag e e h a s t h e pha s e
,
'
,
L OA D B A L A N CE OF P OL YP HA S E S YS T E M S 321
or , what i s th e s ame as regard s to th e power ex pressi on ,
a
'
1l
2 4
thus lags by half th e phase angl e a minus 45 (or pl us , ,

°
1 68 A s in s tanc e may b e con s id ered a quart er phas e sys tem

.
-
with one phase load ed .
L et
E cos
E cos
( g) d)
be phase
th e t w o -
vol tages of q arter phase sys tem
th e u -
.
L et th e fi rs t phase , 61, b e load ed by a current l aggi ng by phase

angl e a , ,
I cos a )
whil e the s econd phas e , 6 2, is not l o aded .
T h e power th e n i s
$
E
00 3 a cos (2 a )} ( 0)
4
and is compen sated or balanc ed by a reacta nc e conn ected to a

comp ens at i ng phas e ,
'
6 E cos 6)
and con suming the reactiv e current ,
(
’
I cos d) 3
wh ere t he gr epresent s i nd u cti v e reactanc e th e

‘
re actance .
T h e compen s at i ng reactive pow er th en is

l l l
p e i
’
E I
2
cos
(
2 2B
and this b ecomes equal to

E
—
1
2
cos (2 a )
,
and th e compen sating circuit thus is
i t is , then ,
e 1.
E I :F 1r
)
’ '
( ¢
2
cos a
-
E I cos (2 a )
cos a ,
0, or non inductw e load

-
,
I
)
,
E cos
4
,
E —
(
1
cos o 1: cos
h ence ,
if w e choose ,
l
E
( )
46
that i s conn ecting the tw o phases in series g ives the compensat

,
, ,
ing vol tage for non inductive l oad Or : -

.
N on inductive s ingle phas e l oad on one phase of a quarter

“
- -
,
phase system can b e balanc ed by conn ectin g a reactan ce across

,
both phas es in series of such val ue as to con sume a current equal

,
to th e s in gl e phas e load current divid ed b y V 2 that is hav i ng the

-
, ,
s ame volt amp ere as the s in g l e phas e load

-
” - .
I n t he gen eral case of inductive load of powe r fa ctor a -

, ,
th e compen s ating volta g e (45 ) can b e writt en ,
{ ( 2)
cos sin
e a } in qb
'
E i cos i s
i
9 00 8 oi: cos
(g £
) (
3 1? cos
h as to its voltage es T hat is the system i s bal anc ed in load

, .
, ,
in
phase and in armature reaction .
I n th e unb alanced singl e phase load th e power factor is -

,
-
0 1 00 8 a
in th e balanced l oad , th e po w er factor is

-
(M )
thus ,
is materiall y reduc ed for a reactor as compens ator , + ;
2
it is in gen eral i ncreas ed for a conden ser as compen s ator ,
4
170 . I ns tead
varying the phase angl e of the compen sating
of
vol tage e with varying phas e angle a of th e single ph ase load

,
’
, , ,
-
,
compen s ation can b e produc ed by compen s ating voltages of

constant phase angl e util izing tw o s uch vol tages and varying the
-
,
proportion s of th eir reactive currents w i th chang es of a , .
T hus i f ,
I cos
i s t h e l o ad on phase ,
E cos b
t ,
and th e se co nd phase
)
'
1l
E 00 8
é
is not l oad ed thus givi ng ,
th e unbal an ced po w er ,
— a
as compen s ating voltage may b e us ed ,
th e vo l tage of both phas es conn ect ed i n series ,
6 61 62
cos
( Z)
¢
and the vol tage the se cond phase ,
( )
1,
E cos
5
L et , then ,
3 1r
( )
’
I cos
T ’
b e t he reacti ve current of t he compens ating phase ,

6 , and
CO S
L OA D BA L A N CE OF P OL YP HA S E S YSTEM S 3 25
00 8
th e reactive current of th e compensating phase 8 2 ,

.
T h e pow ers of the tw o compen s atin g circuits th en are

l l
p = ei
cos (2 x )
3
6 31 2
and the condition of compen sat ion thus is

E1 E1 V2
2
cos (2
or res olved
, ,
(I cos a cos in a
2 I z) s in 2 o
(
SI O s
'
,
and as this mus t be an id entity the individual coeffi cients must

,
van ish that is, ,
I cos a
V2
—
I si n a = I cos
(
oz
g)
thus the compens ating voltages and currents wh i ch b alance th e
, ,
s ingl e phase load

-
,
31 62
E x/2 cos 46
cos
E cos
( g)¢
1
( g)
00 3 a
I si n a c os d:
A s n this mean s loading

see , th e se cond phas e with a reactor
g iving t h e s am e vo l t amp er es -
7
6 21 2
as theun b alanced and thereby b alancing

s ngl e phas e l oad
i -
the reactive compon ent of l oad and th en bal ancing the en ergy ,
compon ent of the l oad by the compen sating vol tage e; 8 3 as ,
given by
I f th e s ingl e phase load i s conn ected acro ss both phases of
-
the quart er phase mach in e in seri es

-
,
( )
n
. .
E \/2 cos fi
q iF
Z
I 4 5
+
V2 4
ame manner the cond ition s of compen s at ion can

i n th e s b e de
rived and give the compens ati ng circuit
, ,
( g)
’
E cos
I
( 9
’
cos
2
wh ere
F or non- i nductiv e l oad ,
a 0,
th is gi ves
that is, one of the t w o phases is compen sating phase for t he re
s ul t ant .
171 furth er ins tance may b e cons idered the bal ancing of
. A s
s ingl e phas e l oad on one phas e of a three phas e s ys tem

- - .
L et
E cos (p
E cos
E cos
(
b e t he three voltages between the three lines and the neutral .
or 30
°
lag ,
i t is
( 6)
7
E \/ 3 cos ¢
thus the compens ating voltage e is dis pl aced in ph ase from the ,
’
,
l oad voltage en by , if th e l ag angl e of the load is and
in this case th e second phas e of the three ph ase syst em thus can
,
-
b e used as compen sating vol tage ,
613 61 63
E x/ 3
’
cos
( g)
d:
e .
gen eral case for any l ag angl e

I n th e t h e compen s ating v ol
, ,
a ,
tage (64) can b e produc ed by the comb inat ion of the tw o phase -
vol tages 3 and e as

