CHAPTER – 4 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS & KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

An electric circuit is a 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 path of wires and electrical components which allow a current through
it on the application of potential difference across two points with in the circuit. An electric circuit contains
mainly following three components;
1. Source of electrical Energy such as chemical cell or battery.
2. Sink (or load) of electrical energy such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, motors, lamp etc.
3. Connecting wires.

Electrical Cell: It is a source of electrical energy which maintains the potential difference across the circuit
and hence a continuous flow of charge (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)in the circuit at the cost of chemical or radiant
energy.
❖ An electric cell 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 provide charges rather it just provides
Energy to the already existing mobile charges in the circuit to
establish current.
❖ A chemical cell is prepared by placing two rods (𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠) of
different metals in a chemical solution which provide electric
potential difference across the two rods using chemical reaction
between the solution and the rods (𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)
❖ A combination of two or more electric cells is called ‘Battery’

An electrical cell (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦) has following 𝒕𝒘𝒐 main characteristics:

E.M.F. (𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞) of a cell: It is the work done ( 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑) by the cell in moving a unit
charge in the whole (external + internal circuit)
𝑾𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝓔= V (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡)
𝒒
OR
It is the work done by the internal mechanism force of the cell in taking a unit positive charge from lower to
higher potential or a unit negative charge from higher potential electrode to lower potential electrode
inside the electrolyte.
OR
Mathematically, it is equal to the potential difference between the terminals of the cell when no current is drawn
from the cell or driven into the cell. 𝑽𝑷 − (−𝑽𝑵 ) = 𝑽𝑷 + 𝑽𝑵 = 𝓔

❖ Both 𝑉𝑃 & 𝑉𝑁 are with respect to the electric potential of the electrolyte of the cell which is same
throughout in when 𝒏𝒐 current is drawn from the cell.
❖ E.M.F. is not a force rather a constant potential difference for a cell.
❖ E.M.F. of a cell is originated due to non-electrical (chemical process) so remains constant for a cell as
long as nature of electrodes and electrolyte are same.
 • The E.M.F. of a cell depends upon:
i. The material of electrodes.
ii. The nature of electrolyte used in the cell
iii. Decreases on increasing the concentration of the cell.
iv. Decreases on increasing the temperature of the cell.
• The E.M.F. of a cell does not depend upon:
i. Shape used size of electrode.
ii. Separation between electrodes
Internal Resistance of a cell: It is the obstruction offered to the positive and negative ions to establish
current in the electrolyte of the cell and is denote by ‘r’
❖ Its S.I units is ohm (Ω)
❖ It is 𝒏𝒐𝒕 constant for a cell rather increases slowly as the cell is used.
The internal resistance (r) of cell:
i. Decrease with increase in common surface area of electrodes (inside the electrolyte)
ii. Decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte (as viscosity decreases).
iii. Increases with increase in concentration of electrolyte.
iv. Increases with increase in distance between the electrodes.
Terminal potential difference of a cell: It is defined as the work done per unit charge in carrying a unit
charge in the external circuit connected across the terminals of
the cell.
• EMF is the 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 of terminal potential difference & terminal potential is the 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 of EMF.
• The terminal potential difference is not the characteristic property of a cell and depends upon the
value of R & hence on the value of I drawn from the cell.
❖ The S.I unit of both ‘𝓔’ & ‘ V ‘ is volt (V)

The terminal potential difference (𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹) of a cell:

i. Increases with increase in current drawn of a cell.

ii. Decreases with the passage of time for which the current is drawn from the cell as I decrease.
iii. It decreases with increase in concentration of electrolyte of a cell.

Relation(𝐬) between 𝓔, 𝒓 & 𝑽: Considering the circuit diagram given below,

by definition of EMF,
𝓔 = Work done in carrying a unit charge in the circuit

against the external resistance R + against the internal resistance r

⟹ 𝓔 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 ………(1)

⟹ 𝓔 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟

⟹ 𝓔 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
 𝓔
⟹ 𝑰= = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡. This is known as 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(𝑹 + 𝒓)

𝓔𝐑 𝓔 𝑽 = 𝓔 − 𝑰𝒓
⟹ 𝑽= 𝒓 = 𝑹( − 𝟏)
(𝑹 + 𝒓) 𝑽

❖ Also from equation 1, for different modes of operations of an electric cell we have:

1. If 𝓔 > V, cell is in discharging mode,

2. If 𝓔 < V, cell is in charging mode,

3. If 𝓔 = V, cell is neither charging nor discharging (open circuit) mode.

❖ Characteristic Curves of a Cell given beside

verify that 𝓔 is constant for a cell but V varies
according to the value of R.

