Materials Today: Proceedings 62 (2022) 4772–4778

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A review on remote sensing imagery augmentation using deep learning

V. Lalitha ⇑, B. Latha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Sairam Engineering College, Chennai, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The quantity of remote sensing pictures being captured is rising dramatically due to advancements in
Available online 30 March 2022 earth observation technology, bringing remote sensing in a long and distinct period of history of big data.
Discovering how to successfully harvest this enormous intensity of remote sensing data will be a new
Keywords: challenge. With deep learning, remote sensing data analysis may take on a narrative tone. CNNs are a
Convolutional Neural networks Deep Learning model capable of directly extracting features from large volumes of picture data and
Deep learning are effective at exploiting realistic imagery data characteristics. With regards to computer vision, CNNs
Image augmentation
have shown to be highly successful. CNNs are a powerful tool. There have been several studies employing
Image data
Cyclic GAN
CNNs for remote sensing picture classification in the last few years, and these studies show that CNNs can
produce fast and accurate results. It is the goal of this study to offer an overview of the most current and
advanced applications of deep learning based on CNNs for remote sensing picture enhancement. To
begin, the concepts and features of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) will be briefly reviewed in this
review. There are new innovations and structural enhancements to neural network models that make
them more suited for RS picture enhancement, as well as data for remote sensing image categorization
and augmentation approaches that may be obtained easily and quickly.. As a result of the survey, we
expect remote sensing scientists will be better equipped to tackle categorization challenges utilizing
cutting-edge deep learning algorithms and methodologies. To increase the number of training examples
with a considerable reduction in model over-fitting, data augmentation is a well-known approach used in
most ML & AI applications.
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Innovative Technology for Sustainable Development.

1. Introduction the freely available, lower resolution datasets. Data processing

Remote Sensing technologies have recently seen substantial
advancements. Detecting objects using optical remote sensing
imaging is a difficult task due to lack of training samples. Although
recent research has produced excellent results using the multi-
faceted neural network method, a great number of training sam-
ples is required to make sure the accuracy and strength of object
detection [5]. The well known big data 5 Vs [2] are volume, veloc-
ity, variety, veracity, and value, and these improvements are repre-
sented in improved sensors and processing methodologies, as well
as the 5Vs. With regards to volume, the resolution of a Remote
Sensing dataset matters a great deal. In addition, VHR datasets
are developing as better solution components that fulfil the
requirements of a broad range of geography mapping and remote
sensing applications. As a result, there is a current need to improve
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lalitha.cse@sairam.edu.in (V. Lalitha).
techniques are constantly being developed and refined to keep
up with advances in sensor accuracy. Using deep learning in image
processing has been extremely beneficial owing to its capacity to
create effective hierarchical representations of challenging data .
Observable overfitting occurs when a network learns to model
the training data by using a function with a very large variance.
Unfortunately, large data is out of reach for many application
fields, including medical image analysis, 2D and 3D object identifi-
cation, and more. For the purpose of this review, we will focus on
the solution to the problem of insufficient data in data space —RS
image amplification. Image Augmentation refers to a set of tech-
niques for increasing the size and value of training datasets in
order to build improved Deep Learning models. Different advanced
Augmentation techniques for Remote Sensor Images like Multi-
Spectral, Hyper Spectral Satellite images, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Images etc. are discussed in the review. This survey extensively
covers the use of augmentation methods based on GANs. There will
be an overview of current Data Augmentation methods as well as

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.341
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Innovative Technology for Sustainable Development.
V. Lalitha and B. Latha
future advancements and meta-level decisions on how Data Aug-
mentation will work. Learn how to utilize Data Augmentation to
enhance your models’ performance and increase your datasets so
that you can take full use of big data’s potential (see Figs. 1–4).
2. Characteristics of CNN
Deep learning’s Convolution Neural Networks (CNNs), one of
the most important subfields, made tremendous strides in Data
Augmentation since the invention of artificial intelligence. CNNs
enable continuous pipelines for extracting advanced robust fea-
tures without human intervention, significantly increasing classifi-
cation usability [4]. It is clear that deep learning has supplanted
traditional methods in the field of pattern recognition, as seen by
the prevalence of CNN-based models [8]. However, for CNN-
based models to generalize well there must be a significant num-
ber of training pictures. The collecting of disease photos in the field
of leaf disease identification is a labor exhaustive and prolonged
process resulting in a scarcity of diseased images for use as train-
ing. As a result, a lack of training pictures is the major obstacle
to future progress in classification identification accuracy. When
pictures are used to enhance training data, the training dataset’s
size is artificially boosted. Deep learning neural network models
that have been trained on additional data can yield better models,
and image augmentation approaches can produce variants of the
pictures that enhance the fit models’ capacity to simplify what
they have learnt. Using the Image Data Generator class in the Keras
deep learning neural network framework, you may enrich models
using picture data.
3. Data augmentation
Data augmentation, or the generation of artificial data based on
active observations, is a machine learning technique used to
improve model accuracy, generalization, and manage over fitting.
The objective of data augmentation is to increase the dataset in
order to close representational gaps [6] and reduce over-fitting.
This enhances the model’s capabilities while also preventing unfair
learning from taking place on the system as a whole. Multiple
enhancement approaches have helped satellite and conventional
pictures in image categorization . When it comes to satellite image
classification , the most commonly used image transformations are
clipping, rotating, flipping and shifting. However, at the time, there
was not enough information to form an informed opinion about
which augmentation techniques would be most useful in the per-
spective of super-resolution satellite images. Furthermore, the sta-
tistical properties of satellite images differ adequately from those
of generic photographs; the efficiency of SR solutions is influenced
by data augmentation procedures in the super resolution domain
of satellite images and advanced augmentation methods. As tech-
nology for earth observation has improved, it has evolved into a
global integrated space-air-ground observation system. With the
help of high-resolution satellite remote sensing systems, the plat-
form consists of satellite constellations and UAVs, as well as sensor
networks on the ground. As a result, we now have access to previ-
ously unimaginable levels of information on the Earth. The num-
Fig 1. A pipeline with three operations as an example.
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Materials Today: Proceedings 62 (2022) 4772–4778
ber, speed, diversity, and importance of remote sensing (RS)
pictures being captured are all rising rapidly. The RS images have
the vastness and complexity associated with big data like high
dimensionality and a varied space and spectral information.”The
validation error must be less than the training error in order to pro-
duce viable Deep Learning models. Using Data Augmentation is a
highly effective way to achieve this goal. It will be easier to com-
pare training and validation data with the enhanced data since it
will include a wider range of data. Data augmentation, the subject
of this paper, is not the sole method for reducing overfitting in
models. We will look at several more approaches to avoiding over-
fitting when using Deep Learning models in the sections that fol-
low. In order to provide readers a better understanding of Data
Augmentation, we have compiled this collection of terms and def-
initions (see Tables 1–3).
4. Image/data augmentation techniques–a review
4.1. An image Modification Machine learning Library-Augmentor
The Augmentor project augments images using a uncertain and
random pipeline-support approach. The pipeline method enables
the user to link augmentation procedures like shears, rotations,
and cropping together and feed pictures through this pipeline to
produce new data. For each picture that travels through the pipe-
line, the chance of applying the operation is randomized within
user-specified ranges, and each operation’s parameters are like-
wise randomly generated. All operations are executed stochasti-
cally. As a result, you may select from a pool of pictures created
by the pipeline as it is running. That is why it aims to provide an
image enhancement library that is policy agnostic, but also free
of a certain ML framework. These highly parametric processes in
Augmentor allow for great control over the creation of pictures.
Various augmentation strategies described on various competition
sites like Kaggle were taken into account when building the API, as
were popular techniques from the literature. Cropping, scaling,
perspective shifting, shearing, and zooming are all common opera-
tions, as are random rotations and transformations [7] on the ver-
tical and horizontal axes [18]. A variety of widely used pre-
processing techniques was also implemented, as well as less often
used procedures . Additionally a huge number of convenience
functions were created that would be taken into consideration
for typical augmentation strategies.
Variants can be generated from a single image on the left by
passing it through the pipeline multiple times. Depending on the
user-defined likelihood parameter, operations are applied or
skipped each time the image is passed through. Randomly selected
parameters inside a range specified by the user determine the
operation’s parameters when it is done.
4.2. Augmentation of RS images data derived from neural style transfer
Techniques-deep learning
Modification of the affine image, deleting information, fusing of
images and generative models are among the most widely used
data augmentation methods today, with the objective of decreas-
V. Lalitha and B. Latha Materials Today: Proceedings 62 (2022) 4772–4778

Fig 2. Samples of original training set (Optical Remote Sensing Images).

Fig 3. Augmented Samples of Images by applying Style Transfer.

Fig 4. A comparison between proposed fusion-based enhancement and ground truth samples can be seen in the test set results below.

Table 1 Table 3
Matrices of Transformation for different Operations of augmentation. Complexity in computation of the proposed Classifier (Number of samples = 30, PB
Size = 5  5).
FUNCTION FLIPPING TRANSLATION ROTATION
Technique Used Data Set Indian Pines Salinas
Transformation Matrices | 1 0 0| | 100| | cosb sinb 0 |
|0 1 0| |010| | sinb cosb 0 | NO Augmentation Train(s)Test 15.99 34.16
|0 0 1| |Tx Ty 1| |001| (s) 0.93 1.64
Increased to 4 N Train(s)Test 43.96 84.63
(s) 0.93 1.64
Table 2 Proposed PBP Train(min)Test 30.20 89.29
The results of all non-augmented-experiment and augmented- experiments. (s) 8.95 40.24

Datasets Index
Without Aug With Aug
translation, contrast transformation, scale transformation, noisy
UCMerced 0.480 0.71–0.87
image removal, and other types of image alteration. Image classifi-
RSSCN7 0.61 0.71–0.85
SAT-6 0.94 0.94–0.97 cation uses a separate optimization of the process of image affine
SAT-4 0.83 0.87–0.96 transformation. In general, when we talk about deleting informa-
tion, we mean methods like cutoff, grid mask, and others that
remove a section of a picture [17]. Two or more pictures are fused
ing the impact of overfitting when there are limited samples avail- to create a single image and the most frequent ways are mix up
able for analysis]17]. Picture affine transformation relates to image and augmix. The generative model method primarily employs

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the data generation method. VAE (Variation Auto Encoder) is the
most widely used generation model, followed by Generative
Adversarial Networks (GAN).
This research improves and applies remote sensing image data
augmentation using cycle-consistent adversarial networks (Cycle
GAN) [12]under the condition of limited samples. For better detec-
tion accuracy, we included an additional dataset and used the
yolov3 object-detection algorithm [13]. This work is divided into
three parts.
 To begin, it suggests a style transfer-based remote sensing pic-
ture data augmentation procedure.
 To increase picture quality and integrate local and global infor-
mation, the network employs diverse-scale convolution and
attention algorithms. The precision of the detection model is
at ease with assess the impact of data augmentation.
With the innovative cycle GAN and with diverse-scale convolu-
tion and attention mechanism, this study uses data augmentation
on small sized sample datasets to supplement the original datasets
[1]. Total produced data is the same as total training sets. The data
is then detected using the yolov3 detection and recognition model.
For example, data augmentation using original Cycle GAN [14]
results in a detection accuracy of 46.06 percent, while data aug-
mentation using multi-scale convolution results in a detection
accuracy of 46.74 percent, and the highest detection accuracy is
achieved by Cycle GAN with multi-scale convolution and attention
mechanism, at 49.15 percent.
4.3. For satellite image super-resolution-data augmentation approach
Augmenting the dataset is the purpose of data augmentation,
which aims to fill in data representational gaps and decrease
over-fitting problems. By doing this, the model’s performance is
enhanced, and learning is not unbalanced in the process. The use
of various augmentation techniques on satellite and conventional
pictures has aided in image categorization [3]. When it comes to
satellite image classification, the most commonly used image
transformations are clipping, rotating, flipping and shifting. How-
ever, at the time, there was not enough information to form an
informed opinion on which augmentation techniques would be
most effective in the perspective of super resolution of satellite
images. As a result, the effectiveness of SR solutions is influenced
by satellite image statistical characteristics, which in turn justifies
a research that concentrates on data enhancement approaches
especially in the remote image super resolution domain [16].
Two categories of image augmentation techniques:
1. Augmentation on an instance-by-instance basis: This phrase
refers to all well-known image modifications such as geometric,
color, noise, deformation, translation, brightness, and smooth-
ing that have been used to enhance the number of samples/in-
stances in a dataset for scene classification and classic picture
super resolution tasks.
2. Augmentation based on fusion: Adding fake bands to the model
adds extra useful observations (or viewpoints) that can improve
the model’s accuracy [19]. Rather than just adding more train-
ing examples, the number of dimensions was enhanced by add-
ing a new set of derived channels to be fused with the input
data. To get an impartial model, we must first build a unbiased
training dataset for our deep learning tasks. Ground stations
publish and ingest remote sensing data gathered from hundreds
of recorded scenes each day from space.
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4.4. Remote sensing classification of scenes with deep learning
techniques and data augmentation improved CNN framework
The goal of this research is to overcome the basic data restric-
tions that limit the potential of remote sensing picture categoriza-
tion with deep learning. Improved datasets are utilized to train a
deep convolutional neural network using a new approach for
boosting the amount and variety of remote sensing datasets [10].
Using three fundamental data augmentation techniques like trans-
lation, rotation and flip helps retain the scene topologies while
simultaneously increasing the dataset size and completeness. A
deeper convolutional neural network is being trained using the
expanded dataset to see how performance changes in remote sens-
ing scene categorization as a result of the network’s enhanced
depth. Basic operations with little computational cost are used in
the augmentation approach, which is implemented on the CPU,
while GPUs handle the training (GPUs). To improve the representa-
tional capabilities of standard CNN for scene classification, a
method called as data augmentation is utilized. The model outper-
formed current deep scene classification algorithms on benchmark
remote sensing image datasets, earning it the title of ‘‘state-of-the-
art.”The experimental evaluations make use of three different
remote sensing benchmark datasets. The SAT dataset is the first
one to be examined, which is then broken down into SAT-4 and
SAT-61 subgroups for analysis [15]. In the next section, we will
look into RSSCN72. In addition to that, there is statistics on land
use from the University of California-Merced. Each of these satel-
lite images is part of NASA’s National Agriculture Imagery Program
(NAIP). For each of the four categories, 100 photos are randomly
selected from each of the 400 total images. Each scale has 100
images. 400,400 pixels is the maximum pixel size for an individual
picture. The RSCNN7 dataset is challenging to analyze because of
the huge variations in the scene pictures, which were recorded in
different seasons and weather conditions and sampled at various
sizes. There are 2,100 pictures in the Land Use dataset from 21 dif-
ferent scene categories, making it a popular resource for remote
sensing scene classifications. Each category has one hundred pic-
tures to choose from. There are 256,256 pixels between each indi-
vidual picture.
The work uses basic data augmentation procedures to focus on
the basic data restriction problem in remote sensing image pro-
cessing deep learning (Zhu, Q., Fan, X., et al, 2020). Data augmenta-
tion has also proven for improving convolutional neural network
performance in remote sensing scene categorization [11]. By
increasing the variety and fullness of the data used in training deep
learning models, augmentation procedures may be used. Deep
learning model architecture and training on the original dataset
yielded better results than experiments using augmentation proce-
dures. Experimental results using real-world remote sensing data-
sets support the usefulness and resilience of the suggested
approach. Even while the data augmentation method increases
the dataset’s diversity, it only enhances the inherent visual incon-
sistency of each training remote sensing picture due to its intrinsic
spectral and topological restrictions and gives no new information
for the remote sensing image.
4.5. Deep CNN data augmentation for hyper spectral image
classification
Convolutional neural networks (CNN) have been frequently uti-
lized to classify hyperspectral images (HSI). Data augmentation has
been found to be extremely successful when the training data is
minimal. In this letter, extensive comparative tests using typical
data augmentation methods [9] are carried out, such that typical
methods can only give up-bounded and limited performance. A
one-of-a-kind data augmentation technique known as Pixel: block
V. Lalitha and B. Latha Materials Today: Proceedings 62 (2022) 4772–4778

pair (PBP) has been created to address this issue and substantially
increase the number of training instances . The suggested method
for obtaining PBP characteristics makes use of decision fusion and
deep convolutional neural networks. Given that it takes use of spa-
tial information; the PBP-CNN is predicted to perform better than
the existing deep pixel-pair feature (PPF-CNN). In Hyper Spectral
Imaging, the impact of PBP-CNN classification accuracy of training
data will be examined in further depth. A unique technique to data
augmentation, the PBP is proposed. A 33L pixel block comprising
pixels for training is first constructed, where L is the number of
bands to be used in the image detection algorithm. Then, every
pixel block is connected to every other pixel block to generate
new PBPs, each of which is 36L in size. The following rules are used
to generate new pixel blocks, and then the labels are rewritten. In
the event when all two-pixel blocks are of a different class, the
label is set to 0, otherwise. When this data augmentation strategy
is used, the number of samples per class is raised from N to N (1,
2)/2. In reality, the recommended pixel block pair in hyper spectral
categorization does extra than merely increase the number of sam-
ples. When two pixel blocks from the same class are used instead
of a single huge pixel block, the CNN learns more about the com-
monalities within the class.
Data augmentation approaches such as flipping, rotating, and
adding noise were studied utilizing deep CNN-based HSI classifica-
tion [13]. More improved samples may not always result in better
results; for example, a sample size increase to 4 N may be prefer-
able to an 11 N sample size. This is the case. A brand-new PBP-CNN
model was also put up as an alternative. During the training phase,
a new set of pixel blocks called PBP was formed by matching each
individual pixel block with every other pixel block in the image. A
decision fusion method was used in the testing phase to decide the
final label for each of the eight pixels in the surrounding area of the
pixel in question. Experiments have shown that the suggested PBP-
CNN strategy competes with other data augmentation methods
even with a small number of examples.

5. Review summary

Augmentation method used Implementation process Samples used PROS & CONS

An Image Modification Machine
Learning Library-Augmentor
The pipeline may be used to produce
new data by chaining augmentation
activities like shears, rotations, and
crops together and passing them
through it.
RGB Color Image PROS: Baseline for 1000 images
training set produced 93.94 %
accuracy. Augmented image set for
more than10,000 training samples
produced 97.28 %accuracy.

CONS: not suitable for High

Remote Sensing Image
Augmentation using Style
Transfer Technique.
To create new data, GANs use cycle-
consistent Generative Adversarial
Networks that draw from a texture
from the external world (Cycle GAN)
dimensional data sets.
Few Samples of PROS: When utilizing the original
Optical Remote training data, the detection accuracy
Sensing images is 46.06 percent, and when using
Cycle GAN to enhance it, it is even
higher at 46.74 percent the highest
detection accuracy is achieved by
Cycle GAN with multi-scale
convolution and attention
mechanism, at 49.15 percent.

CONS: The simulation samples

created for style transfer
information are single-channel
grayscale images, which lack the
rich style information found in
genuine remote sensing photos.

Data Augmentation Approach for
Satellite Image Super-
Resolution.
Instance based augmentation was
used in conjunction with Super-
Resolution RGB and fusion was used
in conjunction with Super-
Resolution RGB. Additionally,
Denoising and Dehazing techniques
are used.
Landsat-8 images PROS: The new data augmentations
techniques help improve satellite
picture resolution accuracy. and The
proposed data augmentation
technique can improve the
performance of super-resolution
satellite image jobs even more.
CONS: Limitations are found in
augmentation in the problem
domains such as dehazing and
denoising.

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(continued)

Augmentation method used Implementation process Samples used PROS & CONS

Remote Sensing Classification of
Scenes with Deep Learning
techniques and Data
Augmentation improved CNN
Framework
Uses Transformation Satellite Images PROS: The variety and
Matrix of Augmentation methods for from NASA’s comprehensiveness of data can be
three different National considerably improved through data
Remote Sensing Images. For the Agriculture augmentation, and the new results
experimental ImageryProgram with augmentation operations
evaluations,3standards (NAIP) exceed those from the same deep
Remote sensing data sets are dataset. model design training on the
used. Two different set of training original dataset when used to train
experiments are applied on deep learning models.
onecommon CONS: Though the data
CNN. augmentation method augment the
dataset’s diversity; it also increases
the inherent visual inconsistency of
all training RS picture due to its
inherent topological and spectral
constraints and provides no new
additional information for the
image.

Deep CNN Data Augmentation
for Hyper spectral Image
Classification
Throughout the training phase, each
pixel block was associated with all
other pixel blocks to generate new
ones, which were then referred to as
PBP. Each pixel block was coupled
with the surrounding eight-pixel
blocks during the testing phase, and
the final label was generated using a
decision fusion technique. Pixel
blocks are built with both spatial and
spectral information in mind. Pixel
blocks are joined in some fashion,
and the combined outputs are fed
into the deep CNN, enhancing the
model’s reliability and diversity of
samples.
HS Images of plant PROS: The suggested PBP approach
leaves like corn, significantly increases the number of
grass and Soy bean samples used for HSI classification.
leaves Even with a small number of
samples, experiments have proven
that the proposed PBP-CNN
technique greatly competes with
other methods of data
augmentation.
CONS: Challenges in handling Hyper
Spectral Images while considering
both Spectral and Spatial
information.

6. Conclusions Declaration of Competing Interest

Because of the rise of deep learning, it is now possible to mine
and analyses huge volumes of remote sensing data. Image
enhancement and classification research using RS requires the
use of deep learning models such as CNNs. RS image enhancement
and categorization using CNN-based deep learning. we examined
the present state-of-the-art. The complexity of objects in RS pic-
tures makes it more challenging to extract features from the
images than it is in the computer vision area. As a result, several
investigations have been carried out to address the problems asso-
ciated with CNN-based RS picture enhancement. Training data,
models, and methodologies have all improved significantly for RS
picture enhancement using the convolutional neural network
(CNN). However, this discovery is just the beginning of work on
CNN-based RS picture augmentation. The categorization of RS
images via augmentation is still fraught with difficulties, and a
variety of factors need to be carefully examined and researched.
CRediT Author Contirbution Statement
V. Lalitha: Writing-review & editing. B. Latha: Writing-review
& editing.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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