OHM’S LAW

AIM:
To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.

APPARATUS:
Resistance wires , a voltmeter (0-3V) , an ammeter(0-3A) of appropriate range, a battery
(eliminator), rheostat, meter scale, one-way key, a screw gauge, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

THEORY:
According to Ohm’s law, the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across its ends , provided its physical conditions like temperature,
dimensions , pressure etc. of the conductor remain the same.
If I is the current flowing through a conductor and V ,the potential difference across its ends,
then according to Ohm’s law,
IαV
Or, V α I
Or, V=IR
��
Where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor. Or, R = ��
R depends upon the nature of material , temperature and dimension of the conducting wire.
To establish the current- voltage relationship, a graph between potential difference (V) and
��
current (I) is plotted . The graph is a straight line establishing that ��= constant.
This constant ratio gives the unknown value of resistance.

Specefic resistance (ρ) of the material of the wire is given by ρ =

����
��
where, ‘A’is the area of cross section of the given wire and ‘l ‘its length. If D is the
diameter of the wire then,
A = ПD2/l
PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit diagram.
(II) Note down the value of V and I from voltmeter and ammeter for a given position of
rheostat.
(III) Sfift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter readings and voltmeter
readings show next set of full scale readings and not in fractions.
 (IV) Take atleast 6 sets of independent readings.
(V) Remove the wire and find its length using a meter scale and its diameter using a
screw gauge
(VI) The same procedure is repeated for the given set of 2-3 wires.

OBSERVATIONS :
1. Range of given ammeter =.......................................................... Range of
given voltmeter = ......................................................... 2. Least count of given
ammeter = ....................................................... Least count of given voltmeter =
....................................................... 3. LENGTH:
Length of the given resistance
wire 1:......................cm.= ..............................m
wire2: :......................cm.=..............................m
4. DIAMETER :
DIAMETER of the resistance
wire 1:......................cm.=................................m
wire2: :......................cm.=..............................m

Resistance R
(1) Wire 1:
From Calculation:
from V-I graph

(2) Wire 2: From Calculation:

from V-I graph
���� 2
Resistivity or Specefic resistance (ρ) ρ = �� where A= ПD /l
(1) Wire 1:
 (2) Wire 2:
RESULT:

The V-I graph plotted for all the three resistance wires were found to be a
straight line.

Resistance Wire 1 :
Resistance of the given wire ( from V-I graph) =
Resistivity of the given wire =
Resistance Wire 2 :
Resistance of the given wire ( from V-I graph) =
Resistivity of the given wire =

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
Voltmeter and ammeter should be of appropriate range. SOURCES
OF ERROR:
The instrument screws may be loose.
Thick connecting wires may not be available.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN -1
To find the relationship between V and I

SL. Resistance wire Voltmeter Ammeter ��

R= ��
No. reading (V) reading (I)
Ω
volt ampere
1

1 -

2
r

3 e

4
a

5
s

6
2

1 -

2
r

w
 3 e

4 a

5
s

6
3

1 -

2
r

3 e

4
a

5
s

TABULAR COLUMN -2
TO FIND DIAMETER OF GIVEN WIRE USING SCREW GAUGE Pitch of

screw gauge =

Total no. of divisions in circular scale =

��������ℎ
L.C. of given screw gauge =
����.���� ������.���� ���������������� ����������

= mm

Zero error =...........................mm Zero correction, C ...................................mm

SL. No. e linear scale circular scale reading observed corrected
reading(N)
c

n
diameter diameter
a

t
D0 = N +n D= D0 + C
s

i
x(L.C)
s

r mm no. of value mm mm
circular =nx(L.C).
scale div. of Mm
reference
line (n)
 1

1 -

2 i

3 e

4 t

1 -

2 i

3 e

6 t

1 -

2 i

3 e

4 t

Meter bridge-1
AIM:
To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre Bridge. APPARATUS:
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), resistance wire/ standard resistance , a Leclanche cell
(battery eliminator), a galvanometer, resistance box, a jockey , one-way key, connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY:
A meter bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
If R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap
of meter bridge
Under balancing condition,
If l is the length of meterbridge wire from zero end unto balance point, then ��
(������−��)��
�� =

���� where �� is the resistance per unit

length of the meter bridge wire.
 �� (������−��)
Or, �� =

��
(������−��)��
Or, �� =
��

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit diagram.
(II) Connect the resistance tightly.
(III) Take out some resistance, say 1Ω from the resistance box and plug the key.
(IV) Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right end of the bridge
wire.
(V) Now, note the galvanometer deflection. If it shows opposite deflection, the
connections are correct.
(VI) Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till the galvanometer shows
opposite deflection. It gives the null point B. (VII) Now, measure AB =l.
(VIII) The experiment is repeated with different values of R in the resistance box.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of Resistance R =

=...................................................Ω
RESULT

Resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre Bridge.

=..............................................

.....Ω

PRECAUTIONS:

The connections should be neat , clean and tight.

All plugs in the resistance box should be clean, neat and tight. SOURCES
OF ERROR:

The instrument screws may be loose.

Plugs may not be clean

TABULAR COLUMN

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN WIRE

Sl. No. RESISTANCE LENGTH AB LENGTH BC unknown
FROM =l =(100-l) resistance
RESISTANCE X = ((100-
BOX (R) l)R)/l

Ω CM cm Ω

2
 3

Meter bridge-II
AIM:
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge. APPARATUS:
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), resistance wires/ standard resistances , a Leclanche cell
(battery eliminator), a galvanometer, resistance box, a jockey , one-way key, connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY:
A meter bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
If R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap
of meter bridge
Under balancing condition,

If l is the length of meterbridge wire from zero end unto balance point, Or, �� =
(������−��)��

��
When two resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is given by Rs = R1 +
R2

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit diagram with first R1
(II) Connect the resistance tightly.
(III) Take out some resistance, say 1Ω from the resistance box and plug the key.
(IV) Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right end of the bridge
wire.
(V) Now, note the galvanometer deflection. If it shows opposite deflection, the
connections are correct.
(VI) Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till the galvanometer shows
opposite deflection. It gives the null point B. (VII) Now, measure AB =l.
(VIII) The experiment is repeated with different values of R in the resistance box.
 (IX) Repeat the experiment with R2 in the right gap
(X) Then, connect R1 and R2 in series and repeat
the experiment.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of Resistance R1 =...............................................Ω Mean
value of Resistance R2 =...................................................Ω Mean
value of R1 and R2 in series experimentally,

value of R1 and R2 in series theoretically

Rs = R1 + R2
=
=..................................................... Ω
RESULT
Law of combination of resistors in series, is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
All plugs in the resistance box should be clean, neat and tight. SOURCES
OF ERROR:
The instrument screws may be loose. Plugs
may not be clean.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. No. E RESISTAN LENGTH LENGTH unknown resistance
C

N
CE FROM AB = l BC =(100-l) X = ((100-l)R)/l
A RESISTAN
CE BOX
T

(R)
I

Ω cm cm Ω
e

1 n R1=
o

2 1

5
 e

1 n R2=
o

2 2

1 s
Rs=
e

2 e

3 2

4
d

5 R

Potentiometer-1
AIM:
To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer. APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a galvanometer, a
battery ( or a battery eliminator) a rheostat of low resistance , a resistance box, a jockey ,
one-way key, a two way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
When a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross- sectional area and
composition, the potential drop across any length of the wire is directly proportional to that
length.
Mathematically, V α l
If l1 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the emf E1 of the given
primary cell, then , E1 α l1
If l2 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the emf E2 of the given
primary cell, then , E2 α l2
Hence,
E1
��1
E2= ��2
PROCEDURE:
 (I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit diagram.
(II) Connect the positive pole of the battery ( a battery of constant emf) to the zero end of
the potentiometer and the negative pole through a one way key and a low
resistance rheostat to the other end of the potentiometer.
(III) Connect positive poles of the cells E1 and E2 to the terminal at the zero end and the
negative poles to the two extreme terminals of the two way key.
(IV) Connect the common terminal of the two-way key through a galvanometer and a
resistance box to the jockey J.
(V) Maximum current is drawn from the battery by adjusting the rheostat. One way key is
inserted.
(VI) Using the two-way key, one of the two primary cells is included in the circuit.
(VII) Check for opposite deflection in the extreme ends of the potentiometer wire. If
opposite deflections are shown, the connections are correct.
(VIII) Slide the jockey until null deflection is shown in the galvanometer. (IX) Note the
balancing length as l1.
(X) Similarly, by including the second primary cell using the two-way key, l2 is found out.
(XI) Repeat observations alternatively for each cell and for the same value of current.
OBSERVATIONS
Range of voltmeter =
Least Count of voltmeter =
Emf of battery ( eliminator) =
Emf of Leclanche cell =
Emf of Daniel cell =

CALCULATIONS
Ratio of emf of two cells ( Leclanche to Daniel )
=
RESULT

Ratio of emf of two cells

( Leclanche to Daniel ) =

PRECAUTIONS
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations
are taken.
SOURCES OF ERROR
The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material
density throughout its length.
End resistance may not be zero.

CIRCUIT DIAGAM

TABULAR COLUMN
S No. Blalncing length when E1 ( Blalncing length
Leclanche cell) in the circuit when E2 ( Daniel cell)
in the circuit

l1 ( cm) l2 (cm)

3
 4

Potentiometer-2
AIM:
To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, a battery ( or a battery eliminator) a rheostat of low resistance, a
galvanometer, a high resistance box , a fractional resistance box, a jockey , two one-way
keys, ,the given primary cell( a Leclanche cell/a Daniel cel)l, connecting wires and a piece of
sand paper.
THEORY:
When a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross- sectional area and
composition, the potential drop across any length of the wire is directly proportional to that
length.
Mathematically, V α l
If l1 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the emf E1 of the given
primary cell( without shunt resistance in the circuit) , then , E α l1
If l2 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the terminal p.d. of the
given primary cell( with the shunt resistance in the circuit) then , V α l2
Internal resistance of the given cell is given by
r =( 1 −����) R

r =( 1 −������2) R

r =( ��1−��2
��2) R where R is the shunt
resistance in parallel with the given cell.

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit diagram.
(II) Connect the positive pole of the battery ( a battery of constant emf) to the zero end of
the potentiometer and the negative pole through a one way key and a low
resistance rheostat to the other end of the potentiometer.
(III) Connect positive poles of the cell E to the terminal at the zero end of potentiometer
and the negative pole to a jockey J through a galvanometer and a high resistance
box.
(IV) Maximum current is drawn from the battery by adjusting the rheostat. One way key is
inserted.
 (V) The shunt is not included in the circuit.
(VI) Check for opposite deflection in the extreme ends of the potentiometer wire. If
opposite deflections are shown, the connections are correct.
(VII) Slide the jockey until null deflection is shown in the galvanometer. (VIII) Note the
balancing length as l1.
(IX) Similarly, by including the shunt resistance using the one-way key in the secondary
circuit, balancing length l2 is found out. (X) Repeat observations alternatively for the cell
with and without shunt resistance and for the same value of current.
OBSERVATIONS
Range of voltmeter =
Least Count of voltmeter =
Emf of battery ( eliminator) =
Emf of given primary cell =
CALCULATION
r =( ��1−��2
��2) R=
RESULT
The internal resistance of the given cell is found to increase with external
resistance.

PRECAUTIONS
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The cell should not be disturbed during the experiment. SOURCES
OF ERROR
The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material
density throughout its length.
End resistance may not be zero.
EMF of driver cell may not be greater than the given cell’s emf. CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN
S No. Shunt Balancing Balancing internal
resistance length without length with resistance
(R) shunt resistance shunt r = ( (l1-l2)
in the circuit resistance in /l2 ) R
the circuit

Ω l1 ( cm) l2 (cm) Ω

4
 Galvanometer half deflection
AIM:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure
of merit.
APPARATUS:
A Galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery two resistance boxes, two one-way keys a rheostat ,
an ammeter of a given range and connection wires. THEORY :
The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method is given by
����
G=

��−�� Where R is the resistance connected

in series with the galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance. The figure of
merit of the given galvanometer is given by
K= ��
(��+�� )�� Where E is the emf of the cell
and θ , the deflection produced with resistance R.
The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer Ig = nK where n is the total
no. of
divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero.
PROCEDURE :
a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit diagram.
(II) Take out the high resistance ( say, 10,000Ω) from the resistance box and insert key K1
only.
(III) Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum and within the scale. Let the
deflection be θ.
(IV) Insert K2 also and without changing the value of R , adjust the value of shunt
resistance S such that the deflection in the galvanometer reduces to half the value
��
already obtained.( i.e, ��). (V) Note the value of S.
(VI) A set of observations are taken in the same way by changing the value of R and
adjusting S.
b) Figure of merit
(I) Make connections as shown in diagram.
(II) Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ when the circuit is closed.
(III) Repeat the steps to obtain valus for R for different values of deflection.
CALCULATIONS
Mean value of galvanometer resistance, G =
Mean value of figure of merit , K =
 RESULT:
Resistance of the given galvanometer , G =
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, K =

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
The screws of the instruments may be loose.
The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No. Resistanc deflection in Shunt half galvanometer figure of
e (R) galvanometer resistance deflection resistance merit
(θ ) (S) (θ/2) G=RS/(R-S) K=E/(R+G )θ

Ω div Ω div Ω A/div.

CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal
length.
APPARATUS:
Light box, concave mirror, mirror holder, screen & meter scale. THEORY:
If u is the object distance, v the image distance and f focal length of the given mirror, then
�� �� ��
By Mirror formula, �� = ��+ ��

Or, f = ����
��+��

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the concave mirror in the mirror holder and place a screen in front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the mirror by focusing a very distant tree on the screen.
The distance between the screen and the mirror gives the rough focal length
(distant object method).
(III) Now, Keep the light box in front of the mirror in a suitable position.
(IV) For a known value of u, v is found out.
(V) A set of observations are done.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of focal length of the given concave mirror= cm= m
RESULT:
Focal length of the given concave mirror = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Mirror may not be clean.

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No. Object image focal length (f)
distance (u) distance f= uv / (u+v)
(v)

cm cm cm

CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v
 APPARATUS:
An optic bench with three uprights ( central upright fixed and two outer uprights with lateral
movement) , two needles , convex lens, lens’ holder, screen & meter scale.
THEORY:
If u is the object distance, v the image distance and f focal length of the given lens, then
�� �� ��
By lens formula, �� = ��− ��

Or, f = ����
��−��

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the convex lens in the lens holder and place a screen in front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the lens by focusing a very distant tree on the screen.
The distance between the screen and the mirror gives the rough focal length
(distant object method).
(III) The object needle is mounted in the outer laterally movable upright near the zero
end.
(IV) The given convex lens is mounted on the fixed upright at the centre in a suitable
position.
(V) The height of the object needle is adjusted to make its tip is in level with the optic
centre of the lens.
(VI) The image needle is mounted on the upright near the other end of the optic bench.
(VII) The object needle is kept at a given value of u
(VIII) Now , from the other end, height of image needle is adjusted such that its tip
coincides with the tip of image of object needle.
(IX) The upright(image needle) is now moved to and fro until parallax is completely
eliminated.
(X) This gives the position of v corresponding to selected value of u. (XI) The
experiment is repeated for different values of u.
CALCULATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm = m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from calculations ) = cm = m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = cm = m

RESULT:
u-v graph is a rectangular hyperbola.
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm
away from the needle..

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Uprights may not be vertical.

RAY DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No. Object image focal length (f)
distance (u) distance f= uv / (u-v)
(v)
 cm cm cm

CONVEX MIRROR
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
APPARATUS:
Light box, convex mirror, convex lens , mirror holder, lens holder, screen & meter scale.
THEORY:

If R is the radius of curvature of a given mirror, then its focal length, f = ����

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the convex lens in the lens holder and place a screen in front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the lens by focusing a very distant tree on the screen.
The distance between the screen and the mirror gives the rough focal length
(distant object method).
(III) Now, Keep the convex lens in front of the light box in a suitable position to obtain a
sharp , real and inverted image on the screen. (IV) Now the convex mirror is placed in
between the lens and the screen to obtain a clear and sharp image on the side of the light
box itself. (V) The distance between the mirror and the screen is measured.
CALCULATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens= cm= m Mean focal length of the given
convex mirror = cm = m

RESULT:
Focal length of the given convex mirror = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Mirror and lens may not be clean.

RAY DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No. Distance between focal
screen and mirror ( R length (f)
) f= R/ 2

cm cm

3
 PRISM
AIM :
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

APPARATUS:
Prism, drawing board, white paper, drawing pins , graph paper & protractor.

THEORY:
When a ray of light passes through a prism it suffers a deviation in its path. The
angle between the incident ray direction and the emergent ray gives the angle of
deviation (δ )
When the angle of incidence gradually increases, the angle of deviation is found to
decrease first , reach a minimum value and then, increase.
The minimum angle of deviation attained in the prism is called angle of minimum
deviation ( δm ).

PROCEDURE:
(I) Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board using pins. (II) Draw two parallel
lines and making these lines as a base and sketch six boundary of prisms with
suitable spacing. (III) Draw normal to one side of the prism outlines. (IV) Draw
straight lines making angles 350, 400, 450,500,550 & 600 to the normals drawn in
each prism outlines.
(V) First take one prism outline and fix two office pins vertically such that the
distance between the pins should be minimum of 1 cm.
(VI) Keep the prism within the drawn boundary and from the other face look at the
image of the pins.
(VII) Closing one eye, try fixing a pin on the side such that it is in line with the
images of other two pins.
(VIII) Same way, try fixing one more pin so that all the two pins are in line with the
images of other two pins.
(IX) Now, remove the pins and encircle the pricks on the paper and join the two
points with the face of the prism to obtain the emergent ray.
(X) Produce the emergent ray to meet the incident ray produced. The angle
 between the two is measured.
(XI) The same procedure is repeated for all other angles of incidence being
marked.
CALCULATIONS:
Angle of minimum deviation from i-d graph ( δm) =
RESULT:
The i-d graph indicates that ,when the angle of incidence gradually increases, the
angle of deviation decreases first , reaches a minimum value and then increase.
The angle of minimum deviation from i-d graph ( δm ).=

PRECAUTIONS:

The pin should be fixed vertical.

The distance between the pins should be around a two finger gap. SOURCES

OF ERROR:

Angle measurements may not be accurate.

Pin pricks on paper may be too thick.

SAMPLE GRAPH:
 TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No. angle of incidence angle of deviation (
(i) δ)

degree degree

1 350

2 400

3 450

4 500

5 550

6 600

GLASS SLAB ( TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE)

AIM :
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope. APPARATUS:
A travelling microscope, glass slab, lycopodium powder.
THEORY:
Refractive index of the slab,
n = �������� ��ℎ�������������� ���� ��������
���������������� ��ℎ�������������� ���� ��������
PROCRDURE:
(I) Make the microscope horizontal and adjust the eye-piece to have a clear visibility of
the cross wire.
(II) Keep an ink dot or a cross (object) on the horizontal table of travelling microscope
and focus on it till a clear image is seen. (III) Note the main scale and vernier coincidence.
These will give the first microscope reading (R1).
(IV) Now place the glass slab over the ink dot/ cross. Now adjust the position of
 eye-piece of microscope till the image is clear.
(V) Note the readings. It will give R2.
(VI) Spread a little lycopodium powder on the top of the slab and focus the eye-piece on
the powder granules.
(VII) Note the readings. It will give R3.
(VIII) Repeat the steps for two more observations.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of refractive index , n =
RESULT:
Refractive index of the given glass slab =

PRECAUTIONS :
In microscope , the parallax should be completely removed. The microscope should be
moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The microscope may not be properly calibrated.
Parallax is not eliminated completely.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. microscope MSR vernier VSR Total ref. Index ,
No. Readings coincid =nx reading
n = ��3−��1
ence(n L.C. ( MSR + ��3−��2
) VSR)

cm cm cm

1 Without slab

with slab

with
lycopodium
powder

2 Without slab

with slab

with
lycopodium
powder

3 Without slab

with slab

with
lycopodium
powder
 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM :
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS:
A pn Jn. Diode, a 3V battery, a 50 V battery, high resistance rheostat, 0-3V voltmeter, 0-50V
voltmeter, 0-100µA ammeter, one way key, connecting wire and sand paper.

THEORY:
FORWARD BIASED CHARACTERISTICS:
When the p-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal and n section connected to
negative terminal of the battery, then it is forward biased.
REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS:
When the p-section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of the high voltage and
n-section connected to negative terminal of the battery, then it is reverse biased.
PROCEDURE:
(I) Connect the apparatus as per the circuit diagram.
(II) Least count and zero error of ammeter and voltmeter are noted. (III) The moving
contact of the potential divider is so adjusted that the ammeter and voltmeter show zero
deflection.
(IV) Now the forward bias voltage is varied in slow steps. For each value of voltmeter
reading corresponding readings in ammeter is noted. (V) Similarly, voltmeter and
ammeter readings when reverse biased is also taken.

RESULT:
The V-I characteristics of pn jn. Diode is drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:
All connections should be clean , neat and tight.
Biasing beyond breakdown should not be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Connections may be loose.
Junction diode used may be faulty.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN.

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

forward forward
voltage current

(v) (mA)
reverse Reverse
voltage current

(v) (µA)