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠

1. 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔

From the circuit diagram given above: From the circuit diagram given above:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝑛𝓔 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝓔

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑟

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑛
𝒏𝓔 𝒏𝓔
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 =
𝒏𝒓 + 𝑹 𝒓 + 𝒏𝑹
This combination is used if 𝒓 << 𝑹 This combination is used if 𝒓 >> 𝑹
 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
2. 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔

From the circuit diagram given above: From the circuit diagram given above:

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝓔1 − 𝐼𝑟1 At junctions 𝐵1 & 𝐵2 we have: 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝓔2 − 𝐼𝑟2 And potential difference between 𝐵1 & 𝐵2 are given

by:
On adding above equations
𝑉𝐵1 − 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝓔1 − 𝐼1 𝑟1 = 𝓔2 − 𝐼2 𝑟2 = 𝑽(𝑙𝑒𝑡)
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = ℰ1 + ℰ2 − 𝐼(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) ………..(1)
∵ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
Now if we consider an equivalent Cell against this
series combination then for that: 𝓔1 − 𝑉 𝓔2 − 𝑉 𝓔1 𝓔2 1 1
𝐼= + = ( + )−𝑉( + )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉𝑒𝑞 = ℰ𝑒𝑞 − 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑞 …………(2)
𝓔1 𝑟2 + 𝓔2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
Hence from Eq. (1) & (2) 𝑉= −𝐼 … … … . . (𝟏)
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝒓𝒆𝒒 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 Now if we consider an equivalent Cell against this
series combination then for that:
If cells are connected with 𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 polarity
𝑉𝑒𝑞 = ℰ𝑒𝑞 − 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑞 …………(2)
𝓔𝑒𝑞 = 𝓔𝟏 + 𝓔𝟐
Hence from Eq. (1) & (2)
If cells are connected with 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 polarity
𝑟1 𝑟2 1 1
𝓔𝑒𝑞 = 𝓔𝟏 − 𝓔𝟐 (𝓔𝟏 > 𝓔𝟐 ) 𝒓𝒆𝒒 = = +
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

If cells are connected with 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 polarity

𝓔𝟏 𝒓𝟐 + 𝓔𝟐 𝒓𝟏
𝓔𝒆𝒒 =
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐

If cells are connected with 𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 polarity

𝓔𝟏 𝒓𝟐 − 𝓔𝟐 𝒓𝟏
𝓔𝒆𝒒 = (𝓔𝟏 > 𝓔𝟐 )
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐

𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠

𝓔𝒆𝒒 𝓔𝟏 𝓔𝟐
= +
𝒓𝒆𝒒 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
 𝑀𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠

When the external resistance of the circuit is of the 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 as that of internal resistance, then we
employ mixed grouping of cells to obtain maximum current.

From the circuit diagram given above:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝒏𝓔
𝒏𝒓
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝒎
𝑛ℰ 𝒎𝒏𝓔
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑟 =
𝒏𝒓 + 𝒎𝑹
𝑚 +𝑅

So for maximum current (𝑛𝑟 + 𝑚𝑅) → 0

𝒏𝒓 𝒏𝓔
∴𝑹→ ⇒ 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒎 𝟐𝑹

𝑚 𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

= 𝑖. 𝑒. =
𝑛 𝑅 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
 𝑲𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒇𝒇′ 𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔
In 1842/45 German Physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff extended the work of German physicist George
Simon Ohm and gave 𝑡𝑤𝑜 laws for analysing complicated network which forms the basis of network
analysis.
Network: It is a connection of electrical components like resistors, capacitors, inductors & cells etc to
obtain a certain performance.
Junction: It is a point in a network where 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 circuit elements are joined.
Loop: A loop is any closed path of a network.
Mesh: It is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into other loops.