, 1 s,
0 16 1
si m ilar as w as d is cuss ed in th e quarter phase sys tem -

.
T h e second phase 6 as comp en s ating voltage l oad ed by a re

, 13, ,
a ctor bal ances

, th e l oad of phase angl e , a
g , or F or other
angl es of lag either another phase angl e of the bal ancing vol tage
,
i s n ec ess ary or if us ing th e s am e bal ancing v oltage th e balance

, , ,
i s i ncompl et e .
L et thus :
th e l oad
( )
7
r
E \/ 3 cos d:
6
)
0 7
r
2 a ,
bal anc ed react i v e l oad on th e se cond phas e ,
E \/3 cos
(
cb
1
g ) ,
2 1r
it is
po w er of th e l oad ,
cos a cos
(
2¢ +
bal ancing power ,

L OA D B A L A N CE OF P OL YP HA S E S YSTEM S 3 29
thus total power

, ,
'
P0 P P
cos a + cos
cos a si n
00 8 a
ratio of th e remaining al ternating component of power

i s th e ,
to th e con s tant power and may b e called the coefficient of

,
unbal ancing .
C HA PT E R XVI I
CI R CU I T S WI T H D I S T R I BU T E D L E A KA GE
172 . an unin sulated el ectric circuit is immersed in a high

If
res istanc e conducting medium such as water th e current does
, ,
”
not remain entirely in th e circ uit but more or l ess leaks
“
,
through th e s ur rounding medium T h e current th en is not the

.
, ,
s ame throughout t h e entire circuit but varies from point to po int :

,
th e current s at tw o point s of th e c ircuit diff er from each oth er by

th e current which l eaks from the circuit b etween th ese t w o points .
Such circuits with distribut ed l eakage are th e rail return circuit

of electri c rail ways ; th e lead armors of cabl es lai d d i rectly in the
ground ; w ater and g as pipes etc With l ead armored cables in
,
.
-
duets with rail way return c ircuit s wh ere the rail s are s upported
,
a bov e th e ground by sl eepers as in int erurban road s th e l ea kage

, ,
may b e local ized at frequentl y recurring points ; the brea ks in the

ducts the sl eepers supporting the rail s et c but ev en then an
, , .
,
ass umption of dis tributed l eakage probabl y bes t represents the

condition s T he same applies to l ow vol tag e dis tributing sys
.
-
tems telephone and tel egraph lin es etc

, , .
T h e current in th e conductor with dis tributed l eakage may

b e th e res ul t of a vo l tage impressed upon a circuit of whi ch the
leaky conductor is a part as is the case with th e r ail ret u rn of
,
el ectric railways or occurs wh en a cable conductor groun d s on

,
th e cabl e armor and th e current th ereby return s over t h e a rmor ;

,
or it may b e induced in th e leaky conductor as in th e l ead a rmor ,
of a s ingl e conductor cabl e traversed by an al ternating c urrent ;

-
or it may ent er th e conductor as l eakage current as i s t h e case ,
in cabl e armors g as and water pipes etc in those cases where

, ,
.
,
th ey pick up stray rail w ay return currents etc , .
Wh en d eal ing w ith direct current circuits th e induc tanc e and

-
,
th e capacity of th e cond u ctor do not com e into con s id eration

ex c e pt in th e tran s i ent s of current change and in s tationary con ,
ditions s uch a circuit thus i s one of dis tribut ed series r es is tance

and s hunted cond u ctance .
I nductanc e al s o is ab sent with th e current induced in th e cable

armor by an alternating current traversi ng th e cabl e c onductor ,
33 0
wh ere A ; and A 2 are determ in ed by the terminal co nditions , as
integration con stants .
Sub stituting (5 ) into (2) gives as t he voltag e ,
—d ry! fw/ rfl l
A A (6)
' ‘
le ze
174 ( . conductor
a ) i
I f
s of
theinfinit e l ength that i s of such , ,
great length that the current which reaches the end is n egl i gible
,
compared with the current entering the conductor it is ,
i =
O for l 00 .
T h is gives
42
4 O:
i A V ' O’
‘
A V ' O’
’
T hat is
A l eaky conductor of in fi nite length that is of s uch g rea t length , ,
that practical ly no current pen etrates to its end of series res is t ,
anc e r and shunted conductance g per unit l ength has an eff ec t

, , , , ,
i v e res istance ,
(8)
I t is interesting to note that a change of r or 9 ch an g es the ,
effective res is tanc e r o and thus th e current flowing into th e con

, ,
ductor at con stant impressed vo l tage or the voltage co n s umed ,
at cons tant current input much less than the change of r or g

-
, .
b
() I f t h e conductor i s op en at t h e en dI l o it is ,
1: O for l lo ,
h enc e substituted into (5 )

,
O A le
-
W W“ A Z¢
+ V ' O“
and putt ing

,
A A V 7? “
-
le
(l o —l ) —
(l o O
A { V ra
}
-
e
—
}
+
V ra ( o l )
l a (l o D
-
e A { 6 6 Vr
C I R C UI T S WI T H D I ST RI B U T ED L EA KA GE 333
(c) I f t h e conductor i s ground ed at t h e end I l o, it is
e O for l l o,
h enc e s ubstituted i nto

,
A VW “ A + f al o
-
O le 25
V
’
and putting
,
A i
‘
s/ f ate : A
'
l V
'
rg l o
f le ze
—l )
1: —D e }
—l ) w —0
A an }
”
(d) I f t h e circu it at
, l l o, i s cl osed by a res istance , R ,
it is
R fO l l ’
l o,
h enc e substituting (5 ) and

,
gives
—W V“ f rd o
A A /
' '
x
le ze
—V rcl o + V rg l o
A le A 2G
—V rai —(2 l o 0 s/ r0
}
-
A { e e
175 . Subs tituting ,
as th e
“
ctive resis tance
eff e of the leaky conductor of infinite
l ength ,
R r0
ah D
}
-
r oA {
”
a
e e (
T h ese equations (1 3 ) can b e written in various diff erent forms .
T h ey are interes ting in showing in a direct current circuit features -
which us ually are considered as characteris tic of wave trans

miss ion that is of alternating current circuit s with dis tributed
, ,
-
capacity .
T h e firs t t erm of equation s (1 3 ) may b e con s id ered as t h e out

flowing compon ents of current and voltage res pectivel y th e sec ,
ond t erm s as th e refl ect ed compon ents and at th e en d of the ,
circ uit of dis tributed leakage reflection would b e con s id ered as ,
occurring at the resis tanc e R , .
I f R > r o t h e s econd t erm i s pos itive that i s partial re fl ection

, , ,
of current occurs whil e th e return vol tage adds itsel f t o th e ih

,
coming vol tage I f R . th e reflection of current i s complete

co .
I f R < r o th e s econd t erm i s n egativ e that is partial refl ection

, , ,
of voltage occurs wh il e the return current adds itsel f t o the

,
i ncom i ng current If R O th e refl ection of voltage is complete

.
,
.
If R T o th e s econd t erm vani s h es

, and equation s (1 3 ) b e ,
come tho se of of an infinitely long conductor T hat i s : .
A res is tance , R ,
e qual to th e eff ectiv e resistancem ; of the
infinitely l ong conductor of distributed res is tance and s hunted
cond u ctanc e as terminal of a finite conductor of this character
,
pas ses current and voltage without reflection A high e r res ist .
ance partiall y reflects the current and increases the voltage and ,
a l ower res istance partially reflects the voltage and increas es the
current I nfinite resis tance gives complete reflection of current
.
and doubles the voltage while zero res istance gives com plete re
,
fl ecti on of vol tage and doubl es th e current .
T he t rm e ,
ro 8 takes in direct current circuits th e same
-
p o s i t i on as t h e su rge i mpedanc e altern atin g -cur
rent c i rc ui ts .
hence
a X
1 4 2“
305
-
e 7
where l is given in kil ometers .
A t various dis tanc es from th e s tarting point , th e current in

the conducto rs thus i s
As n beyond 2 km d is tance the current i n th e conductor is

s ee , .
,
practically nothing .
177 I f the current i is an alternating current and the con

.
, , ,
dition s uch that inductance and capacity are negligibl e the ,
equation s ( )
1 1 and ( )
1 3 r emain th e s am e ex c e pt th at ,
i e and A are v ector quantities or gen eral numbers : I E A

, , , , .
Con s id ering thus th e more gen eral cas e wh ere a voltage i s in ,
duced in th e leaky conductor S uch for in s tanc e is th e ca se in the

.
lead armor of a single conductor alternating current cabl e

- - .
L et th en
, ,
res istance per unit length ,
s hunt ed conductanc e per unit l ength ,
vol tage induc ed in th e conductor per un it length ,

.
I t is , then ,
in a l i ne el ement , dl ,
dE
dl
” ‘
E°
di
dl
D iff erentiating ( ) and

1 5 s ubs tituting into
5
32 w e
T his is integrated by
CI R C U I T S WI T H D IST RI B U T ED L EA KA GE 33 7
and by su bst ituting (1 7) i nto w e g et
henc e , the cu rrent,
A le
—l
I
c
where
a
and A and A 2 are complex imaginary integration constants

I .
Subs t i tut i ng (1 8) into (1 5 ) gives th e voltag e ,
T o A 16 A
w h ere
178 . Suppo se voltage is impressed upon the conductor

now no ,
but th e only ex is ting vol tage is that induc ed in the conductor ,
as fo r in s tanc e th e cab l e armor .
(a) Suppose th e cond u ctor is open at both end s : 1 + 1 and 0
l o having th e length 2 l o
,
.
I t th en is
I 0 for l
Sub st i tut i ng th is in (1 9) gives

{ 1 1 6 1
42 6
+“ o “ "
f
in the center of th e cond u ctor ,

for l 0, it is
E0 2
1
r ( “ W c
‘
d
at th e ends of th e conductor ,
for l 1 10, it is
I 0
ro
E =
i Eo
F
h enc e if the conductor is l ong
, ,
so that e is negligi ble compared
with it is
E0
£
9
E =
zt E o
=
i
x/ rg
F or an infin i tel y l ong conductor , 10 co e quati on s (22)become

E0
T
as p cted
w as to b e ex e .
()
b S uppo s e th e conductor is grounded at one end , I 0, and
Open at th e other end I l o ,

. I t i s th en, ,
E =
0 for l =
0
I =
0 f0 r l =
l o,
henc e the equations are the s ame as

, T hat i s a conductor ,
ground ed at one end and Openat the oth er i s the same as a con
ductor of twice the length Open at both ends , .
A conductor ground ed at both end s giv es the same equation as

an infinitely long conductor
"
Suppo se al o i s large so that e , i s n egligible compared with
in equation T h en for all val ues of 1 ex c ept those very ,
close to l o E and th e ex pon ential term of I are negligible

,
.
T hat i s for th e enti re l ength of the leaky conductor ex cept

, ,
very close to th e ends it is appro x i mately

. , ,
E .
I T
E = o
d
N ear the end s of th e conductor , where l is n ear to l o, c is
‘
negl igible compared with and equat ions (22)thus ass unie the
form ,
mos t of the length the cab le armor al ready acts as an infinitely

,
lo ng conductor .
Henc e for values of 1 n ear th e end of the cond u ctor I and E are
, ,
more conveniently ex pressed by the eq uation

D
I e
—l )
}
E 6
F m
. 1 28 .
I nversely , if th e cable is l aid in ducts wh i ch are fai rl y dry

, , and
th e l eakage conductanc e thus i s only

CI R C U I T S WI T H D IST RI B U T E D L EA KA GE 34 1
I 86 1
57 + o 2 ssr (29 )
E e
.
I n this case the max imum vol tage b et w ee n cabl e armor and
,
ground i s at l i 5 :E
,
200 .
A s i ll us trati ons are s hown in F i g 1 28 with I as abs ciss ae th e

,
.
, ,
curves of I and E cal culated from equations

, ( 8) and
2
1 80 C onsid ering now the cas e of a conductor which i s not
.
,
conn ected to a s ource of vol tage nor h as any voltage induced in ,
it but i s laid in a ground in which a potential diff erence ex ists

, ,
due to s tray currents pass ing through th e ground Such for .

,
ins tanc e may b e a water pipe laid in the ground parallel with a
,
poorl y bonded railway circuit .
A s s uming th e potent i al diff erenc e eo ex is ts in th e ground per , , ,
unit length of conductor T he conditions obviousl y are the s ame

.
,
as if th e g round w ere at con s tant pot ential and th e potential ,
—
diff erenc e ao ex is ted in the conductor per un i t length T hus
, ,
.
w e g et th e s am e equat i ons as (22) and I f th e potential

d iff erenc e is conti nuous as wh en due to a direct current rai l way
,
-
circuit obviously the quantiti es I E A I and A 2 are not al ternat

, , ,
ing vector quantities but s cal ar numbers : i e etc T hat is

, , , .
,
-‘
GI O
r e
“
T o 6 F
6
r
60
+d 0
—I
G O
e e
A umi ng thus as an in s tanc e a water pipe of 5 km length

ss .
lo 5 ex tend i ng through a t erritory having 5 0 volts potential

,
d iff erenc e or 8 10
, A ss uming that it is conn ected with the
0 .
return c i rcui t so that th ere is no potenti al di ff erenc e at one end :

e =
0 f or l =
0 .
res is tanc e of the w ater pi pe b e r

L et th e oh m per k i l o
meter and the l eakage conductance b e g 1 0 mhos per ki l ometer

, .
I t i s th en , ,
+ 0 3 1 61 —os w
i 1 000 1 ( c
.
e
h ence , th emax imum current for l ,

0 : i 600 amp .
the max i mu m vo l tage for l ,

5 : e vol ts .
Fl o . 1 29 .
As n a very considerab l e c u rrent may fl ow u nd er these

see ,
condition s .
F i g 1 29 s ho w s with I as ab s cis s ae th e current i and vo l tage 6

.
, , , , , ,
d
'
and th e current wh i ch t r
en e s th e conductor pe r uni t len g th if:
,
3 44 E L E CT R I C CI R C U I T S
1 82 . T hus , the gen eral ex press ion of th e os cill ating current is

I cos (2 1rf t
—
J ac —a¢
A A IA
where e bas is of natural logarithms , the current may be

ex pressed ,
I if “
( j
2 0) is
' “
cos 1r t cos
FI G . 1 30 .
FI G . 131 .
where that i s , th e peri od is represented by a complete

revol ution .
I n th e s ame w ay an o s cillating e . mf . . will be repres ented by

“ 4’
E 66 cos
OS CI L L A T I N G C UB R E N T S 345
S uch an o s cillatin g e . m f for the

. . values ,
2“
e 5, a or 5 0 0,
isrepresented in rectangul ar coordinates in F ig 1 3 0 and in polar .
,
coii rdi nates in F i g 13 1 A s seen from F i g 1 30 the o s cillating

. . .
wave in rectan g ul ar cofirdi nates is tangent to the tw o ex ponential

curv es ,
i
‘
1! ee
polar coordinates the o s ci ll ating wave i s represented in F i g

In ,
.
13 1 by a s piral curv e pass ing the z ero point twic e per period and ,
tangent to the ex ponential S piral ,

"
1! t ee
T he latter
called th e envelopes of a sys tem of os c illating
are
wav es One of them i s shown separately with the same con

.
,
stants as F ig s 1 3 0 and 13 1 in F i g 1 3 2
. I ts characteri s t i c feature
,
. .
i s : T h e a ngle w hich any conc entric c i rcle makes with th e curv e ,
y is
t an 0:
FI G . 1 32 . FI G . 1 33 .
w i h ch therefore constant ; or in oth er words : T he envelope

is , , ,
“
of th e o s cil l ating current i s th e ex pon ential s piral wh i ch i s char ,
acte ri z ed by a con s t ant angl e of inters ect i on w i th al l conc entri c
circ l es or all radi i vectores ”

T h e o s ci l l ating c u rrent wav e is .
t h e product of th e sin e wav e and th e ex pon ent i al or lo x odromi c

s piral .
1 83 I n F i g 1 3 3 l et y
. . represent th e ex ponenti al s pi ral ;
l et z e cos 9)
represent th e si n e wave ;
and l et E 66 cos (4 ) 0)
represent the oscillating wave .
We have then
— si n (¢ — 0) —a cos (¢ — 0)
that is while the sl ope of the sine wave 2: e cos (d)

,
is ,
represented by
tan 7 tan (4:
the sl ope of t h e ex pon ential s piral y 65 ,
4
tan a a cons tant ,
that of the o s cil lating wave E cc

4
cos (d) is,
“ ’
tan 6 { tan (4; 0) a } .
Henc e it is increased over that of the alternating s ine wave

,
by the con stant a ,

.
T h e rat i o of t he ampl i tud es of two cons equ ent p eriod s is

E 21
A e
E0
called the numerical d ecrement of the os cillating wave
A is ,
a the ex pon ential d ecrement of t h e o s cil lating wav e a th e angu ,
lar decrement of the os cillating wave T he o s cillating wave can .
b e represented by th e equation ,
—“ a“
E te
e cos (qt
I n th e ex ample represented by F igs . 1 30 and 13 1 , we have

A a 0:
I mpedance and A dmi ttance
1 84 . In compl ex imaginary quanti ties ,

t he t rnating wave
al e ,
2 6 cos (4) 0)
isrepres ented by the symbol ,
E e (co s 0 j s i n 0 ) e l
—j z
-
€ .
By an ex ten s i on of the meaning of this symbolic ex press ion ,
the o s ci l lating wave E 65

“
, cos (d ) can b e ex pressed by
the s ymbol ,
( — i ) d ( ) d
E c cos 0 j s n 0 e c 0: el j ag ec a ,
where a tan a is the ex ponential decrement a t he ang ular

2"
,
decrement 5 the n u m er i cal d ecrement

,
.
or by substitution
, ,
Ea =
:c 0) d¢
1 a
” { sin a cos
mi c—W
si n (¢ — 0
”
(l a ) cos a
hence in symbolic
, ex pression ,
an
a )} dec a
(a — j)(co s o — j s i n O) de c a ;
3
1 + a
a:
( — a —
g ) I dec az ;
,
1 + a
that is , apparent capacity reactance of the os cillating circuit

th e
i s , in s ymbo l i c ex press ion ,
X c
x.
( — a — g ) de c az .
,
1 + a
1 87 . We have th en
in an os cill ati ng c u rrent circuit of res is tanc e r inductive te
-
, ,
actance x and condensiv e reactanc e m w i th an ex ponential

, , , e,
decrement a the apparent impedanc e in symbolic ex pression 18

, , , ,
r — x (a
{ — a — j) d e c a
}
i
.
r
and abs o lute

, ,
1 88 . L et
I ie
‘
cos 0) current .
T hen from the prec ed ing d i s cuss ion the e m f cons umed by re ,
. . .
s i s tance, r , inductive reactance x and condensiv e reactance x is , , , c,
— 0 r — a:
) p
[ si n — 0) ,
cos (d: 0
OS CI L L A T I N G C UR R E N T S 349
where
tan 8
r
2
_
1 + a 2
) 0 + " _
1 +
'
a
2
s ubstitut ing 0 6 for 0, and e 12

20 we have
E er “ cos
I
e
— 0 — 6)
m
z
s 5
cos (o o) si n (4. o)
hence in complex quantities ,
E e(cos 0 j si n 0) dec a ,
6 si n 6
l
cos
I E 20
J z.
or , s ubs t ituting ,
I E
dec a.
x, a
1 a 1 a
1 89 . T hus in complex quant ities ,

for os cillating currents , we
have : conductance ,
— aaz
s us ceptance ,
xc
1 + a
admittanc e in ab s o,
l ut e valu es .
3 50 ELECTR IC CI R C U I TS
in symbol ic ex press ion ,
a
ax
l a
Y g 3 b 2
)
a:
r an:
”
1 a
Sinc e the impedanc e is

ra j x a,
we have
)
Z
that i s the s ame relations as in the complex quantities in alter
,
nating current circuits ex cept that in the present case all the
-
,
cons tants r m 2 g z y d epend upon the decrem ent a

, d , o, 0 , , , , , .
I t i s interes ting to not e that with o scillating curr ents resist ,
ance as wel l as conductanc e have a negative term added which ,
depends on the d ecrement a Such a n egative res is tanc e repre .
s en ts en ergy production and i ts m eaning in th e present case is

, ,
that w i th the d ecrease of the os c ill ating current and vol tage ,
their s tored magnetic and d ielectric ener g y becom e avai l able .
Ci rcui ts of Z ero I mpedance
1 90 I n an os c i l lat i ng current circu i t of d ecre ment a of

.
-
, ,
resis tance r inductiv e reactance at and condensiv e reactance w

, , , , , e,
th e imp edanc e w as represented in symbol i c ex press i on by
— ax — a xc
1 + a
or n u meri cally by
2 3
) l )
a a: c
z V“ 2
+ 1 “
2
1 + a
2
x° "
l ”
1 + a
=
o
hus the inductive reactance x as well as the condensive

T , ,
reactanc e do not represent wattless e m fs as in an alternating

, . . .
current circuit but introduc e power comp onents of n egative sig n

, ,
1 a
that means in an os cill ating current circuit the counter e m fs

,
-
, . . .
of self induction is not in quadrature b ehind t h e current but lags

-
,
l ess than or a quarter period and the charging current of a ,

.
cond en ser i s less th an or a q uarter period ahead of the im ,
pressed e m f . . .
35 2 ELECTR IC CI R C U I T S
librium of the electric circuit ; for instance by the dis charge of a ,
cond enser by m ake and break of the circuit by s udden electro

,
- -
,
s tatic charge as lightning et c Obviousl y th e mos t impo rtant

'
.
, , ,
oscillating currents are those in a circuit of zero i mpedance ,
representing os c ill ating dis charges of the circuit L ightn in g .
s trok es frequently belong to thi s class .
0 s cill ati ng D i sch arg es
1 93 . T he condi tion of an os cil l ating dis charge is Z 0, that is ,

r r
2 aL 2L r
’
C
If r 0, that is in a circ u i t without resi stance

, ,
we have a O,
1
that is ,
th e currents are al ternating with no decre
ment and the frequency is that of resonanc e

,
.
If O, t h at i s , r > a and f become imaginary ;

1
that i s , th e d i s charge c eas es to be os c ill atory A n electrical .
d is charge as sumes an o s c ill ati ng nature on l y ,

if r 2
th e case r we have a co , f 0; that is , the current

d ies ou twithou t o s c il l ation .
F ro m th e foregoing w e have seen that o s cill ating di s charges

as for i ns tanc e th e ph enom ena taking pl ac e if a cond ens er
charged to a giv en potential is d is charged through a given circuit ,
—
or i f l ightning s trik es th e line circuit are defined by the equation ,
Z O dec a .
Sinc e
21 j )
i d ec a g E I r dec a , , ,
x I( a j ) dec a , E z
— 2
a d
j) c
e a,
c
l -
l a
_ x +
henc e by , su bs tituti on ,
a j ) de c a .
OS CI L L A TING C U R R E N T S 3 53
T h e tw o con s tants £1 and , of th e d is charge , are d etermined by

th e —
initial conditions that i s , th e e m f and
. . . th e current at the
time ,
t O
.
a cond enser of capacity C b e dis charged through a

1 94 L et
.
, ,
circuit of resis tanc e r and inductanc e L L et 6 e m f at the

, , , . . . .
—
condenser in th e moment of c l osing the circuit that is at the ,
time t O or 0 .
—
A t this moment th e current i s zero that is ,
I j g,
i 0 .
E xI (— a — j ) dec a
we have }
an 1 a
2
e or i,
Sub s t i t u ting this , we have ,
e
I dec a,
E , (1 j ) d
ae c a E , j a ) dec 0 ,
th e quations of the os c ill ating d is charge of a cond en ser of in i t ial

e
voltage 6 ,
.
Sinc e
we have
r r
2 a 2 r
2
C
h ence by substitution
, ,
I dec a, E ,
I
I I I
H I
t hefinal eq u ation s of t he os cillating discharge in symbol ic , ex
press ion .
23
356 I N D EX
Characteris ti c magneti c 50 , , Cu rr nt e wa v d istorted b y
e mag
Chemi cal acti on in elect rol yti c con neti s m, 1 26
du cti on 6 ,
Chromium ma gneti c properties 83

, ,
C i rcuit w i th d ist ri buted l eak ag 3 3 0 e,
magnet i c 43 , D ampin g pow e r in syn ch ronoua

C l o ed magn eti c ci rcui t w av dis
s , e motor os c t
il l a i on, 2 1 0
t ort i on , 1 3 9 w mding in s ynchronou s mag
Cob al t i ron y mag neti c 78
all o , , chin s 2 1 1 e ,
m gn ti c prop rti s 80
a e e e , D nger of hi gh r h armoni s 1 2 1
a e c ,
Co ffi ci nt of hyst r is 6 1
e e e es , D cr m nt of os cill ting w av 34s
e e e a e,
.
C oh r cti on of p yroel ectri c on
ere a c Dem gn ti at i on by al ternatin g m
a e z c 3
d uctor 1 9
.
, r nt 5 4 e ,
Comp ns tin g vol t ge bal ancing un

e a a t emp ratu r 78 e e,
b al n c d pow er 3 20
a e , D i fl u s ion cu rr nt of pol a ri at ion 8
'
e z ,
Cond n r l ctro ta ti c 9
e se ,
e e s , Di r ct cu rrent produ cin g v n h
e e e ar .
pow r equ ti on 3 1 9
e a , moni es , 1 59
t nd ing to in tabil ity 1 64 S
e s , . ee Di charg s o ci l l tin g 35 2
s e ,
s a ,
Capaci ty .
Dis continuou c ondu ction 29 s ,
Cond u ct ance wi th os c i ll t i ng
a cu r Dis pl ac m nt of fiel d pol l imin t
e e es e a
r nt e s, 349 i n g h ar moni c 1 20 s,
Con du ction l ctri c 1 , e e , of po i t i on in s yn ch ronou m
s s a
Condu ctors m chani cal magneti c
, e chin 2 1 0 e,
forc s 1 06 e , Dis ru ptiv con d u ct ion 29 42
e , ,
Cons tant compon nt of pow r in e e D i torti on of w av improving r gu

s e e
gen ral syst em 3 1 7
e , l at ion in s ri s c i rcuits 311 e e ,
cu rr nt are st ab il i ty c ond i t i on
e , , of vol t ag b y b ri dg d m gn ti
e e a e c
172
g ap , 1 48
constant pot ntial t an fo e r s r in con s tant pot n ti l on e a c
mati on 243 286 , , s tant c u rren t tr n form a s a
r ct nc 1 34
ea a e, t i on , 290
tran form r and r gul tor 25 0
s e e a , Dis tri but d l ak ag of ci rcui t 330
e e e ,
m gneti c 7
a 7 87 88 , , , w in d in g el i min at i n g h armoni
,
cs,
potenti l constant curr nt

a e 1 16
tran formation 243 286
s , , Doub l f r quen cy
e e a rmatu r e reac
r ct n c 1 3 3
ea a e, t i on, 240
t rm and v n h rmoni c 1 5 8
e e e a s, p ak d w av
e e e, 1 13
vol tag s t ab i li ty c ond i t i on
e ar e, ,
1 68
se rip ration 29 7
es o e ,
Cont inuous condu ct ion 3 2 ,
Coron cond u ction 29 42

a , ,
Economy p par tu 28 1 ,
a a s,
Cr p g m gn ti c 5 7
ee a e, a e ,
E ffi cien cy of l ect rom gn t 99 e a e ,
C ri ti c l p oin ts of r l u ctivity cu rv
a e e, of monocyc li c quare 277 s ,
46 of T connection 268
-
,
Cumul ative os cil l ation cau ,

s e, 1 66 E l ctrod 6
e es ,
p rodu ced b y a e 1 88 r ,
E l trol yti c c ll 8
ec e ,
i n trans former 1 9 9 ,
cond ns r 9 e e ,
s u rg 1 66
e, condu ctor 442 ,
I ND EX 357
E l ct omagnet 9 1
e r , G as pi pes as ci rcui t 3 30 s,
const ant cu rrent 93 , vapor and vacuum condu ct ion ,
potent ial 98 , 28, 41

ffi ci n cy 99
e e ,
r t ub e conduct ion 29 42
Geissl e , ,
El ctroni c con duction 28 40

e , , Gem fil am nt i n c and es c nt l amp
e e ,
22
E li mination of harmoni cs b y l ter a G round ed l ak y c ond u ct or 3 3 3
e ,
n ator d i gn 1 1 6 es ,
En gy of hy teres is 57
er s ,
torag in constant pot nti l

s e e a
con t n t cu rrent tr n f r
s a a s e H lf tu rn w indings 1 1 4
a ,
mat i on 280 ,
H rdn ss magneti c co ffici nt
a e , , e e of ,
E v n h a rmoni cs 1 1 4 1 53 1 5 7
e , , , 44
E x c s ive very hi gh harmoni c in
e s s Harmoni cs efi ect of 12 1 , ,
dis to t i on b y magnet i c tr sa v n 153 157

e e , ,
u rat i on , 1 40 p rat ion by w v cr n 1 5 7

se a a e s ee s,
E x cit i n g cu rr nt of trans form r d

e e e H u l r all oys magn ti c prop rti
e s e , e e es ,
p e n d i n g on w ave s h ap 1 3 7 8 1 e,
E xpon nt of hyste resis 66

e H i gh h rmoni cs in al t rnator 1 20
,
a e ,
x ce s iv in w av d i torti on by e s e e s
magnet i c s at u rat ion 1 40 ,
by l ot pitch 1 20 s ,
Fac condu ctor i n al t rnator 1 1 4

e t mp rature insul tors 26
e , e e a ,
F rad y l w of l ectrol yt i c on Homog neous mag n ti c m t ri l

a a
’
s a e c e e a e a s,
du ct ion 6 , 55
F rri t m gn ti c 80
e es , a e Hun ting of synchronou m chin s
, s a e ,
F rromagn ti c dens ity 45

e e 1 66 208 , ,
Fi l d fl u of l ternator 232
e x a Hy t r sis 5 6 , s e e ,
Fil m cu tout in ri s ci rcuits 29 8 se l o s and w ave h pe 1 1 2

e , s s a ,
Fl t top w v 1 1 1
a a e,
Fl i ck r of l mp and w av hap 1 24
e a s es e,
Fl u x dis tribu tion of al t rnator fi l d e e ,
1 14 I mp d n ce and dmitt n c w ith e a a a e
Fl ux m gn ti c of al ternator 23 2
es , a e os c il l at in g cu rr nt 3 46 , e s,
Forc m ch ni cal magn ti c 9 1 1 07

es , e a of li ne i n r gul t i on ofe , ri , e a se es
Form f ctor of magneti c w av di

a ci rcui t 306 e s s,
t o t ion 1 27 r , I nd u c d curr nt in l aky c bl e e e a e
Fr ct ion l pitch armat ur w ind in g

a a ar mor 336 e
,
l i mi nat in g h armoni c
e 1 19 I nd u ctanc 1 s, e,
F qu ncy conv rs ion in cumul t iv

re e e nd c p
a a c i t y h u n t i n g c i rc u iat e a s ,
u rg s1 66 e, 1 81
of yn chronous machin o il
s pow er equat ion 3 1 6 e sc ,
l t i on 2 1 3 a , as w av s creen 1 5 3 e ,
Fri ction mol cular magneti c 5 6 e I ndu ct ion motor mag tc

n i c
,
i rc u i t s e ,
F r fih li ch
’
s l aw , 43 228
i ns tab ility
,
1 64, 20 1
I neffi ciency of ma ne g t c cyc
i l e ,
6 0
I nfinitel y l ong l eak y c
o n c
d r
u t o ,
3 3 2
G ap i n ma gn ti c circui t r du ci ng
e e n t t b c p ct
I s ab i l i y y a a i y hs u n t ,
1 80
wa v di t ort ion 1 45
e s , of ci rcui t s 1 65 ,
358 I ND E X
tab il i ty of ind uction moto 20 1

I ns rs , M agn ti m 43
e s ,
of pyro l ctri c c ond u ct or 1 6

e e ,
tab l and d ta 87 88
es a , ,
of yn chr on ou mot or 208

s s ,
w av d i torti on b y sat u r tion
e s a ,
In tant n ou pow r of gen ral y

s a e s e e s s 1 28
t em, 3 1 7 M agn ti te a e 36
e r ,
Insul ators 23 42 , ,
hy t r is 62
s e es ,
as pyr o l ctri c c ond u ct or 25

e e ,
m gn t i c prope ti es 80
a e r ,
I ron cob al t all oy magneti c 78 , ,

as pyro l ct ri c cond u ctor 1 4
e e ,
magnet i c properties 7 9 ,
M agnet i ati on cu rv 48
z e,
res istan ce 4 ,
M gn tk i m gn ti c properti 80
a e es , a e es ,
M angan l l oy
es emagn t i c prop a s, e
ert i es , 81
t magn ti c prope ties 79
s eel , e r ,
Kennel l y s ’
l aw of r el u ct ivi ty , 44 M ch ni cal m gn ti c for ces 9 1 107
e a a e , ,
M rcu ry
e ch racterist i c 3 9
ar c a ,
M tal res i tan c 2

e s, s e,
M tal li c c rb on r is tance 22
e a ,
es ,
L ag d ampin g pow r in yn chron

of e s cond u ct or 1 42 s,
ou mach i n 213
s e, i nd u ct i on m gn t i c 47 , a e ,
of yn chroni in g forc
s 212 z e, magn t i c d n i ty 45
e e s ,
L mp ci rcui t in ri 29 7
a s se es , M i xt u r s pyro l ct ri c condu ctor
e as e e s,
equi val nt of li n i mp d n c in
e e e a e 21
s ri ci rcuit 306
e es s, M ol cul r magn ti c f i ction 56
e a e r ,
L w of hy t er is 62
a s es ,
M onocycli c s qu r 26 1 273 283 a e, , , ,
Le k g d i tri bu t d of ci rcuit 330

a a e, s e ,
s, 293
fl u of al t rn at in g cu rr nt tr n
x e e a s M utu al in du ct ive fl u of al ternator x
form r 2 1 7 e s, armat u r r act ion 23 7 e e ,
du cin g w v d istortion 1 45
re a e ,
Leak y cond u ctor 330 3 32 336 , , ,
Lo d b al ance of pol yph as sy t m

a e s e ,
Negative res ist an ce of ar c, efi ect iv e,
314
19 1
ch aracter d t rmining tab il i ty e e s
Neodymium magnetis m 77
i n ind u ct ion mot or 205
, ,
,
Nerns t l amp condu ct or 1 3 24
L o op of hy t r s i 56
, ,
s e e s,
N i ck el magneti c propert ies 8 1
Lo p rc nt ge in m gn ti c cycl
ss , e e a ,
a e e,
t
s eel ,
,
magneti c properties
,
7
9
,
60
N ominal in du c d e m f e of al e tr
Loxod romi c S pi ral 3 45
. . .
,
n at or 23 6
Lumines cen c in g as and vapor on
e c
,
d ucti on 28 ,
O
Luminous streak cond u ct ion in pyro
el ectri c c ond u ct or 1 8 ,
Oi ls as insul ators 26 ,
Open ci rcu i ted l eaky condu ctor 332 ,
mag n t i c ci rcui t w ave shap

e ,
e
dis tortion 1 45 ,
M gn ti c ci rcu i ts
a e of i ndu t i on c O rgani c insul at ors 24 ,
motor 228 ,
Os ci ll ating approach to equ il i b rium
l m nt 7
e e 7 e s, cond i tion 21 0 ,
fri ct ion 56 ,
cur ents 343
r ,
m ch ni c l forc
e a a es , 1 07 dis charges 3 5 2 ,
3 60 I ND EX
R efl e ction at end of l ea k y condu ctor ,

Shunt protect ive devi ce in ri se es
33 4 ci rcuits 298 ,
R gting pole conv rt r nd w v

e ul a e e a a e Sil i con as pyro l ct ri conductor 13e e c ,
h ap 1 23 s e, s te l hy t re is 62
e , s e s ,
R gu l at ion of
e ries ci rcuit b y r ct se s ea magn t i c p rope rt i
e 7
9 es ,
an c h unt 30 1 e s ,
Sine w ave as standard 1 1 1 ,
R gul ator con t ant cu rr nt 25 1

e ,
s e ,
Si nging 1 88
ar e,
R l u ctivi ty 43
e ,
S i ng l eph as l o d pow r equ tion
e a ,
e a ,
cu rv 46 e, 3 15
R m n nt m g n t is m 43
e a e a e ,
Sp rk condu ct ion 28
a ,
R e i t nc
s s a 1 e, di ch arge produ cin g os cill tion
s a s,
efi e t i of l ak y c on du ctor
c v e, e ,
1 97
3 33 Sp d ch nge of indu ct i on moto
ee a r
of li ne i n se ri es ci cui s , r t 3 06 w i th l oad 209 ,
g tive ff ctiv of a c 1 9 1
ne a e e e, r ,
i n t ab i l i ty of mot or 202
s ,
R es s i tivi ty magni tu d of d i ff r n t
, e e e St b ili ty charact eri st i c of
a on ar e
ond u ct ors 42
c ,
con t nt cu rr nt 1 73s a e ,
R es onan c of tr an form r w i th h
e s e ar on con s t ant vol t ag 1 69 e,
moni of magn ti c b ri dg d es e e condi tion of capaci ty s hunting

g ap , 15 1 ar e, 1 84
R es onan t w v s creen 1 5 7 a e s, hunti ng ci rcuit 1 78
s ,
R es onat i ng c i rcui t c on t ant cu rr n t ,

s e of i nd u ct i on mot or 20 1 ,
r gul ation 256 26 1 282

e , , , , of p rall el Op
a tion of era arc,
290 175
as wa v e s c een, r 154 of s yn chronous ma chi ne, 215
R t t fl u of al tern tor 23 2
es u l an x a ,
curves of a 3 6 1 68 r e, ,
R is i n g magn ti c ch aract ris t i c 5 1

e e ,
of pyro l ctr i c c on d u ctor 20
e e ,
Stabl m gn ti c charact eri st i c 54

e a e ,
S tor g b tt ry 8
a e a e ,
S tr k cond u ction of pyro l ctri

ea e e c
S tur tion co ffi ci nt m gn ti c 44
a a e e , a e ,
cond u ct or 1 8 42 , ,
m gn ti c 7 a 7 e , Str m vol tag of

ea 35 e ar e,
equ t i on of w av h p 137
a e s a e, of Geis l r t u b e 2 9 s e ,
h pin g w av 1 25
s a es , Su c ptance w i th os cil l atin g u
s e c r
of r ct n c hunting ri
ea a e s se es rents 3 50 ,
ci rcui t 302 , Sy mmetri c l w av 1 1 4 a e,
v l u m gn ti c 46
a e, a e ,
Synchroni in g forc and pow r 2 10
z e e ,
Scr n w v 1 5 3
ee ,
a e Syn chronou r ct nc of l t r
s ea a e a e
S cond ry c l l 8
e a e , n tor 23 6 a ,
S l f i ndu ctiv arm tu r fl u of

e e a e x m ch i na h u nt i n g 2 0 8
es , ,
l t rn t or 23 4
a e a ,
r ct n c 232
ea a e,
S ri op r tion con t nt curr nt

e es e a ,
s a e ,
motor t nd in g t o i n t b il i ty
e s a ,
29 7 1 64
con t nt vol t ag 29 7
s a e,
Sh p of hy t r i cu rv 68
a e s e es s e,
Short ci rcuit tr i n tr n form r s ess a s e ,

T conn ct ion of con t ant u rr nt
- e s c e
99 t ransformat ion 25 6 261 , , ,
thi rd h rmoni c a in tr t r
al e na o , 282 , 290
2 44 as wa v creen
e s , 1 54

Theory and Calculation of Electric Circuits

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NI ) CLAJ

TFI I ENOURI ( AJ . LCﬂUT LAUI WK

I n the t wenty years s ince the ﬁrs t edition Of T heory and

el ectrica l engin eering has risen from a s ma l l b eginning to th e

world s greates t indus try ; electricity h as found i ts ﬁel d as the

and our knowledge Of electrophys ics and electrical engineering

ag o cou l d b e dis miss ed with a few pages di s cu ss ion now ha ve ex ,

p a n d e d and re q uire an e x te n s i v e know l edge by ev e ry e l ectrica l

I n th e fol lowing vol ume I ha ve dis cu ss ed th e mos t important

m eaning Of reactance and simil ar terms the problems Of s tabil ity ,

an d in s tabil ity Of el ectric s ys t em s et c and al s o hav e giv en a more

e x tend ed app l ication Of th e m ethod Of compl ex q uantit ies which ,

t h e ex p erienc e Of these twen ty years h as shown to b e th e mos t

I n s om e res pects the foll owi ng work and i ts companion

vo l ume T heory and C al cul ation Of E l ectrical A pparatus

may b e cons idered as continuations or rather as parts Of T he ,

ory and C al cul ation O f A l ternating C urrent Ph enom ena

t h e 4th edition which appeared nin e years ag o A l te rnat ing

C urrent Ph enomena had reach ed about the l arges t practical

bul k and when rewriting it for the 5 th edition it became neces

s ary to s ubdivide it into three v o l um es to inc l ud e at leas t the ,

mos t necessary structural el ements Of our knowl edge Of el ectrical

in to three volumes : A l ternating C urrent Phenomena

U s e in Temp er atu re M easu r ements

t rol yti C ll — S tor g Batt y

9 . Propo tion Of R ang

I n tab ili ty Condition

W d R a g Of Pyro ctr c C du ct r Th i r I ndu tri l U

12 . Un qu al Cu rr nt Di tribu tion n d Lu minou Str k Condu

14 . Tru Pyro l ctri c Condu ctor nd C n t ct R i t nc C n

t i on El ctroni c Cond u cti on— Di ru pt iv

19 . Spark Streamer Corona G ei l r Tub e Gl ow Di c on

t i nu ou s an d Dis ru pti ve D ue to S teep D rop of Vol t— am p r e e

Characteri ti c Small Cu rr nt an d High Vol tag S ri es

21 . L aw of A rc Cond u cti on : Uni di r ct i onal Cond u ct ion R cti ﬁ

R ecti fyi n g R a nge .

and a Ch ract i tic Of A rc er s s

24 . Vacuum Arc nd Th i r Ch ract ri tic s a e a e s s

25 . Vol t g G r di nt nd R esis tivi ty

2 7 To tal Vol t amp r Ch a ract r i t i c

28 . M agn i tu d Of R e es is tivity Of D i ﬁ nt Typ of Condu ctor ere es s

33 . I ndeﬁni tenes s Of th e B H R el at ion-— T h e A l t erna t i n g M gn tica e

G rad u al A pproach t o th e S tab l e M ag n eti z at ion C u rve .

35 . Produ ction Of Stabl e Val u es b y Sup er pos ition Of Al terna ting -

F i el d —T h e Li nea r R el u ctivi ty L aw of th e S tab l e M agn eti c

M ol cul a r M gn tic Frict i n nd Hy t r i — M agn tic

P rob bl e Caus Of th I ncr

Dis c u ion Of Ex pon nt n

Un y mm tric al Hy t r i Cycl n El ctr ic l App r tu

E qu tions and C l cul t ion of Un ymm tric l Hy t r i

50 . T bl Of Con t n t nd Cu rve of M gn tic Ch r ct ri ti c

I ndu trial I mpo rtanc Of M ch nic al Forc in M agn ti c

T h e Al t rnat ing c u rr nt El ctr magn t I t Equ t i n I t

T h e Con tan t pot n ti l A l t rn ti ng c u rr n t El ctr m g n t

R l a t ion Of L k g e R act n c Of T r n f r m r t o Sh ort i

57 R . p b tw n Condu ctor nd R tu rn Con du ctor Of

El ctr c C i rc u i t C l c ul tion u nd r Sho rt c i rcu i t Cond i t ion

Eff ct of Fi l d Fl u x Di trib u tion on Wav Sh pe—Odda

R du ction and E l i minat on Of H rmon c

R l tiv Ob j ct ion Of H rmoni c

Som Typ ic l Cas r qu i ri ng Wav Sh p Di tort ion

Cu rr ent Waves Satu r t d Cl o d M g ti c C irc u i t w i th

Sin W v Of I mpr d Vol t g es s e a e

Con t nt Pot nti l Con t n t Cu rr n t nd P ak Val u s