𝑲𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒇𝒇′ 𝒔 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑳𝒂𝒘 (𝑲𝑪𝑳) 𝑲𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒇𝒇′ 𝒔 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒘 (𝑲𝑽𝑳)

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝒇 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆: 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝒇 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚:

𝑱𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆 ∶ In an electrical network, at any
junction the sum of currents
entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents
leaving the junction.
❖ From figure: 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒
❖ This rule is based upon the fact that in 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦
state, charges cannot accumulate at any
junction or at any point in the circuit. So
charge is conserved.
❖ This rule is also valid if a point in a line of
circuit is considered instead of a junction of
several lines.
𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆: The algebraic sum of changes in
potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero
❖ This rule is based upon the fact that if after
moving in a closed loop a charge comes back to
the same initial point there will be no change in
its electrical energy as electric potential will
remain unchanged for that point. So energy is
conserved.
❖ From Figure
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 1
𝓔𝟏 − 𝓔𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 ………(1)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 2
𝓔𝟐 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 − (𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )𝑹𝟑 = 𝟎 ………(2)

Using above two equations we can find any of the

variables which is asked.

❖ While applying Kirchhoff’s II Law consider

1. 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 direction of a particular loop.
2. All 𝓔 & 𝑰𝑹 to be positive where potential rises while moving along the direction of the loop else
𝓔 & 𝑰𝑹 are taken as negative.
Wheat stone Bridge: It is a simple arrangement of four resistances which can be used to calculate one of
them in terms of others.
❖ Four resistances are so connected as if they are replacing four sides of a parallelogram & along the
two diagonals of which a galvanometer and a cell are connected respectively.
❖ Wheatstone bridge is of special interest when it is in balanced state i.e. 𝒏𝒐 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 flows through
galvanometer.
❖ The arrangement is shown in the figure below & for simplicity we have assumed that the internal
resistance of the cell is zero.
Condition to obtain balanced Wheatstone bridge: On applying Kirchhoff’s Loop Law in loops 1 & 2
respectively, we get:
𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼1 𝑃 = 0 (∵ 𝐼𝑔 = 0)
𝑃 𝐼2
= … … … . . (1)
𝑅 𝐼1
𝐼2 𝑆 − 𝐼1 𝑄 = 0 (∵ 𝐼𝑔 = 0)
𝑄 𝐼2
= … … … . . (2)
𝑆 𝐼1
Hence from Eq. (1) & (2) we have:
𝑷 𝑹
=
𝑸 𝑺 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎

❖ In balanced condition of a Wheatstone bridge: 𝑽𝑩 = 𝑽𝑫

❖ A Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 are of 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 order.

❖ A device named Meter Bridge is based upon

the principle of Balanced Wheatstone bridge
which is used to find an unknown resistance
or to compare two unknown resistances.

Potentiometer: It is a device used to measure the EMF of a cell or potential difference between two points
of an electric circuit to a very good extent of accuracy.
❖ A potentiometer can be regarded as an ideal voltmeter with infinite resistance as it does not draw
any current from the source of EMF at the null point.
❖ It consists of a long wire of 4 𝑡𝑜 10 𝑚 having high resistivity & low temperature coefficient of
resistance like constantan or manganin wire.
❖ When to be used it should also have a 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 which contains a battery, a key
and a rheostat, all connected in series with the long wire of potentiometer.
❖ On 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 the length of wire, the potential gradient 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 but sensitivity of the
potentiometer 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔.
Principle of Potentiometer: When a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform cross section
area, the p.d. across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the
length of that portion.

𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 × 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕.

𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑻𝒐 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑬𝑴𝑭 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝑻𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍

From the circuit diagram given above: From the circuit diagram given above:

When key 𝑎 is closed and null point is at length 𝒍𝟏 When key 𝐾1 is closed and null point is at length 𝒍𝟏
from end point A of the wire, EMF of cell 1 is; from end point A of the wire EMF of cell is;

𝓔1 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑙1 𝓔 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑙1

When key 𝑏 is closed and null point is at length 𝒍𝟐 When key 𝐾2 is closed and null point is at length 𝒍𝟐
from end point A of the wire, EMF of cell 2 is; from end point A of the wire terminal P.D. is ;

𝓔2 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑙2 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑙2

Hence we may conclude: 𝓔1 𝒍1 Hence we may conclude: 𝓔 𝒍1

= =
𝓔2 𝒍2 𝐕 𝒍2

❖ EMF of auxiliary battery > EMF of both cells. 𝓔 𝒍1

𝒓 = 𝑹( − 𝟏) = 𝑹( − 𝟏)
⇒ 𝑽 𝒍2

………….𝑩𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅.