sustainability
Review
A Comprehensive Review on Recycling of Construction
Demolition Waste in Concrete
Herbert Sinduja Joseph 1, * , Thamilselvi Pachiappan 1 , Siva Avudaiappan 2,3,4 , Nelson Maureira-Carsalade 5 ,
Ángel Roco-Videla 6, * , Pablo Guindos 3,7 and Pablo F. Parra 8
Citation: Joseph, H.S.; Pachiappan,
T.; Avudaiappan, S.;
Maureira-Carsalade, N.; Roco-Videla,
Á.; Guindos, P.; Parra, P.F. A
Comprehensive Review on Recycling
of Construction Demolition Waste in
Concrete. Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064932
Academic Editor: Miguel Bravo
Received: 11 January 2023
Revised: 15 February 2023
Accepted: 16 February 2023
Published: 10 March 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064932
1 Division of Structural Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Guindy,
Anna University, Chennai 600025, India
2 Departamento de Ingeniería Civil, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4070386, Chile
3 Centro Nacional de Excelencia para la Industria de la Madera (CENAMAD), Pontificia Universidad Católica
de Chile, Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago 7820436, Chile
4 Department of Physiology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Chennai 600077, India
5 Departamento de Ingeniería Civil, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción,
Concepción 4090541, Chile
6 Facultad de Salud y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de las Américas, Providencia, Santiago 7500975, Chile
7 Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile,
Av. Vicuña Mackena, Santiago 7820436, Chile
8 Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, Santiago 7941169, Chile
* Correspondence: herbert12.sinduja@gmail.com (H.S.J.); aroco@udla.cl (Á.R.-V.)
Abstract: There have been efforts to use building demolition waste as an alternative aggregate in
concrete to decrease the use of natural resources for construction. The World Green Building Council
estimates that the construction industry is responsible for more than 50% of all material extracted
globally and that construction and demolition waste makes up 35% of global landfills. As a result,
incorporating recycled aggregate (RA) in concrete production is a prudent course of action to reduce
the environmental impact. This study reviews prior research on using recycled aggregate instead of
conventional ingredients in concrete. The composition and morphology of different types of RA, the
behavior of RA in fresh and hardened states, keyword co-occurrence and evolution analysis, and
the various additives used to enhance the inferior properties of RA are discussed. The RA showed
different physical properties when compared with natural aggregate. However, the addition of
pozzolanic materials and various pretreatment techniques is desirable for improving the inferior
properties of RA. While building waste has been utilized as a substitute for fine and coarse aggregate,
prior research has demonstrated that a modified mixing approach, an adequate mixing proportion,
and the optimum replacement of cementitious materials are necessary. Based on the review, the
recommendation is to use RA at a replacement level of up to 30% and the addition of precoated and
pozzolanic materials as a treatment to provide concrete with adequate workability, strength, and
durability for structural applications.
Keywords: cementitious materials; construction and demolition waste; fresh and hardened properties;
recycled aggregate; sustainability
1. Introduction
Construction and demolition waste materials are accumulated during the construc-
tion, modernizing, rehabilitation, retrofitting, or demolition of infrastructures. Almost one
million tons of construction and demolition waste (CDW) materials are created annually
using natural resources, mainly for construction purposes. It is high time to pay earnest
attention to the damage done by CDW. Most countries lack processing facilities for these
CDW materials, so waste materials are dumped rather than utilized and recycled in the
construction of new buildings [1]. We have observed a rapid increase in the use of CDW
materials in order to make sustainable concrete with the environment and people’s lives
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 2 of 27

in mind. However, further analysis indicates that the use of waste materials in concrete
significantly affects its mechanical performance [2]. Compared with conventional aggre-
gates, recycled aggregate (RA) materials show a reduction in specific gravity, an increase in
porosity, the crushing index, and water absorption, and a weak interfacial transition zone.
Generally, the root cause of the problems with RA mentioned above is that aggregates
are produced from crushed and discarded concrete blocks, making them angled, sharp,
and porous on the surface [3,4]. Therefore, more work is required in order to develop
the standards and to reduce the effects of the hydrated paste that sticks to the surface of
crushed coarse aggregate in an economically feasible way.
Based on the research findings, the usage of RA is limited due to the lack of structural
standards for RA [5]. It may be that an insignificant amount of construction waste is
recycled or used as a substitute to construct the naturally sourced materials. The adaptation
of CDW materials as a substitute for natural aggregate has become a circular economy
priority. Globally, about 20 billion tons of natural resources are used each year to produce
fresh concrete; over the next 20 to 30 years, that amount is predicted to triple. However,
the demolition of existing buildings produces a significant amount of solid waste. It
makes up 20 to 40% of the total waste and has been identified as one of the world’s most
prominent environmental contaminants [6]. This waste, which takes up usable landfill
areas, also constitutes a health risk. Using RA instead of natural aggregate (NA) offers
a viable answer to the problems of resource exploitation, the restoration of land spaces,
and decreasing waste in landfills [7]. Moreover, RA is a natural aggregate substitute that
supports sustainable construction.
However, the complete substitution of NA with RA causes the strength characteristics
of the concrete to deteriorate. Although RA substitution has been found to deteriorate the
mechanical characteristics of concrete, it has been claimed that recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA) is unaffected by the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete up to the
30 percent by weight substitution level, after which it decreases [8]. The harmful effects
of RA have been minimized by various methods over the past few decades. Some of the
treatment techniques for the improvement of RA are NO2 -sequestered recycled concrete
aggregate [9], the replacement of cement with a combination of recycled aggregate and
crushed reclaimed concrete [10], the liquid–solid carbonation process [11], recycled ag-
gregate with a crystallization agent [12], the substitution of various admixtures, such as
GGBS, fly ash, bottom ash, silica fume, and nano-silica, in the cement, the combination
of nano-silica and titanium oxide, precoating the recycled aggregate with a calcium hy-
droxide solution [13], the chemical–thermal treatment [14], and fluidity-based recycled
aggregate mortar [15]. Still, cost-effective and environmentally friendly RA improvement
techniques must be devised as a possible alternative in order to increase the use of RA in
concrete applications.
As a result, comparative feasibility analysis is critical in focusing the research on a
simple narrow path to strengthen the various properties of recycled concrete aggregate
in a cost-effective and simplified manner. The enormous number of articles published
annually on recycled concrete aggregate provide the experimental analysis for structural
applications. From 1995 onwards, the amount of research on waste concrete and the
number of publications increased yearly. Until 2004, less than 10 articles relevant to
recycled aggregate were published each year. The increasing interest in RCA research and
the number of publications are shown in Figure 1. In 2020, the number of articles published
was the highest (293). The research in 2020 mainly focused on water absorption and chloride
penetration [16], rice husk ash substitution [17], fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBS) [18], and the addition of blended pozzolanic materials [19]. In 2021, until
the 10 September, 242 articles had been published. These are focused on concrete with
RCA [20], the bond behavior of RCA with basalt-fiber-reinforced polymer bars [21], and
transport properties [22]. This trend appears promising and indicates that RCA research
has been active for more than five decades. Due to the scale-up of the circular economy,
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 2
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 28

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932

transport properties [22]. This trend appears promising and indicates that RCA 3 of 27
researc
transport
has beenproperties
active for [22].
moreThis
thantrend appears promising
five decades. Due to the and indicates
scale-up that
of the RCA research
circular economy
has been active
researchers forfocused
have more than five on
mainly decades. Due
recycled to the scale-up
aggregate of the
materials, andcircular economy,
it has been prove
researchers have
that the growth focused mainly
of published on recycled aggregate materials, and it has been proven
researchers have focused mainly articles has aggregate
on recycled tended tomaterials,
increase and
exponentially.
it has been proven
that the growth of published articles has tended to increase exponentially.
that the growth of published articles has tended to increase exponentially.

Figure 1. The number of published articles for the period 2012–2021.

Figure 1.
Figure The number
1. The numberofofpublished
publishedarticles for for
articles the period 2012–2021.
the period 2012–2021.
The annual generation of CDW in some countries, such as China [23], the United
The annual generation of CDW in some countries, such as China [23], the United
The
States[24],annual
[24], India generation
[25], of CDW
Australia in some countries, such as China [23], the United
States India [25], Australia [26],[26],
EnglandEngland [27],European
[27], the the European Union
Union [28], [28],[29],
France France [29
States
and [24],
Italy India
[30], is [25],
shownAustralia
in Figure[26],
2. England
The [27],
recycling the
rate European
is higher Union
in the
and Italy [30], is shown in Figure 2. The recycling rate is higher in the United States; of the [28],
United France
States; [29],
of th
and Italy
600MT
600 [30], is
MTofofbuilding shown
building andandin Figure 2.
demolition
demolition The
waste, recycling
waste, around
around rate
75% is75%is higher in the
is recycled.
recycled. United
In China, States;
In itChina,
has been of the
it has bee
600 MTthat
stated
stated of less
thatbuilding
less than
than and
40% ofdemolition
40% of the
the CDW CDWiswaste, around
is recycled
recycled 75%
[23].
[23]. In Inisaddition,
addition,recycled. InIndia’s
just 1%just
of China,
1% ofCDW it has been
India’s CDW
stated that
isisrecovered less
and than 40%
recycled. of
In the CDW
order to is recycled
safeguard the [23]. In addition,
environment and
recovered and recycled. In order to safeguard the environment and to reduce natura just
to 1%
reduce of India’s
natural CDW
ismaterial
recovered
material exhaustion,
exhaustion, appropriate
and recycled. appropriatehandling
In order techniques
to safeguard
handling for CDW
the
techniques forare
environment
CDW necessary.
areand to reduce natural
necessary.
material exhaustion, appropriate handling techniques for CDW are necessary.

Figure2.2.Annual
Figure AnnualGeneration of CDW
Generation in Million
of CDW Tons. Tons.
in Million
Figure 2. Annual Generation of CDW in Million Tons.
Significance of the Review
Significance of the Review
This literature
Significance review provides valuable information regarding the utilization of RA
of the Review
This literature
in concrete review
applications. Thisprovides
comparativevaluable
reviewinformation
on RA aims regarding
to provide the utilization of RA
crystal-clear
in This literature
concrete review
applications. provides
This valuable
comparative information
review on RA regarding
aims to the utilization
provide
information about the variation in physical and chemical properties of different types of of RA
crystal-clear in
in concrete
formation
recycled applications.
about the
aggregates. This comparative
variation this
Additionally, in physical review on RA
and chemical
study explains aims to provide
properties
the quantitative crystal-clear
of different
information in-
about types o
formation
recycled
how about the
aggregates.
the treatment variation
methods in physical
Additionally,
improve andproperties
thisinferior
the study chemicalthe
explains properties
of quantitative
recycled of differentthetypes
information
aggregates, of
abou
recycled aggregates. Additionally, this study explains the quantitative
how the treatment methods improve the inferior properties of recycled aggregates, thinformation about
how theand
fresh treatment methods
mechanical improve
properties the inferior
of concrete, andproperties
durabilityofaspects
recycledforaggregates, the
fine and coars
fresh and mechanical properties of concrete, and durability aspects for fine and coarse
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 4 of 27

fresh and mechanical properties of concrete, and durability aspects for fine and coarse
aggregate substitution. Furthermore, a scientometric review on recycled aggregate concrete
between 2012 and 2021 provides valuable information about the most minor and most
studied areas, which may act as a roadmap for research on recycled aggregate concrete.

2. Literature Review on Recycled Aggregate

2.1. Composition of Recycled Aggregate
Recycled aggregate (RA) has different categories, including recycled concrete aggre-
gate (RCA), fine recycled concrete aggregate (FRCA), recycled ceramic aggregate, recycled
masonry aggregate (RMA), coarse mixed recycled aggregate (CMRA), and fine mixed
recycled aggregate (FMRA). RA is mainly composed of SiO2, CaO, and minor oxides. The
quantities of the different chemical compositions identified by various authors are shown
in Table 1 and are comparable with natural aggregate’s composition. Calcite is a prominent
mineral in recycled aggregate, but “quartz, alkali feldspars, muscovite, and dolomite” have
also been recognized [31]. Similar results show the presence of crystalline phases such
as quartz and calcite in RA samples compared with natural aggregate [32]. The presence
of crystalline phases is consistent with the finding of quartz and calcite in the recycled
aggregate’s X-ray Diffraction (XRD) pattern, as shown in Figure 3. In fine natural aggregate,
the resulting peak position in the XRD pattern revealed the existence of the crystalline
compound SiO2 . The occurrence of SiO2 might be a helpful circumstance for developing a
calcium hydrate gel that enhances the concrete’s strength. Two significant peaks of SiO2
and CaCO3 can be seen in the fine recycled aggregate’s XRD pattern. The feasibility of
substituting RA as an appropriate alternative for NA has been indicated due to the presence
of the crystalline component SiO2 . Additionally, the peak of CaCO3 can be seen because of
the old hardened paste’s adhesion to the surface of the FRA [33].

Table 1. Major components of recycled aggregate from the literature.

SiO2 CaO Al2 O3

Literature Aggregate Type Country
(%) (%) (%)
Nedeljkovi et al. [34] FRCA Netherland 66.4 21.5 5.0
FMRA 34.3 27.52 6.4
Northern Greece
CMRA 18.4 39.5 3.6
Alexandridou et al. [31]
FMRA 10.9 45.2 2.03
Southern Greece
CMRA 8.3 47.6 1.7
FMRA 51.5 19.6 13.7
Moreno-Pérez et al. [35] Canada
CMRA 51.1 23.3 13.2
FMRA 73.9 5.45 7.0
Angulo et al. [36] Brazil
CMRA 67.1 7.8 9.8
Kirthika et al. [37] FMRA India 68.9 4.5 11.5
Silva et al. [32] CMRA Brazil 52.4 15.6 11.6
Sivamani et al. [33] FMRA India 71.2 14.13 5.51
OR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 5 of 27

Figure 3. XRD pattern of NA and RA from pavement and building waste [38].
Figure 3. XRD pattern of NA and RA from pavement and building waste [38].
Secondary electron images from scanning electron microscopy of the NA and RA are
shown in Figure 4 and can be used to confirm the morphology and interfacial zone of the
Secondary electron imagesItfrom
recycled aggregate. scanning
is feasible electron
to distinguish between microscopy
the RA and NA in ofthethe NA and
images
produced by scanning electron microscopy. Aggregates made from recycled materials
shown in Figure 4areand can be used to confirm the morphology and interfacial zone
less durable than aggregates made from natural materials. Recycled aggregates have
recycled aggregate. It iserratic,
a diverse, feasible to distinguish
and inconsistent between
microstructure. Recycledthe RAconcrete
crushed and isNA in the
coated
mainly with fine fractions and old cement mortar [39]. The coarse recycled aggregate
produced by scanning electron microscopy. Aggregates made from recycled mater
has a rough surface with sharp edges, and a portion of the outer layer is bound with old
less durable thanmortar
aggregates made
with cracks and surfacefrom
defects.natural materials.
The scanning Recycled
electron microscopy aggregates
images show the
angularity in both manufactured sand and FRA particles. Both aggregates show that the
diverse, erratic, and inconsistent microstructure. Recycled crushed concrete is
increased number of angular parts is due to the crushing process during the production of
mainly with fine RAfractions
from CDW.and old cement
In addition, the presencemortar [39].
of hardened The
cement coarse
paste recycled
on the outer aggreg
part of the
RA is evidenced.
a rough surface with sharp edges, and a portion of the outer layer is bound with ol
tar with cracks and surface defects. The scanning electron microscopy images sh
angularity in both manufactured sand and FRA particles. Both aggregates show t
increased number of angular parts is due to the crushing process during the prod
of RA from CDW. In addition, the presence of hardened cement paste on the outer
the RA is evidenced.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 28
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 6 of 27

Figure 4. SEM images of NA and RA in subsequent recycling cycles. (a1) NCA, (a2) SEM image,
Figure 4. SEM images of NA and RA in subsequent recycling cycles. (a1) NCA, (a2) SEM image, (b1)
(b1) RCA1, (b2) SEM image of RCA1, (c1) RCA2, (c2) SEM image of RCA2 [40].
RCA1, (b2) SEM image of RCA1, (c1) RCA2, (c2) SEM image of RCA2 [40].
2.2. Treatment of Recycled Aggregate
2.2. Treatment of Recycled
Here, we discuss Aggregate
the change in the aggregate’s attributes after it is used in concrete,
various ways
Here, wedifferent
discussauthors have improved
the change the destructive
in the aggregate’s properties,
attributes afterand
it isthe extent
used in to
concrete,
which the properties improved. The physical properties of untreated recycled
various ways different authors have improved the destructive properties, and the extent aggregate
are shown in Table 2. Additionally, the enhancement of the physical properties due to
to which the properties improved. The physical properties of untreated recycled aggre-
various treatments is shown in Table 3. Although the recycled aggregate from lower-
gate are shown in Table 2. Additionally, the enhancement of the physical properties due
grade concrete had a more porous structure, adding more cement paste to the carbonation
to variouswas
treatment treatments is The
beneficial. shown in Tabletreatment
carbonation 3. Although the recycled
can effectively aggregate
increase from lower-
the mortar’s
grade concrete had a more porous structure, adding more cement paste to the
adhesion to aggregates if the aggregate surface area is increased. The carbonation treatment carbonation
treatment
produced a was beneficial.
reduction in theThe carbonation
water absorptiontreatment can effectively
and crushing increase the
values of 22.6–28.3% andmortar’s
adhesion
7.6–9.6%, to aggregatesThe
respectively. if the aggregateofsurface
workability area is
the concrete wasincreased.
improvedThewhen carbonation
recycled treat-
particles
ment absorbed
produced less water [41].
a reduction in theThe properties
water of theand
absorption supplementary cementitious
crushing values of 22.6–28.3%
and 7.6–9.6%, respectively. The workability of the concrete was improvedtwo-stage
materials (SCMs) added to the recycled aggregate concrete improved when the when recycled
mixing approach (TSMA) was used. The recycled aggregate had a water absorption rate
particles absorbed less water [41]. The properties of the supplementary cementitious ma-
of 6.1% at first. Then, the SCM was added to the recycled concrete and it reduced the
terials (SCMs) added to the recycled aggregate concrete improved when the two-stage
mixing approach (TSMA) was used. The recycled aggregate had a water absorption rate
of 6.1% at first. Then, the SCM was added to the recycled concrete and it reduced the water
absorption rate by 2–8%. The TSMA technique also effectively reduced the water absorp-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 7 of 27

water absorption rate by 2–8%. The TSMA technique also effectively reduced the water
absorption rate [42]. A previous study revealed that the water absorption rate of 0.81% in
natural aggregate (NA) increased to 5.32% in recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). After a
hydrochloric acid immersion treatment, the water absorption rate was reduced by 17.11%
in the RCA. Impregnation with calcium meta-silicate (CM) reduced the water absorption
rate by 18.08%. In addition, the aggregate impact value increased from 14% to 23% in the
recycled coarse aggregate. The acid and CM treatments reduced the crushing value to
13.05% and 17.4%, respectively, in the treated aggregates [43].

Table 2. Physical properties of recycled aggregate.

Unit Water Crushing Flakiness

Aggregate Specific
Literature Size (mm) Weight Absorption Value Index
Type Gravity
(kg/m3 ) (%) (%) (%)
4.75–25.4 RCA 1389 2.29 5.1 - -
Hamada et al. [44]
4.75–12.7 RCA 1376 2.35 4.8 - -
Yu et al. [37] 4–16 RCA 1230 3.21 21.26 -
Kumar et al. [45] <4.75 FMRA 1290 2·08 11·91 - -
12–22 MRA - - 5.27 - 10
Cantero et al. [46]
6–12 MRA - - 6.28 - 10
5–26.5 MRA 1169 - 3.02 15.6 -
Yan et al. [32]
5–26.5 RMA 877 - 11.14 28.8 -
9.75–31.5 MRA - - 8.8 18 -
Meng et al. [32]
0–9.5 FMRA - - 13.2 22 -
5–25 RCA - 2.55 1.68 - -
Sim et al. [47]
0.15–5 FRCA - 2.28 6.45 - -
5–31.5 RCA 1405 - 3.8 - -
Guo et al. [48]
0.15–5 FRCA 1482 - 5.5 - -
Raman et al. [49] 4.75–20 RCA 1480 2.41 3.52 38.39
Babalola et al. [50] 4.75–25 RCA 1490 2.35 5.2 - -
Saleem Kazmi et al. [33] 4.75–20 RCA 1414 2.55 6.85 31 -
20–15 (40%)
Mahmood et al. [51] RCA - 2.43 4.5 47.82 -
15–5 (60%)

Table 3. Improvements in the physical properties of recycled aggregate.

Before After
Treatment Treatment
Aggregate Treatment
Literature Type Effects on Enhancement
Methods WA (%), Density (ρ)
(kg/m3 )

WA: 7.52 WA: 5.76 The treatment induced the

Carbonation
Zhan et al. [52] RCA (Optimum treatment duration,
7 days; Pressure, 1 bar)
Soaking in a nano-silica
suspension of 15% nano-silica
Zeng et al. [53] MRA
particles by weight.
(Optimum, 1 h of soaking)
carbonation of portlandite,
resulting in an increase in calcium
ρ: 2636 ρ: 2700 carbonates that filled the pore
gaps and increased the density of
the microstructure.
WA: 8.22 WA: 7.38 The surface of the recycled
aggregate would be penetrated
and altered by nano-silica
ρ: 2566 ρ: 2588 particles, increasing the density of
the concrete microstructure.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 8 of 27

Table 3. Cont.

Before After
Treatment Treatment
Aggregate Treatment
Literature Type Effects on Enhancement
Methods WA (%), Density (ρ)
(kg/m3 )

Accelerated carbonation This enhancement occurs due to

(5 days of carbonation the transformation of portlandite
WA: 6.1 WA: 3.3
treatment, 50% CO2 to calcite and the development of
concentration) amorphous carbonation products.
Al-Waked et al.
MRA Immersion in a pozzolanic
[54] Pretreatment using sodium
solution fills the pores of the RA
silicate–silica fume solution
WA: 6.1 WA: 4.1 and forms a C-S-H gel by mixing
(Optimum replacement level,
with CH crystals that fill the gaps
5%; soaking time, 4 h)
in the recycled aggregate.

High temperatures between 400

Al-Bayati et al. [55]
Heat treatment and 600 ◦ C make the aggregate
WA: 5.91 WA: 5.35
(Optimum heating, 350 ◦ C) experience internal stress due to
thermal expansion.
RCA Soaking in HCl
WA: 5.91 WA: 5.66
(0.1 M for 24 h) A strong acid does not reduce the
impact of acid attacks as
CRCA soaking in acetic acid effectively as a mild acid.
WA: 5.91 WA: 5.79
(0.1 M for 24 h)

Treatment with a water-based

liquid crystallizing agent
Wang et al. [12] RCA (Optimum immersion, 7 d;
aggregate/solution
ratio, 2 kg/L)
When a crystallizing agent was
added, C-S-H formed and
WA: 7.13 WA: 2.96
minimized the porosity of the
recycled concrete aggregate

The development of calcium

Coating with cement paste WA: 7.54 WA: 3.25 silicate hydrate can fill the gaps in
the RCA.

Coating with a high-calcium

fly ash paste that has been
WA: 7.54 WA: 2.10
alkali-activated
Damrongwiriyanupap RCA (10 M NaOH and Na2 SiO3 ) Unreacted cement grains in the
et al. [56] RCA might react with water, fly
Alkali activation of fly ash ash, dolomite, SiO2 , and Al2 O3 to
paste regulated by create hydration products at the
a dolomite coating interfacial transition zone.
WA: 7.54 WA: 2.55
(10 M NaOH and Na2 SiO3 .
The dolomite was oven dried
at 100 ◦ C)

The carbonation treatment and the addition of pozzolanic slurry (nano-SiO2 , silica
fume, and fly ash slurry) reduced the water absorption rate by 21–26% and increased the
density of the RCA [57]. The combination of a superfine powder (fly ash, phosphorous
slag, and GGBS) and a superplasticizer was found to correct the defects and fill the space
between the cement particles in RCA [58]. An acid, such as H2 SO4, works more efficiently
than hydrochloric acid (HCl) at a concentration of 0.1 moles. The maximum achieved
reduction in the water absorption rate of RCA was 0.92 for HCl, 0.81 for H2 SO4 , 0.93 for
scrubbing and heating, and 0.78% for scrubbing compared with 1.56% for untreated RCA.
In the heating–scrubbing mechanism, concrete debris was heated in an oven to over 300 ◦ C
for up to 24 h and then allowed to cool, making the cement paste brittle. Subsequently,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 9 of 27

mechanical rubbing was performed in a Los Angeles abrasion machine for a few minutes
to achieve a more significant reduction in the water absorption rate, which was about 0.78%
compared with the untreated RCA (1.56%). Nevertheless, the water absorption rate of the
treated RA was still higher than that of NA [59].
The immersion of RCA in a crystallization agent was carried out with 2 kg of aggregate
in a 1 l solution at around 25 ◦ C. After a one-day immersion period, the RCA’s absorption
nature had been lowered by 24.82%. After a seven-day immersion period, it was further
reduced by 58.49% compared with the untreated RCA’s absorption rate (7.13%). The one-
day and seven-day period of immersion in a crystallization agent reduced the relative
surface roughness from 106.8% (natural aggregate) to 100.2% and 93.6%, respectively [12].
The water absorption (WA) of the treated RCA at an acetic acid concentration of 1% during
a one-day immersion period was reduced by 16.97% compared with untreated RCA. The
WA of RCA was optimally lowered with a concentration of acetic acid of 1% and a one-
day immersion period. The aggregate’s characteristics (specific gravity, density, and WA)
were primarily selected to produce the ideal concrete mix [60]. These characteristics were
improved by adopting various treatment methods or production processes to utilize RCA
at a higher replacement percentage in ordinary concrete.
The adhered mortar in RCA is a significant problem as the greater porosity leads
to an increase in the WA. The surface treatment method may reduce or strengthen the
loose mortar particles, improving the qualities of recycled aggregates considerably. The
properties of RCA are determined by the elongation index, the crushing value, the amount
of old mortar, and the grade of the old concrete. The mechanical grinding of the attached
mortar off the RCA’s surface within a drum mixer, together with the addition of water,
can help to weaken the adhered mortar. This grinding method is comparable to the Los
Angeles abrasion test but does not use steel spheres [61]. RCA’s physical and mechanical
properties can be enhanced by mechanical abrasion. Silica fume impregnation can reduce
the permeability by filling the voids in the recycled aggregate [62]. With the help of a lime
treatment, much more progress can be made. Quicklime can be mixed with water in the
RCA treatment to make a lime solution. Initially, the grinding of RCA in a Los Angeles
abrasion machine for a duration of 5 min, followed by treatment with a lime solution not
exceeding 2 N, is recommended for the removal of the maximum amount of old or adhered
mortar [63].
Other alternatives include HCl and sodium sulphate (Na2 SO4 ) in a proportion between
the aggregate and the solution of 1:4.5. These treatments have been proven to dislodge
previously bonded mortar from RCA. Between these treatments, the HCl pretreatment is a
more effective treatment method. However, to optimize the waste management system,
the reusability of pretreatment solutions must be assessed [64]. For example, a mix of 15%
waste concrete power (WCP) and 15% spontaneous combustion gangue powder (SCGP)
provides the characteristic of impermeability due to the increased pozzolanic activity of
SCGP and WCP [65].
Similarly, modification methods such as mild acetic acid treatment followed by me-
chanical grinding [66], the spraying of nano-silica on the mixed recycled aggregate fol-
lowed by soaking in a polymer [67], bio-cement treatment [68], wastewater-enhanced flow-
through carbonation [69], the addition of a cement paste dissociation agent [70], the mineral
addition treatment method with silica fume, and the equivalent mortar volume method [71]
have been used by various researchers to enhance the inferior properties of RCA. These
methods were developed to produce recycled aggregate concrete with improved properties.
It is necessary to build a cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach, as this
would be a practical way to utilize recycled aggregate in concrete applications.

2.3. Fresh Concrete Properties

Since recycled aggregate has different properties compared with natural aggregate, it
reacts differently in fresh concrete mixes, resulting in differences in the amount of mixing
water required, the fresh density, and the concrete’s workability. The variation in the
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 28
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 10 of 27

mixing water required, the fresh density, and the concrete’s workability. The variation in
the workability
workability of RA of is
RA is shown
shown in Table
in Table 4. The
4. The variation
variation in in performance
performance betweenthe
between thefresh
fresh
properties
propertiesofofRA
RAconcrete
concreteand andconventional
conventionalNA NAconcrete
concreteisisdiscussed
discussedininthis
thissection.
section.TheThe
two-stage
two-stagemixing
mixing approach
approach reduces the the workability
workabilitybecause
becauseofofthe
the prolonged
prolonged mixing
mixing pe-
period andincreases
riod and increasesthe the absorption
absorption of the recycled
recycled aggregates.
aggregates. However,
However,TSMATSMAtogether
together
with
withsupplemental
supplementalcementitious
cementitiousingredients
ingredientswas
wasfound
foundtotoimprove
improvethe
theRCA
RCAconcrete’s
concrete’s
workability [42].
workability [42].

Table4.4.Effect
Table Effectofofrecycled
recycledaggregate
aggregateonon
workability.
workability.

With or Slump
Slump
Replacement
Replacement SP DosageSP Dosage
(%) and(%) and
With or Without
Reference
Reference W/C Ratio
W/C Ratio Aggregate
Aggregate Type Type Without ValueValue
Level (%) Type ofType
Level (%) SP of SP Admixture
Admixture (mm) (mm)
Up
Up toto 70
70
CRCACRCA - -
(+16.7%)
(+16.7%)
Up
Up toto 50
50
FRCAFRCA
+ CRCA
+ CRCA - -
Tangchirapat et al. (−16.7%)
(−16.7%)
0.48 Up to 100 -
Tangchirapat
[72] et al. [72] 0.48 Up to 100 - Up to 100
CRCACRCA FA up Up to 100
FAtoup
50%to 50% (+42.8%)
(+42.8%)
Up to 90
FRCA + CRCA FA up to 50% Up to 90
FRCA + CRCA FA up to 50% (+80.0%)
(+80.0%)
0·25 (polycarboxylate Up to 40
Kumar et al. [45] 0.42 FMRA Up to 100 -
ether) 0·25 (−48.7%)
Up to 40
Kumar et al. [45] 0.42 FMRA Up to 100 (polycarboxylate -
Up to 180
(−48.7%)
0.35 ether) -
(−10.0%)
Chih Fan et al. [73] FRCA Up to 100 1 (type G) Up toto 195
180
Up
0.55 0.35 - -
−10.0%)
((−9.7%)
Chih Fan et al. [73] FRCA Up to 100 1 (type G)
de Andrade et al. Up to
Up to 165
195
0.45 0.55 FRCA Up to 100 0.4 (Glenium 51) - -
[74] (−9.7%)
(+153.8%)
1.55 (water-based pol- Up
Up toto 140
165
Cantero
de et al.
Andrade et[75]
al. [74] 0.45 0.45 MRA FRCA Up to 100
Up to 100 0.4 (Glenium 51) - -
ycarboxylate) (+153.8%)
(+27.27%)
1.55 (water-based Up to 140
Cantero et al. [75] 0.45 MRA
Consequently, as theUp to 100
replacement level of recycled fine aggregate
polycarboxylate)
-
(RFA) increased,
(+27.27%)
the quantity of mixing water also increased. The amount of water to be mixed increased
by 12.30, 23.29, and 34.29% with an RFA replacement level of 0, 50, and 100%, respectively
Consequently, as the replacement level of recycled fine aggregate (RFA) increased, the
[76]. This was because of the increased water absorption of the RFA, which was 11.91%
quantity of mixing water also increased. The amount of water to be mixed increased by
compared with that of the fine natural aggregate (0.94%). The workability of the recycled
12.30, 23.29, and 34.29% with an RFA replacement level of 0, 50, and 100%, respectively [76].
aggregate was lower than that of the NA due to its higher water absorption rate. However,
This was because of the increased water absorption of the RFA, which was 11.91% compared
the HCl-treated RA obtained a maximum workability of 90 mm, which was greater than
with that of the fine natural aggregate (0.94%). The workability of the recycled aggregate
that of the untreated RAC concrete (65 mm) [59]. Since the carbonation decreased the wa-
was lower than that of the NA due to its higher water absorption rate. However, the
ter absorption of the RCA, the mortar in the carbonated RCAs had superior flowability.
HCl-treated RA obtained a maximum workability of 90 mm, which was greater than that
ofOnthethe other hand,
untreated RAC the increased
concrete (65addition
mm) [59]. of Since
recycledtheaggregate
carbonation in conventional
decreased theconcrete
water
showed a reduction in the workability from 45 to 20 mm at
absorption of the RCA, the mortar in the carbonated RCAs had superior flowability. a constant replacement Onlevel
the
of 6.5%
other hand,metakaolin.
the increased Theaddition
reduction of in workability
recycled aggregateoccurred due to theconcrete
in conventional incorporation
showedof
apozzolanic
reduction in materials that disrupt
the workability from its45bonding
to 20 mm networks [77]. replacement level of 6.5%
at a constant
metakaolin. The reduction in workability occurred due to the 17%
The fluidity of the mixes decreased by around 32 and after treating
incorporation RCA with
of pozzolanic
silica fume
materials thatand nano-SiO
disrupt 2 slurries. This decrease in fluidity was due to the fine coating of
its bonding networks [77].
pozzolanic materials on the surface
The fluidity of the mixes decreased of thebyRCA, which
around 32 absorbed sometreating
and 17% after of the mixing water
RCA with
and left a smaller amount of free water in the concrete mixes. However,
silica fume and nano-SiO2 slurries. This decrease in fluidity was due to the fine coating the silica fume
grains that had adhered to the outer surface of the recycled aggregate
of pozzolanic materials on the surface of the RCA, which absorbed some of the mixing increased the work-
ability
water by left
and preventing
a smaller some of theofwater
amount from permeating
free water in the concreteinto mixes.
the pores present the
However, in the RA,
silica
increasing
fume grains the
thatquantity
had adhered of free water
to the in the
outer mixture.
surface of theAdditionally, the reduction
recycled aggregate increasedinthethe
workabilitybyofpreventing
workability the concrete somewasofaround
the water 12% andpermeating
from 24% at a 50% intoreplacement level of
the pores present in RFA
the
andincreasing
RA, RFA along with
the GGBS,ofrespectively.
quantity free water inCompared
the mixture. with conventional
Additionally, theconcrete,
reductionthe 50%
in the
RFA specimens with 70% SCM
workability of the concrete was around 12% (23% fly ash and 47% GGBS) increased the workability
24% at a 50% replacement level of RFA by
and RFA along with GGBS, respectively. Compared with conventional concrete, the 50%
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 11 of 27

RFA specimens with 70% SCM (23% fly ash and 47% GGBS) increased the workability by
40% [78]. The different behavior of the RCA in the fresh state was due to the aggregate
absorbing more water and having the weakest mortar. However, with treatment methods
with a proper mix design and modifications in the water-to-cement ratio, it would be
feasible to make concrete with the necessary workability.

2.4. Properties of Hardened Concrete

It is crucial to understand how various proportions of recycled aggregate affect the
concrete’s strength properties and to predict how the concrete will behave in structural
components. Table 5 reports the hardened properties of RA concrete in comparison with
conventional concrete. The different treatment methods improved the hardened properties
of the RA. The nano-silica-coated RA, treated at an optimum concentration of 2% for 48 h,
improved the hardened properties even at a replacement level of 100% due to the increased
hardness, the decreased water absorption, and the reduced number of pores present in the
RA [79]. The reinforcement of the recycled aggregate concrete with the dispersion of basalt
fibers improved the RA’s inferior properties, strengthening the interfacial transition of the
RA [80]. In addition, the replacement of construction waste can be utilized in the form of
ground carbonated reactive MgO cement to produce fresh reactive MgO cement in order to
increase the utilization of construction waste. The use of carbonated reactive MgO cement
at a replacement level of 20% could improve the RA’s detrimental properties due to the
formation of amorphous hydrated phases [81]. Although RA behaves heterogeneously, the
studies reveal that the mechanical properties could be enhanced even with high recycled
aggregate content.

Table 5. Studies on the hardened properties of concrete.

Replacement
SI. No Literature Additives Effects on Strength Parameters
Level (%)
CS *: 33.4, 30.7, and 29.5 MPa
STS **: 4.98, 4.56, and 4.37 MPa
Modulus of elasticity: 31,602.1, 27,130.7,
and 28,596.8 MPa
1. Hamad et al. [44] 0, 40, and100 – Flexural strength: 196.8, 213.7,
and 227.2 kN
Shear strength: 162.9, 162.8, and 159.3 kN
Bond strength: 119.2, 137.9, and 121.2 kN
for 0, 40, and 100% RCA, respectively.
Carbonated aggregate showed 15 and
2. Zhang et al. [41] 100% RCA Carbonation treatment 10% higher CS 7 and 28 days after
treatment, respectively.
SCM with a two-stage mixing Silica fume containing a concrete mixture
approach (TSMA and SCM
3. Faysal et al. [42] 60% RCA • Maximum CS: 56.3 MPa
containing fly ash (20%), GGBS
(20%), and silica fume (7%) • Maximum STS: 3.1 MPa

RAC with 30% fly ash reduced:

4. Sunayanaet al. [82] 100% RA 20 and 30% fly ash • The CS by 6%;
• The STS by 28%;
• The modulus of elasticity by 12%.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 12 of 27

Table 5. Cont.

Replacement
SI. No Literature Additives Effects on Strength Parameters
Level (%)
100% recycled aggregate concrete with
quaternary cementitious materials
increased the CS:
50 and 75% by weight of • At the 50% replacement level
50 and 100% quaternary cementitious by 12.6%;
5. Guo et al. [83] • At the 75% replacement level by
RCA materials: cement, fly ash (FA),
slag, and silica fume (SF) over 35 MPa
• In the ternary mix (fly ash and slag)
by 83% to 174%;
• In the quaternary mixes by
123% to 496%.
The RFA50 mix with 35% GGBS increased
the CS:
• At 7 days by 35.7%;
• At 28 days by 36.3%.
The RFA50 mix with FA23% and
GGBS47% increased:
6 Gholampour et al. [78] 50% RFA GGBS and fly ash • The modulus of elasticity (Ec)
by 6.5%;
• The STS by 7.3%.
FA mixes showed a higher water
absorption rate, and GGBS mixes showed
a lower water absorption rate in the
concrete specimens.
RCA specimens with 50% fly ash and 10%
coal bottom ash reduced:
RCA at 0, 25, 50, 10% coal bottom ash and 50% • The CS by 4%, 8%, 11, and 9%;
7. Kumar and Singh [84]
75, and 100% fly ash • The STS by 10, 17, 26, and 20%
for the 25, 50, 75, and 100% replacement
levels, respectively, at 90 days.
* CS, compressive strength; ** STS, splitting tensile strength.

Figures 5 and 6 show the variation in compressive and split tensile strength results after
a curing period of 28 days in various studies. The effective use of recycled CDW in concrete
production enhanced the circular economy and the consequences of that practice for a
sustainable flow of resources. Mixed recycled aggregates (MRAs) comprise a substantial
proportion of the total construction and demolition waste. The biggest obstacle to MRA
recovery and recycling is its non-uniformity and several inherent qualities that directly
affect the concrete’s performance. The results of earlier studies indicate that the surface
treatment caused a reduction in the water absorption rate of the MRA and improved its
abrasion resistance. The treated MRA did not exhibit much of an enhancement in the
mechanical properties, but the durability was found to be greatly enhanced [85]. From an
engineering standpoint, recycled aggregate does not impede structural concrete members
as the strength parameters of the RA keep improving.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 28
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Sustainability 15,15,
2023, x FOR
4932 PEER REVIEW 13 of 27 13 of 28

Figure 5. Results of studies on compressive strength on the 28th day([33]** [44]* [77]* [86–89]* [90]*
Figure 5. Results of studies on compressive strength on the 28th day ([33]** [44]* [77]* [86–89]* [90]*
(60%GGBS,
Figure
(60%GGBS,
60%GGBS
5. Results
60%GGBSof and 7%Lime)
studies
and 7%Lime)
[91]*, [91]* (10%
on compressive SF), [92]**,
strength
[91]*, [91]* (10% on[92]
the
SF), [92]**,
(CMRA))
[92]28th
* RCA,
day(
(CMRA)) [33]**
* RCA,
****FRA.
[44]* [77]* [86–89]* [90]*
FRA.
(60%GGBS, 60%GGBS and 7%Lime) [91]*, [91]* (10% SF), [92]**, [92] (CMRA)) * RCA, ** FRA.

Figure 6. Results of studies on split tensile strength on the 28th day ([33]**, [44]*, [77]*,
Figure
[88,89]*,6.[91]*,
Results
[91]*of studies[92]**,
(10%SF), on split
[92] tensile
(CMRA), strength on the
[93] (MRA)) 28th**day
* RCA, ([33]**,[44]*, [77]*, [88,89]*, [91]*,
FRA.
[91]* (10%SF), [92]**, [92] (CMRA), [93] (MRA)) * RCA, ** FRA.
Figure 6. Results of studies on split tensile strength on the 28th day ([33]**,[44]*, [77]*, [88,89]*, [91]*,
2.5. Supplementary Cementitious Materials
[91]* (10%SF), [92]**, [92] (CMRA), [93] (MRA)) * RCA, ** FRA.
The different supplementary
2.5. Supplementary cementitious materials exhibited improved performance
Cementitious Materials
in the recycled aggregate concrete. This section explains how authors utilized various
2.5. Supplementary
The differentCementitious
supplementary Materials
cementitious materials exhibited improved perfor-
additives and the ideal replacement proportion at which they work best. Based on the
mance The
reported in results,
the recycled
different 6aggregate
supplementary
Table summarizes concrete. This section
cementitious
the significance explains
materials
of the how
exhibited
inclusion authors
improved
of coarse andutilized var-
fine perfor-
ious
mance additives
recycled inaggregatesand
the recycled the ideal
aggregate
on the replacement
strength andconcrete. proportion
Thisproperties.
durability at which
section explains they work
how authors
The improvement best. Based
utilized var-
in strength on
the
wasreported
ious achieved results,
additives with
andfly Table
ash
the (FA)
ideal 6 replacement
summarizes
only the significance
at a later proportion
age (after 90 at
days).ofUnlike
which the inclusion
they FA, of coarse
the addition
work best. Basedand on
fine
the recycled
of GGBS
reported aggregates
and silica fume
results, on the strength
(SF) 6increased
Table summarizes and
the early durability
thestrength properties.
compared
significance with
of the The improvement
the control
inclusion mix. and
of coarse in
The recycled
earlywas
strength
fine strength increases
achieved
aggregates onbrought
with fly
theash about by
(FA) only
strength andtheataddition ofproperties.
a later age
durability GGBS
(afterare
90dueThetoimprovement
days). sufficient
Unlike FA, the in
addition of GGBS
strength was and with
achieved silicafly
fume (SF) increased
ash (FA) the early
only at a later strength
age (after compared
90 days). Unlikewith the
FA, the
control mix. The early strength increases brought about by the addition of GGBS
addition of GGBS and silica fume (SF) increased the early strength compared with the are due
to sufficient
control mix. amounts
The earlyof lime and
strength silica, which
increases cause
brought theby
about GGBS to hydrate
the addition like Ordinary
of GGBS are due
Portland Cement (OPC). When adding a small amount of SF (7% only) to
to sufficient amounts of lime and silica, which cause the GGBS to hydrate like Ordinary RAC, the
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 14 of 27

R
15,
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amounts of lime and silica, which cause the GGBS to hydrate like Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC). When adding a small amount of SF (7% only) to RAC, the compressive
strength of the concrete increased at an early curing age because of its capacity to permeate
atermixing
required,
water
the
mixing
required,
freshwater
density,
mixing
the
required,
fresh
and
water
density,
the
mixing
therequired,
concrete’s
into fresh
and
thewater
density,
the
the
pores.workability.
required,
concrete’s
fresh
SFand density,
is onethe
theworkability.
The
concrete’s
offresh
theand
variation
density,
theworkability.
most concrete’s
The
inandvariation
efficient the workability.
concrete’s
The
materialsinvariation
and workability.
Theinvariation
causes a 53%The invariation
reduction in
in the
bility
the of
workability
RA is the
shown
workability
of RA
in Table
isthe
shown
workability
of
4. The
RAin is
Table
variation
the
shownworkability
of
4.RAThe
in
inis
Table
performance
variation
shownof
4.RAThe
inin
is
Table
variation
performance
shown
between
4. The
inin
the
Table
variation
performance
between
fresh
4. The
inthe
variation
performance
between
fresh inthe
performance
between
fresh
permeability of chloride ions. FA, which has a higher alumina concentration, can mitigate thebetween
fresh the fresh
ofproperties
RA concrete of
properties
RA
andconcrete
conventional
of
properties
RAandconcrete
conventional
NA of
properties
concrete
RA
theand concrete
conventional
NAis
ofdiscussed
penetration RA
concrete
and concrete
of conventional
NA is
indiscussed
chloride concrete
this
andions,
section.
conventional
NA is
indiscussed
concrete
this
The section.
resulting NA
inisconcrete
indiscussed
concrete
this
Thesection.
isindiscussed
with this
aThe section.
higher in this
Thesection.
electrical The
resistivity
mixing
two-stage
approach
mixing
two-stage
reduces
approach
mixing
two-stage
the workability
reduces
approach
mixing
two-stage
thereduces
value because
workability
approach
mixing
compared the
of the
reduces
workability
because
approach
withprolonged
the
ofreduces
GGBS. workability
the
because
mixing
prolonged
Even the
ofpe-
workability
thoughthe
because
mixing
prolonged
ofpe-
the
metakaolinbecause
mixing
prolonged
ofpe-
the mixing
is a pozzolanaprolonged
pe-60.07%
with mixingsilica
pe-
ncreases
riod andtheincreases
absorption
riod andtheincreases
of
riod
absorption
theand
recycled
the
increases
riod
absorption
ofoxide,
the
aggregates.
andrecycled
theincreases
absorption
of the
However,
aggregates.
recycled
the absorption
of the
TSMA
aggregates.
However,
recycled
together
of the
TSMA
aggregates.
However,
recycled
together
TSMA
aggregates.
However,
together
which is very high compared with OPC, the addition of 6.5% metakaolin to the TSMA
However,
together
TSMA together
plemental
with supplemental
cementitious
with supplemental
cementitious
ingredients
with supplemental
cementitious
was
ingredients
with found
supplemental
recycled cementitious
to
ingredients
wasimprove
concrete found cementitious
ingredients
the
was
to improve
aggregate RCA
found
mixconcrete’s
ingredients
was
to
theimprove
showed RCA
foundnoconcrete’s
was
to
theimprove
effect.RCA
foundconcrete’s
to
theimprove
RCA concrete’s
the RCA concrete’s
y [42].
workabilityworkability
[42]. workability
[42]. workability
[42]. [42].
Table 6. Variation in the strength and durability of recycled aggregate concrete.
fectTable
of recycled
4. Effect
aggregate
Table
of recycled
4. Effect
onTable
workability.
aggregate
of recycled
4. Effect
onTable
aggregate
workability.
of recycled
4. Effect
onaggregate
workability.
of recycled
onaggregate
workability.
on workability.
Admixture
Aggregate Admixture/ CS STS FS
Type and
Dosage and RA Slump Slump Slump Slump RCPT Slump WPT
Replacement Replacement SP Dosage Replacement
(%)SPandDosage Replacement
With
(%)
GradeSPorand
Dosage
or Without
Replacement
With
(%)
SP and
Dosage
or WithoutWith
(%)
SP andDosage
or Without With
(%) and or Without With or Without
oReference
Type
W/C
Aggregate
RatioReference
Type
W/C
Aggregate
Ratio Type W/C Replacement
Aggregate
Ratio Type Aggregate W/CType
of
Optimum Value Value Value Value Value
Level Literature
(%) LevelType
(%) Level
ofLevel
SP Type (%) of Level
SP
Admixture
Type
(%) of Level
SP
Admixture
Dosage Type
(%) of SP Admixture
Type of SP Admixture Admixture
Concrete (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(%) (%) (%) Up to 70 UpMPatoat7028 Days Up to 70 Up to 70
Coulombs Up tomm 70 or %
A CRCA CRCA CRCA CRCA - - - - -
MRA (0, 50,
(+16.7%)
Up to 47.1 (+16.7%)
Up to 3.1 (+16.7%)
Up to 6.6 (+16.7%)
Up to 5248 (+16.7%)
100) W/C: 0.48 - -
Up to(−50 34.7%) Up to(−50 26.2%) Up to(−50 23.6%) Up to(+51.1%)
50 Up to 50
CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA- - - - -
al.
gchirapatTangchirapat
et al. et al. (−16.7%) 35.6 (−16.7%)2.0 (−16.7%)6.3 (−16.7%) Up to 5303(−16.7%)
0.48 Up to 100
Dimitriou 0.48
et al. Up to 100
[93] 0.48- Up to 100 - Up to 100 - Up to
FA: 25 - 100 - ( − 50.6%)
- ( − 52.4%) ( − 26.7%) -
[72] [72] MRA Up to 100 Up to 100 Up to 100 Up to(+52.7%) 100 Up to 100
A CRCA CRCA CRCA
(100)
CRCA FA up to 50% FA up to 50% FA up to 50% FA up to 50% FA up to 50%
FA: 25 and (+42.8%) 38.2 (+42.8%)2.2 (+42.8%)6.3 (+42.8%) Up to (+42.8%)
- -
SF: 5 Up to(− 9047%) Up to(−90 47.6%) Up to(−90 26.7%) Up to(− 900.2%) Up to 90
CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + FA CRCA up to 50% FA up to 50%FA up to 50%FA up to 50%FA up to 50%
FMRA (+80.0%)
Up to 30.45 (+80.0%) Up to 3.0 (+80.0%) Up to 3.86(+80.0%)Up to 4200(+80.0%)
Up to 6.73%
Sivamani et al. [33] 0, 25, 50, W/C: 0.45 25
0·25 (polycarboxylate
1000·25 (polycarboxylate
0·25 (polycarboxylate
0·25 (polycarboxylate
Up 0·25
to
( −40(polycarboxylate
22.1%) Up to ( 40
− 22.1) Up to
( −40
11.9%) Up to 40
(+90.9%) Up to(+31.4%)
40
A mar
] et 0.42
al.FMRA
Kumar
[45]
Up to 100et 0.42
al.FMRA
[45]
Up to 100 0.42
FMRA Up to 100FMRA Up to 100 - Up to 100 - - - -
ether) ether) ether) ether)
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Khan et al. [88] 0, 30, 50, W/C: 0.43 30 Up to 180 Up toUp 180 to 3.65
Up toUp 180to 4.03
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- ( − 35.4%)
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- (+200%)
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0.55 Cantero et 0.55
al. [94] 0.55
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51)
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ty the
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This was
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Up to
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thatconcrete
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[59].
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Grade: 50 Up to 33.78 Up to 3.21
tion
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ain
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Saravanakumar RCA (−26.3%) (−26.8%)
etakaolin.
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c materials
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luidity The
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along
andwith
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respectively.
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respectively.
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and with RFA
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Compared
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conventional
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mens
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specimens
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atermixing
required,
waterthe
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variation
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The
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RA is the
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of RA
in Table
isthe
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of
4. The
RAin is
Table
variation
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shown
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The
in
inis
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performance
variation
shown
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The
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between
4. The
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4. Theinthe
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fresh thebetween
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ofproperties
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andconcrete
conventional
of
properties
RAandconcrete
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properties
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RAand concrete
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is
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and concrete
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indiscussed
concrete
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this
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this
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isindiscussed
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in this
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mixing
two-stage
approach
mixing
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reduces
approach
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the workability
reduces
approach
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of the
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ncreases
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riod and
Sustainability the
2023, increases
of
15,riod
absorption
theand
4932 recycled
the
increases
riod
absorption
of the
aggregates.
andrecycled
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However,
aggregates.
recycled
the absorption
of the
TSMA
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recycled
together
of theTSMA
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together
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However,
together
TSMA together
15 of 27
plemental
with supplemental
cementitious
with supplemental
cementitious
ingredients
with supplemental
cementitious
was
ingredients
withfound
supplemental
cementitious
to
ingredients
wasimprove
found cementitious
ingredients
the
was
to improve
RCA
found concrete’s
ingredients
was
to
theimprove
RCA
foundconcrete’s
was
to
theimprove
RCA
foundconcrete’s
to
theimprove
RCA concrete’s
the RCA concrete’s
y [42].
workabilityworkability
[42]. workability
[42]. workability
[42]. [42].
Table 6. Cont.
fectTable
of recycled
4. Effect
aggregate
Table
of recycled
4. Effect
onTable
workability.
aggregate
of recycled
4. Effect
onTable
aggregate
workability.
of recycled
4. Effect
onaggregate
workability.
of recycled
onaggregate
workability.
on workability.
Admixture
Aggregate Admixture/ CS STS FS
Type and
Dosage and RA Slump Slump Slump Slump RCPT
Slump WPT
Replacement Replacement
SP DosageReplacement
(%)
SPand
Dosage
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With
(%)
SPor
Grade and
Dosage
or Without
Replacement
With
(%)
SP and
Dosage
or Without
With
(%)
SP and
Dosage
or Without
With
(%) and
or Without
With or Without
oReference
Type
W/C
Aggregate
RatioReference
Type
W/C
Aggregate
Ratio Type
W/CReplacement
Aggregate
Ratio Type
Aggregate Type
W/C of
OptimumValue Value Value Value Value
Literature
Level (%) LevelType
(%) Level
ofLevel
SP Type
(%) ofLevel
SP
Admixture
Type
(%) of
Level
SP
Admixture
Type
(%) of SP
Dosage Admixture
Type of SP
Admixture Admixture
Concrete (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(%) (%) Up to 70 (%) UpMPatoat7028 Days Up to 70 Up to 70
Coulombs Up tomm70 or %
A CRCA CRCA CRCA CRCA - - - - -
(+16.7%)
Up to 23.4 (+16.7%) Up to 2.01(+16.7%) (+16.7%) (+16.7%)
Up to 9.64%
W/C: 0.5 20% RCA - -
Up to(−50 34.8%) Up to(−50 22.4%) Up to 50 Up to 50 Up to(+142%)
50
CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA- - - - -
al.
gchirapatTangchirapat
et al. et al. (−16.7%) SF 5: (−16.7%) SF 5: (−16.7%) (−16.7%) (−16.7%)SF 5:
0.48 Up to 100 0.48 Up to 100 0.48-RCAUp to 100 - Up to 100 - Up to 100 - Up to 28.8 - Up to 2.6Up to 100 Up to 8.0%
[72] Dilbas et al. [91]
[72] Up to 100 Up to 100 Up to 100 Up to 100
A CRCA CRCA 0,CRCA
20, 40, 60 CRCA FAfume
Silica up to 50% FA up to 50%FA(−up 28%) to 50%FA(−up to 50%FA up- to 50%
13.1%) (+171.6%)
(SF): 5, 10 10% SF (+42.8%) SF 10: (+42.8%) SF 10: (+42.8%) (+42.8%) - (+42.8%)SF 10:
Up to 28.8 Up to 2.5 Up to 7.5
Up to 90
(−38.1%)
Up to 90 Up to 90 Up to 90 Up to 90
CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + CRCA FRCA + FA CRCA up to 50% FA up to 50%FA up to 50%FA(−up 21.0%)
to 50%FA up to 50% (+166.7%)
(+80.0%) (+80.0%) (+80.0%) (+80.0%) (+80.0%)
W/C: 0.45: W/C: 0.45:
0·25 (polycarboxylate
0·25 (polycarboxylate
0·25 (polycarboxylate
0·25 (polycarboxylate
Up0·25
toUp40(polycarboxylate
to 26 Up to 40 Up to 40 Up to Up40to 8500Up to 40
Amar
] et 0.42
al.FMRA
Kumar
[45]
Up to 100 et 0.42
al.FMRA
[45]
Up to 1000.42
FMRA Up to 100FMRA Up to 100 - Up to 100 - - - -
ether) W/C: 0.45 ether)20 FRCA ether)
ether) (−16.1%)
(−48.7%) ether)
(−48.7%)- (−48.7%)- (+34.9%) (−48.7%)-
(−48.7%)
and 0.50 W/C: 0.5: W/C: 0.5:
Up toUp 180to 23 Up to 180 Up to 180 Up toUp180 to 6900Up to 180
0.35 0.35 0.35 - - -
(−11.5%) (−10.0%) - - (+16.9%) (−10.0%)
Barrag’an-Ramos FRCA (−10.0%) (−10.0%) (−10.0%)
A
h3]Fan et al.
FRCA
Chih[73]
UpFantoet 100
et al.
FRCA
al. [97]
[73]
Up to 1100
(type
0, FRCA Up
G)100
20, 60, to 100
1 (type
FRCAUpG)to 100
1 (typeUp
G)to 100
1 (type G) 1 (type G)
Up toW/C:195 0.45 Up to 195 Up to 195 Up toW/C: 195 0.45Up to 195
0.55 0.55 0.55 - - Up to -22 - - Up to 5900
(−9.7%)
(−29.0%) (−9.7%) (−9.7%) (−9.7%)(−6.3%) (−9.7%) -
FA: 20% 20FA - -
Andrade
l. et
deal.Andrade et al. Up toW/C:165 0.5 Up to 165 Up to 165 Up toW/C: 165 0.5Up to 165
A 0.45
FRCAUp to 100 0.45
FRCAUp0.4
to (Glenium
100
0.45
FRCA Up51)
0.4
to 100
(Glenium
FRCAUp 0.4
to
51)100
(Glenium
- Up 0.4
to
51)100
(Glenium
- 0.4
Up51)to(Glenium
-17 51) - - Up to 7000
[74] [74] (+153.8%)
(−34.6%) (+153.8%) (+153.8%) (+153.8%)
(+18.6%)(+153.8%)
1.55 (water-based1.55 pol-
(water-based
1.55 (water-based
pol- 1.55 (water-based
pol- Up 1.55
to 140(water-based
pol- Up to 140 pol- Up to 140 Up to 140 Up to 140
A
ntero
5] et0.45
al.MRA
Cantero
[75]
Up to 100 et0.45
al.MRA
[75]
Up to 1000.45MRA Up to 100 MRA Up to20100
Grade: - Up
FRCAto50%
100
- -
Up to 27.7 Up to-3.61
- - (+27.27%)-
ycarboxylate) ycarboxylate) MPaycarboxylate) ycarboxylate)
(+27.27%) ycarboxylate)
(−12.0%) (+27.27%)
(−6.3%) (+27.27%) (+27.27%)-
FA 15: FA 15:
equently, Consequently,
as the replacement
Consequently,
as the replacement
level
Consequently,
asoftherecycled
replacement
Consequently,
level asfine
of
therecycled
aggregate
replacement
level as offine
therecycled
(RFA)
replacement
aggregate
levelincreased,
of
fine
Up recycled
to(RFA)
aggregate
levelincreased,
32.8 of
fine
Uprecycled
(RFA)
toaggregate
3.9 increased,
fine(RFA)aggregateincreased,
(RFA) increased,
(+4.5%) (+3.0%)
ty the
of mixing
quantity water
the
of quantity
mixing
also increased.
the
water
of quantity
mixingalsoThe increased.
the
water
ofamount
quantity
mixing
alsoThe of
increased.
water
ofwater
amount
mixingalsotoThebe
increased.
water
of mixed
water
amount also to
increased
The
increased.
of
be
FA water
mixed
amount
30: toincreased
The
of
beFAwater
mixed
amount
30: toincreased
of
be water
mixedtoincreased
be mixed increased
Up to 21.7
3.29,
by and
12.30, 34.29%
23.29,
by 12.30,
with
and 34.29%
an23.29,
RFA
by 12.30,
and
with
replacement
34.29%
an
23.29,
by
RFA 12.30,
and
with
replacement
level
34.29%
an
23.29,
of RFA0,andwith
50,replacement
level
and
34.29%
an 100%,
RFA
of 0,with 50,
replacement
level
respectively
and
an RFA
of100%,
(−31.0%)
0, 50, andUp
replacement
level
respectively
of to 3.6
100%,
0, 50,
(−6.5%)
level
respectively
andof 100%,
0, 50,respectively
and 100%, respectively
was[76].
because
This was of
[76].
the
because
This
increased
was
[76].
of the
because
water
This increased
FRCA
was
absorption
[76].
of the
because
This
water
increased
was
ofof
absorption
the
the
because
water
RFA,
increased of
which
absorption
the water
increased
RFA,
was of
11.91%
absorption
GGBSwhichthe
20:water
RFA,
was of
absorption
which
11.91%
GGBS the 20:RFA,
was ofwhich
11.91%
the RFA,
was which
11.91%was 11.91%
Ju et al. [98] Up to 32.8 Up to 3.70
with
compared
that of the
with
compared
fine
thatnatural
ofwith
the
compared
aggregate
fine
that
0, 50, natural
of
100with
the
compared
(0.94%).
fine
aggregate
thatFA: natural
of15,
with
The
the30 (0.94%).
fine
workability
aggregate
thatnatural
ofFA—30
the
The(0.94%).
fine
aggregate
of
workability
the
natural
recycled
The
(+4.3%) (0.94%).
aggregate
workability
of the recycled
The (0.94%).
(+4.1%) workability
of the recycled
The workability
of the recycled of the recycled
GGBS: 20,40 GGBS—40 GGBS 40: GGBS 40:
- - -
wasaggregate
lower than was
aggregate
that
lowerof the
than
was
aggregate
NA that
lower
due oftothan
the
wasaggregate
itsNAthat
higher
lowerdueof
SF:than
the
water
to
was its
2.5,5 NAthat
lower
higher
absorption
dueof than
the
to
water
SF—5its
NAthat
higher
rate.
absorption
dueofHowever,
the
to
waterits
NA
Up to 27.5
higher
rate.
absorption
due However,
to
water
its higher
Up to 3.58
rate.
absorption
However,
water rate.absorption
However, rate. However,
eated
the HCl-treated
RA obtained
the HCl-treated
RA
a maximum
obtained
the HCl-treated
RA aworkability
maximum
obtained
the HCl-treated
RA aof
workability
maximum
obtained
90 mm, RA awhich
workability
maximum
of
obtained
90 was mm,agreaterwhich
workability
maximum
of (90
−12.5%)mm,
than
was greater
which
workability
of 90 (−mm, was
thangreater
7.2%) which
of 90 mm, was
thangreater
which was thangreater than
SF 2.5: SF 2.5:
untreated
that of the RACuntreated
thatconcrete
of theRAC untreated
(65
thatconcrete
mm)of the [59].
RACuntreated
that
(65Since
concrete
mm)
of thethe RAC
[59].
untreated
carbonation
(65Since
concrete
mm)the RAC
[59]. (65
carbonation
decreased
Since
concrete
mm)the [59].
the
(65
carbonation
decreased
Since
Up to 33.6 wa-
mm) the
[59].the
carbonation
decreased
Since
Up to 4.03wa- the the
carbonation
decreased
wa- the
decreased
wa- the wa-
tion
terofabsorption
the RCA, ter ofabsorption
thethemortar
RCA,
ter ofabsorption
inthe themortar
RCA,
carbonated
ter of absorption
in
thethe
the
mortar
RCA,
RCAs
carbonated
ofin
the
had
the
the
mortar
RCA,
superior
carbonated
RCAsin thehad
the
flowability.
mortar
superior
carbonated
RCAs
(+6.9%) inhadtheflowability.
superior
carbonated
RCAs
(+2.7%)had flowability.
superior
RCAs had flowability.
superior flowability.
SF 5: SF 5:
herOnhand,
the the
other
increased
On hand,
the other
theaddition
On
increased
hand,
the of other
therecycled
addition
On
increased
hand,
the aggregate
other
of
theaddition
recycled
increased
hand, inofaggregate
the
conventional
addition
recycled
increased inof
aggregate
conventional
addition
recycled
concrete
Up to 21.6 in of
aggregate
conventional
recycled
concrete
Up to 2.64in aggregate
conventional
concrete in conventional
concrete concrete
(−31.3%) −31.6%)
reduction
showed in a reduction
the
showedworkability
ainreduction
showed
the fromworkability
ain
45reduction
showed
the
to 20 workability
from
mm ain45
reduction
attheto
a constant
workability
20
from mm in45the
atreplacement
toa workability
20
constant
from mm45 atto mm45(at
replacement
level
a 20
constant
from to
replacement
alevel
20
constant
mm atreplacement
alevel
constant replacement
level level
etakaolin.
of 6.5% metakaolin.
The of reduction
6.5% metakaolin.
Kirthika et al. [37] Theofin reduction
6.5%
workability
FMRA metakaolin.
The of inreduction
6.5%
workability
occurred
metakaolin.
The
W/C: 0.50 inreduction
due workability
occurred
to The
the 30 inincorporation
reduction
due
workability
occurred
to the
Up in
to incorporation
due
workability
occurred
of
30.1 to the
Up to incorporation
due occurred
of
2.9 to the
Up to incorporation
due4.6ofto the incorporation
- of - of
0, 30, 50, 75, 100 (−16.9%) (−6.45%) (+2.22%)
c materials
pozzolanic thatmaterials
pozzolanic
disrupt that itsmaterials
pozzolanic
bonding
disruptthat networks
its
materials
pozzolanic
bonding
disrupt [77].
that
its
networks
materials
bonding
disrupt[77]. that
its
networks
bonding
disrupt[77]. its
networks
bonding[77]. networks [77].
luidity The
of thefluidity
mixes The
ofdecreased
the
fluidity
mixes CMRA
The
by
ofdecreased
the
around
fluidity
mixes The
32
ofbydecreased
and
the
fluidity
around
mixes
17% of 32
after
by
decreased
the
and
around
treating
mixes
17%32 by
after
decreased
RCA
and
around
Up treating
to17%
with
34.9232by
after
and
RCA
around
Up treating
17%
towith 32
2.21 after
and
RCAUptreating
17%
towith
2.52afterRCA treating
with RCA -with
Joseph et al. [4] 0, 30, 60, W/C: 0.42 30 -
(−18.7%) (−19%) (−47.4%)
e and
silica
nano-SiO
fume andsilica nano-SiO
fume This
2 slurries. and
silica nano-SiO
fume and
2 slurries.
decrease
100 silica
This
in nano-SiO
fume and
2 slurries.
fluidity
decrease This
was
2 in nano-SiO
slurries.
decrease
fluidity
due toThis thewas
2 in
slurries.
fine
decrease
fluidity
due coating
toThisthe
was
in decrease
of
fluidity
fine
duecoating
to the
wasin fluidity
fine
of
duecoating
to the
wasfine of
duecoating
to the fineof coating of
c materials
pozzolanic onmaterials
pozzolanic
the surface onmaterials
pozzolanic
ofthethesurface
RCA, onmaterials
pozzolanic
which
of
thethe surface
RCA,
absorbed
onmaterials
of
the
whichthesurface
some
RCA,
absorbed
onofof the
which
thethesurface
mixing
some
RCA,
absorbed
of
ofwhich
water
the
thesomemixing
RCA,
absorbed
ofwhich
water
the some
mixing
absorbed
of water
the some
mixing of water
the mixing water
smaller
and left amount
a smaller
andofleft free
amount
a water
smaller
andof left
infree
amount
the
a smaller
water
and
concreteof
left
in
free
amount
athe
mixes.
smaller
water
concrete
ofHowever,
in
free
amount
themixes.
water
concrete
of
the However,
in
free
silica
the
mixes.
water
concrete
fume the
However,
in the
silica
mixes.
concrete
fumethe
However,
silica
mixes. fumethe
However,
silica fume the silica fume
Using RCA with a silica fume paste (ten parts water and one part solid) improved the
t had
grains
adhered
that had
grains
to theadhered
outer
that hadgrains
surface
to the
adhered
that
outer
of the
had
grains
to
surface
recycled
the
adhered
that
outerof had
the
aggregate
to
surface
the
recycled
adhered outer
ofincreased
the
to
aggregate
surface
the
recycledouter
the
of increased
theaggregate
work-
surface
interface between the aggregate and the surface of the RCA, resulting in denserrecycled of
the
increased
the
aggregate
work-
recycled the
increased
aggregate
work- the
increased
work- the work-
hydrates
preventing
ability bysomepreventing
ability
of thebywater
some
preventing
ability of
from the
by permeating
some
preventing
water
ability offrom
the
by some
preventing
into
water
permeating
theoffrom
pores
the some
water
permeating
intopresentthe
offrom
the
pores
inwater
permeating
into
the present
RA,
the
from
that reduced the penetration of carbon dioxide. On the other hand, the fly ash slurry pores
in
permeating
into
the
present
the
RA, pores
ininto
the
present
the
RA, pores
in thepresent
RA, in the RA,
the
increasing
quantitythe increasing
of free
quantity
water the
increasing
ofinquantity
freethewatermixture.
the
increasing
of quantity
in
free
produced the
Additionally,
water
mixture.
the of quantity
less in
free theAdditionally,
water
effective the
mixture.
ofreduction
in
free
results theAdditionally,
water
mixture.
theinreduction
than in
the
thethe Additionally,
mixture.
thein
silica reduction
fumetheAdditionally,
theinreduction
slurry. the
Mixing theinareduction
the solution
10% in theof
ty of
workability
the concrete workability
of the
wasconcrete
around
workability
of the was
12% concrete
around
and workability
of
silica fume with recycled concrete aggregate made the SF particles penetrate the RFA
24%
the
was
12%concrete
at around
aand
50%
of the
24%was
replacement
12%concrete
at around
and
a 50% 24%was
12%
replacement
level
ataround
and
a of50% RFA
24% 12%
replacement
level
at and
a 50%
of 24%
RFAreplacement
level
at a 50%
of RFAreplacement
level of RFA level of loose
along
andwith
RFAGGBS,
along
and withrespectively.
RFA GGBS,along
and with RFA
respectively.
Compared
GGBS,
along
and
mortarwith
RFA
respectively.
with
Compared
GGBS,
along
layerconventional
ofwithrespectively.
thewith
Compared
GGBS,
RA. conventional
concrete,
When respectively.
with
Compared
the
conventional
comparing concrete,
50%withCompared conventional
the
ultrasonicconcrete,
50% with conventional
cleaningtheconcrete,
50%
of RCAthe toconcrete,
50%
SF the 50%
impregnation,
mens
RFAwithspecimens
70% RFASCM with
specimens
(23%70%RFAflySCMwith
ash
specimens
(23%
and
70% RFA47%
fly
theSCM with
specimens
ash
GGBS)
(23%
and
70%increased
improvements fly
47%
SCM with
ashGGBS)
(23%
and
70%
in the fly
47%
increased
SCMworkability
properties ashGGBS)
(23%
and arethe
fly
47%
increased
by
workability
ash
GGBS)
smaller andin the
47%
increased
workability
by GGBS)the
ultrasonic increased
workability
by
cleaning the
[99].workability
byThe ultrafine by
cementitious material’s inclusion decreased the number of Ca(OH)2 crystals, which was
detrimental to the concrete’s properties. The addition of 10% superfine phosphorous slag
(PHS) and 10% GGBS produced an improvement in the hardened properties of the concrete.
Because of the increase in the hydration retardation produced by PHS, specimens with 20%
phosphorous slag had a lower modulus of elasticity than the other specimens [58]. The
utilization of pulverized coal bottom ash with a Blaine fineness of 858.6 m2 /kg, which is two
times finer than cement, can significantly enhance the strength properties of concrete [100].
 m2/kg, which is two times finer than cement, can significantly enhance the strength prop-
erties of concrete [100].
The addition of a 60% GGBS, 7% lime, and 100% RCA combination produced a dense
microstructure compared with concrete without lime. The lime content in the GGBS was
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 16 of 27
29% less than that in OPC (64.40%). However, adding lime can increase the alkalinity of
the concrete, resulting in the breakdown of GGBS particles and producing additional cal-
cium hydrate (CSH) The geladdition
[90]. Theof aaddition
60% GGBS,of 7%1%,lime,3%,
andand
100%5% RCAnano SiO2 decreased
combination produced a the
dense
permeability, thereby reducing the penetration of chloride ions. The
microstructure compared with concrete without lime. The lime content in the compressive strength
GGBS was
of the 3% nano-silica substitution
29% less than that in inOPC
40%(64.40%).
RCA was comparable
However, addingtolimethatcan
ofincrease
regularthe concrete
alkalinity
of the concrete, resulting in the breakdown of GGBS particles
at later ages. Calcium hydroxide combines with nano SiO2 during the hydration of cement and producing additional
calcium hydrate (CSH) gel [90]. The addition of 1%, 3%, and 5% nano SiO2 decreased
and serves as both an activator for the hydration reaction and a filler to increase the den-
the permeability, thereby reducing the penetration of chloride ions. The compressive
sity [101]. Therefore, theofmodification
strength method
the 3% nano-silica impacts
substitution upon
in 40% RCA the
was compressive
comparable tostrength of
that of regular
recycled concreteconcrete
aggregates.
at laterIn addition,
ages. Calcium incorporating
hydroxide combines supplementary
with nano SiO2 cementitious ma- of
during the hydration
cement and
terials helps to improve theserves as bothproperties
hardened an activator forof the hydration
recycled reaction and a filler to increase the
aggregates.
density [101]. Therefore, the modification method impacts upon the compressive strength
Figure 7 shows the variation in the water absorption and chloride ion permeability
of recycled concrete aggregates. In addition, incorporating supplementary cementitious
with the variation in the recycled
materials aggregate
helps to improve replacement
the hardened level
properties in the concrete.
of recycled aggregates.Regarding
mechanical and durability Figure 7properties, similarinresults
shows the variation the water were obtained
absorption and (up to 50%
chloride replace-
ion permeability
ment of recycledwith aggregate within25%
the variation pozzolanic
the recycled materials).
aggregate replacement Thelevel
addition of pozzolanic
in the concrete. Regarding
mechanical and durability properties, similar results were
materials at the 45% replacement level in entirely replaced recycled aggregate concrete obtained (up to 50% replacement
of recycled aggregate with 25% pozzolanic materials). The addition of pozzolanic materials
improved the mechanical and durability properties compared with conventional concrete
at the 45% replacement level in entirely replaced recycled aggregate concrete improved the
[102]. The RFA concrete
mechanical exhibited higher
and durability strength
properties and less
compared withdrying shrinkage
conventional than
concrete regular
[102]. The RFA
concrete after theconcrete
inclusion of additional
exhibited cementitious
higher strength ingredients.
and less drying shrinkageThe thanpozzolanic mate-
regular concrete after
rials, such as fly ash and GGBS, effectively reduced the adverse effects of the recycled finefly
the inclusion of additional cementitious ingredients. The pozzolanic materials, such as
aggregates [103].ash and GGBS, effectively reduced the adverse effects of the recycled fine aggregates [103].
Therefore, supplementary cementitious materials could improve the
Therefore, supplementary cementitious materials could improve the strength and durability
strength and durability
properties,properties,
reducing the reducing theassociated
difficulties difficulties
withassociated with extensive
extensive pretreatment pre-for
techniques
treatment techniquesrecycledforaggregates.
recycled aggregates.

Figure 7. Variation in WPT and RCPT values of RA. ([33]**, [86]*, [88,89]*, [90]* (60%GGBS, 60%GGBS
Figure 7. Variationand 7%Lime),
in WPT and[91]*,
RCPT[91]*values
(10%SF))
of *RCA, **FRA.[86]* ,[88,89]*, [90]*( 60%GGBS, 60%GGBS
RA. ([33]**,
and 7%Lime), [91]*, [91]*(10%SF)) *RCA, **FRA.
2.6. Frost Resistance
The durability of RA concrete is typically lower than that of conventional concrete
due to the old mortar on the RA concrete’s surface. Several researchers have improved the

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932
2.6. Frost Resistance
The durability of RA concrete is typically lower than that of conventional concrete
due to the old mortar on the RA concrete’s surface. Several researchers have improved the
adverse effects related to the durability of RA using various techniques. In general, the
durability characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete, such as chloride ion 17 permeabil-
of 27

ity, water absorption, sorptivity, acid resistance, and frost resistance, decline as the RA
material content increases. The durability aspects, such as the chloride ion permeability
adverse
and effects and
the freeze relatedthawto the durability
resistance, of affect
can RA using the various
mechanical techniques.
behavior In general, the
and development
durability characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete, such as
of the microstructure of RA concrete [104]. Adding GGBS and fly ash improved the frost chloride ion permeability,
water absorption, sorptivity, acid resistance, and frost resistance, decline as the RA material
resistance of recycled aggregate concrete. Recycled aggregate concrete without fly ash and
content increases. The durability aspects, such as the chloride ion permeability and the
GGBS
freeze began
and thaw to resistance,
lose masscan after 25 the
affect freeze and thaw
mechanical cycles.
behavior However,
and development the of
independent
the mi- or
simultaneous
crostructure of replacement
RA concrete [104]. of fly ash and
Adding GGBSGGBSand flyin ash
50% replaced
improved therecycled aggregate
frost resistance of con-
crete delayed the mass loss rate only after 150 freeze and thaw
recycled aggregate concrete. Recycled aggregate concrete without fly ash and GGBS began cycles. [86]. Similar research
onto durability
lose mass afteraspects showed
25 freeze and that,
thawat up toHowever,
cycles. the 40% replacement
the independent level,or the durability factor
simultaneous
replacement
value (98.4%)ofwasfly ash and GGBS
slightly lower inthan
50% replaced recycled aggregate
that of conventional concrete
concrete. Thedelayed
changethe in length
mass loss rate only after 150 freeze and thaw cycles [86]. Similar
of 50% replaced recycled aggregate concrete was 10.9% larger than that of 30% recycled research on durability
aspects showed
aggregate concrete that,after
at up300to the 40% replacement
freeze and thaw cycles. level, the
Asdurability
a result, itfactor
wasvaluefound (98.4%)
that the du-
was slightly lower than that of conventional concrete. The change in length of 50% replaced
rability characteristics were comparable with those of conventional concrete up to the 50%
recycled aggregate concrete was 10.9% larger than that of 30% recycled aggregate concrete
replacement
after 300 freeze level
and[105]. Additionally,
thaw cycles. theitfreeze
As a result, and thaw
was found that theresistance
durabilityofcharacteristics
recycled aggregate
was
weretested basedwith
comparable on the water
those absorptionconcrete
of conventional test. The upwater
to the absorption
50% replacement of recycled aggregate
level [105].
concrete after 100 freeze and thaw cycles increased by 58.1%
Additionally, the freeze and thaw resistance of recycled aggregate was tested based on for 100% replaced recycled
aggregate concrete due
the water absorption test.toThe
thewater
old mortar,
absorptionwhich produced
of recycled a weaker
aggregate interfacial
concrete transition
after 100
freezeleading
zone, and thaw to cycles increasedofbywater
the transport 58.1%into
for 100% replaced Adding
the concrete. recycled 40%
aggregate concrete
ferronickel slag as a
due to the old mortar, which produced a weaker interfacial transition
fine aggregate in 50% replaced recycled aggregate concrete decreased the water absorp- zone, leading to the
transport
tion valueofby water
19.76%.into the
Thisconcrete.
reductionAdding
was40% dueferronickel slag as between
to the reaction a fine aggregate in 50%
the non-crystalline
replaced recycled aggregate concrete decreased the water absorption value by 19.76%. This
phases in the ferronickel slag, leading to the formation of a larger amount of secondary
reduction was due to the reaction between the non-crystalline phases in the ferronickel
gel, which improved the weak interfacial zone in the recycled aggregate concrete [87]. The
slag, leading to the formation of a larger amount of secondary gel, which improved the
mass
weakloss rate ofzone
interfacial the in RAtheincreased as the recycled
recycled aggregate concreteaggregate content
[87]. The mass increased
loss rate of the RAas shown
inincreased
Figure 8. as the recycled aggregate content increased as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Mass loss rate of RA between 100 and 150 F–T Cycles [86,105–107].
Figure 8. Mass loss rate of RA between 100 and 150 F–T Cycles [86,105–107].
The addition of pozzolanic materials could offset the increase in the mass loss rate.
Adding
The30% fly ashof
addition topozzolanic
recycled aggregate concrete
materials couldimproved
offset thethe frost resistance
increase by 30%.
in the mass loss rate.
In addition, the frost resistance of 50% replaced recycled aggregate concrete with
Adding 30% fly ash to recycled aggregate concrete improved the frost resistance by 30%. the
simultaneous
In addition, thereplacement of supplementary
frost resistance cementitious
of 50% replaced recycledmaterials,
aggregate such as 15% with
concrete GGBSthe sim-
and 15% fly ash, exhibited better performance than conventional concrete [86]. Although
ultaneous replacement of supplementary cementitious materials, such as 15% GGBS and
the recycled aggregate content affects the freeze and thaw resistance, the addition of
15% fly ash, exhibited better performance than conventional concrete [86]. Although the
supplementary cementitious materials can enhance the freeze and thaw resistance to
recycled aggregate content affects the freeze and thaw resistance, the addition of
some extent.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 18 of 27

3. Scientometric Review of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Research

The bibliometric data were obtained from the Clarivate Analytics Web of Science
database. The search was systematic and extensive in order to ensure that the conclusions
of the review are sound. The retrieval of the publications was done on 10 September 2021.
Fundamentally, the article search was performed using the keyword parameters ((recycled
concrete aggregate) and (strength)). The period was initially unrestricted. The number of
articles returned due to this query was 3893 between 1965 and 2021. After applying filters
for the period from 2012 to 2021, setting the language to English, and eliminating the review
papers, proceeding papers, and early access papers, the total number of documents screened
was 3209. Out of these 3209 documents, unrelated topics were eliminated manually,
and only experimental studies on recycled aggregate concrete were selected. Finally,
1415 documents were selected for top-cited paper and keyword co-occurrence analysis.
Clarivate Analytics Web of Science was used to retrieve the complete database. Furthermore,
the output was visualized using the VOSviewer 1.6.17 software.

3.1. Top-Cited Articles

The relationship between a paper and its citations provides information about the
document’s quality. A high citation metric is directly proportional to high document
quality, so researchers frequently refer to these documents. The top-cited document [1]
describes the mechanical and permeability properties of recycled concrete aggregate. The
second-most cited document defines a method for the addition of class F fly ash to mitigate
the inferior properties of recycled aggregate concrete [108]. The third-most cited document
reports valuable information on the durability effects and a method for the design of
RAC [109]. Among the top 48 documents [110], is the most cited (nine times) by the top-
listed documents. There are several documents [1,108,110–124] that were cited more than
five times by the top-listed documents. Therefore, the listed documents are essential in the
field of recycled concrete aggregate.

3.2. Keyword Co-Occurrence and Evolution Analysis

The soul of an article is its keywords, which can accurately and succinctly describe the
research article. Accordingly, high-frequency keywords frequently identify the hot subjects
in a specific research domain. VOSviewer’s keyword co-occurrence network can show the
degree to which a keyword appears in a set of papers. The co-occurrence and keyword
analysis is done using all keywords as a unit of analysis. Web of Science gives keywords
from the abstract and title using a function called “keyword plus” and the keywords given
by authors. The standardization of keywords was necessary to eliminate the recurrence
of similar terms and meanings. After eliminating common terms, the map visualization
showed 13 clusters. Keywords with a high degree of connection with one another are
more likely to be grouped together. The keyword grouping was necessary in order to
represent the same topic within one cluster. The usage of the keyword and the increase in
the font define the total link strength (TLS) [125]. From the 251 standardized keywords, key-
words with more co-occurrences with generic topics, such as recycled concrete aggregates,
properties, strengthening, performance, and evaluation, were manually removed.
In Figure 9, the portion in the middle of the visualization represents a strong relation-
ship between those keywords. The higher density represents the well-developed research
on the theme. The keywords in the outer area, such as “recycled aggregate concrete-filled
steel tube”, “fiber-reinforced polymer tubes”, “tubular skin columns”, “glazed hollow
beads”, “compacting concrete”, “functionally graded concrete”, “nano-sheets”, “graphene
oxide”, “endurance limit”, “strain rate”, “sorptivity test”, “frost resistance”, “air con-
tent”, “bottom ash”, “sulphate attack”, “bacterial”, “oil fuel ash”, “bagasse ash”, “kiln
dust”, “dune sand”, “manufactured sand”, “calcium carbide residue”, “wastewater”,
“time-dependent deflection”, “fatigue strength”, “seismic performance”, “mixed recycled
aggregates”, and “precast industry waste”, and many of these research fields tended to
be immature. Still, more studies must be incorporated in order to develop cost-effective
 “air content”, “bottom ash”, “sulphate attack”, “bacterial”, “oil fuel ash”, “bagasse ash”,
“kiln dust”, “dune sand”, “manufactured sand”, “calcium carbide residue”,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932
“wastewater”, “time-dependent deflection”, “fatigue strength”, “seismic performance”,19 of 27
“mixed recycled aggregates”, and “precast industry waste”, and many of these research
fields tended to be immature. Still, more studies must be incorporated in order to develop
cost-effective and efficient recycled concrete aggregates to conserve natural materials and
and efficient
minimize therecycled concrete
accumulation aggregates toand
of construction conserve natural
demolition materials and minimize the
waste.
accumulation of construction and demolition waste.

Figure 9. Visualization of the

the keyword
keyword co-occurrence
co-occurrence analysis.
analysis.

4. Current Trends
4. Current Trends andand Future
Future ofof Recycled
Recycled Aggregates
Aggregates
The
The code IS 383:2016 mentions that the extension
code IS 383:2016 mentions that the extension of
of the
the utilization
utilization ofof RCA
RCA forfor plain
plain
concrete should be up to 25%. Similarly, the code permits RCA usage
concrete should be up to 25%. Similarly, the code permits RCA usage for reinforced con- for reinforced
concrete
crete up toup20%,
to 20%,andandthe the
gradegrade of the
of the concrete
concrete can can be to
be up upM25.
to M25.
ThisThis specification
specification was
was updated in IS 383:2016 based on extensive research in the field of RCA.
updated in IS 383:2016 based on extensive research in the field of RCA. Still, there is scopeStill, there is
scope to increase the replacement percentage of RCA and the usage of
to increase the replacement percentage of RCA and the usage of it in higher-grade con-it in higher-grade
concrete for effective
crete for the the effective utilization
utilization of CDW,
of CDW, thusthus improving
improving the circular
the circular economy
economy in theincon-
the
construction field. Since IS code 383:2016 does not permit RA usage in
struction field. Since IS code 383:2016 does not permit RA usage in both plain and rein- both plain and
reinforced concrete,
forced concrete, further
further research
research on mixed
on mixed recycled
recycled aggregates
aggregates is needed
is needed in order
in order to
to in-
increase the use of all CDW materials effectively and efficiently. A detailed
crease the use of all CDW materials effectively and efficiently. A detailed study on the study on the
durability factor of recycled aggregate concrete is necessary due to the heterogeneous
durability factor of recycled aggregate concrete is necessary due to the heterogeneous be-
behavior of recycled aggregates. Additionally, the development of standards is necessary
havior of recycled aggregates. Additionally, the development of standards is necessary to
to quantify the inherent features of RA. The lack of appropriate regulations, codes, and
quantify the inherent features of RA. The lack of appropriate regulations, codes, and spec-
specifications limits the use of RA. So, research can be undertaken in the future to formulate
ifications limits the use of RA. So, research can be undertaken in the future to formulate
standards that would enhance RA use, reducing the major environmental problems.
standards that would enhance RA use, reducing the major environmental problems.
5. Discussion
5. Discussion
People have become more concerned about environmental issues and pay more
People
attention have
to the become
vast more
amounts concerned
of concrete about
trash environmental
that are issuesrecycling
created. Effective and payprocesses
more at-
tention to the vast amounts of concrete trash that are created. Effective recycling processes
and the use of concrete debris will enable the development of a sustainable circular economy.
X-ray fluorescence test results show the presence of SiO2 , CaO, and Al2 O3 in coarse and
fine recycled aggregates. The natural aggregate seems to have a significant amount of SiO2
and less CaO and Al2 O3 , whereas the recycled aggregate has a similar amount of SiO2
and slightly higher CaO and Al2 O3 content. The results of studies on recycled aggregates
suggest that their compositions are comparable and connected to the source concrete [38].
 from construction and demolition waste generally decreased the strength and durability
omy. X-ray fluorescence
Sustainability 2023, test
15, results
x FOR PEER ing 2[127],
show
SiO the
soaking
and
REVIEW and
fine ofand
the the
presence
slightly addition
of
higher
recycled
recycled 2CaO
aggregates.of aand
, CaO,
SiOaggregate, superplasticizer
and
The AlAl
the2O 23O
use
natural in
content.
3 of the could
coarse
The
wate
aggregate
[38]. However,
workability
soaking
cleaned of
of the
and recycled
fresh
recycled
treated aggregate
concrete
aggregate,
properly made
because
the
before usefrom
attributes.
of its
itincreased
cleaned
can ofbe construction
the The
higher
water
used
and weaker
water and
compensation
treated
in concrete demolition
interface
absorption
properly
mixes. that
[126].
method
before waste
increased
However,
during
Furthermore,
it can must be
ofthe
the w
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
attributes. The weaker interface that
and fine recycled aggregates. The natural the water absorption
gates
ing
of and
workability. the oldbe20
aggregate
suggest
[127],
SiO 2 and and
mix-
used
recy-
mortar 28 in
Nevertheless,
that
lesstheseems
CaOtheir
addition based
tocompositions
and have
Al of 2Oaa3method on are
, significantthe comparable
superplasticizer
whereas reported
theamount could
recycle stu
soaking
ingcleaned
cled[127], ofand
and
aggregatethe recycled
treated
the addition
typically aggregate,
properly of
contains abefore that
theitmortar;
superplasticizer
old cleduse
can decreased
ofbe the
aggregate
as water
used
could in
a result, the bonding
compensation
concrete
minimize
typically
techniques the
containsstrength
mixes. negative thewere
forFurthermore,
old during
effect
mortar; theon
improvement leading
asmix-
recy-
the
aAs
res
that
of SiOdecreased
2 and less the
CaO bonding
and Al strength
2O3, whereas were
from
[38].
workability.
SiO the leading
construction
recycled
2 However,
andasadopting causesand
aggregate
recycled
Nevertheless,
slightly higher of the
demolition
aggregate
CaO hasdecline
based and a similar
on
Almade in
waste
2Othe strength.
generally
amount
from
reported
3 content. of
constru
The d
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW ingcled [127],
workability.
ofresult,
inferior and
aggregate the addition
typically
Nevertheless,
properties and of
contains
thebasedareductionon aofresult,
superplasticizer
old mortar;
the ofreported
inferior
impuritiescould
aproperties
result,
studies,
are atechniques
minimize high
the
anduse
necessary. recycled
the
the ofnegative
for anthe
reduction aggregate effect
improvement 20replace
on 28stu
ofthe
made
of impurities
a adopting
Sustainability a high
2023,
SiO2 and slightly higher CaO and Al2Ogates 15, recycled
x FOR PEER aggregate
REVIEW
attributes.
from3 content.
cleaned replacement
and The
construction
suggest weaker
results
treated
that and
theirlevel
ofinterface
properly is
studies generally
before thatrecycled
on it not
increased
can advised;the d
aggre-
bebelow
used w
in
workability.
of inferior
from construction
Recycled Nevertheless,
properties andand
aggregate the
demolition
usedbased as on
reduction the
awaste according
partialand ofreported
generally usetoof
impurities
Recycled
the aggregate the
studies,
are
decreased
aggregate thedemolition
literature,
replacement
concrete
compositions
necessary. theuse
debris itstrength
should
of an awaste are
be
aggregate generally
comparable
kept made the 3
according
gates
and the usetoofthe
suggest that literature,
their compositions
concrete debris it should
will enable be
arethat
cled
[38]. kept below
decreased
comparable
attributes.the development
aggregate
However, The 30%.
the
and
recycled
weaker Table
bonding
connected
typically 7used
ofinterface shows
aaggregate
containsstrength
typically
willas
to the
sustainable the
old
that
and
partial
enable
source
made
durability
affects
strengths
were
circular
mortar;
theaggrega
the
from
increased
develop
and
leading
concrete
econ-
as a res
constru
the w
from
attributes.
workability construction
Recycled The and
of aggregate
weaker
fresh demolition
usedbecause
interface
concrete asthatawaste weaknesses
partialomy.
increased generally
workability
of its aggregate
X-ray
higher the ofdecreased
various
fluorescence
water
water
freshreplacementtreatment
the
absorption
absorption
concrete teststrength
resultsand
because techniques
typically
[126]. and
show
the ofold
However,
its thefor
durability
affects recyc
thew
presen
mortar
higher
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 weaknesses
[38].
omy.However, of various
recycledtreatment
X-ray fluorescence aggregate
test results techniques
madeshowaofresult,
that
cleanedfromthefor
inferior
decreased recycled
adopting
construction
presence
and properties
the
treated aaggregates.
of high
and
SiO
and
bonding
properly recycled
2, demolition
CaO,
the andaggregate
reduction
strength
before Al 20
waste
were
it O
2can
of
of 27
in
3 the replace
must
be coarse
impurities be in
leading
used
attributes.
workability
that
soaking
and the decreased The
of the weaker
of recycled
fresh
the bonding interface
concrete because
x strength
aggregate, that
the increased
were of its
soaking
and use the
of higher
fine the
leading
the ofwater
recycled water
thewater causes
recycled absorption
absorption
compensation of
aggregates. the
aggregate, decline
The and
[126].
method the the
natural old
inHowever,
strength.
use
duringof mortar
the the
mix-
aggregate As
ofwate
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
andcleaned fineuse
and of concrete
Sustainability
treated
recycled 2023, debris
15,
properly
aggregates. FOR will
PEER
before
The enable
REVIEW
itaccording
natural a can
and
cled result,
Table be development
used
aggregate
Recycled
the
7. use toofthe
adopting
Strengths concrete
aggregate
anda
typically
of
literature,
inconcrete
seems high
ahave
todebris
weaknesses
sustainable
it should
mixes.
used
recycled
contains aas
will be
Furthermore,
significant
of olda
circular
kept
partial
enable
aggregate
mortar;
pretreatment the
20 econ-
below
recy-
amount
aggrega
develop
replace
as
28
aAs
res
techniq 3
that
asoaking
ing
omy.
Table decreased
result,
[127], of
X-ray
7. the
adopting
and the
the
fluorescence
StrengthsCaO bonding
recycled
a high
addition aggregate,
and weaknesses test strength
recycled
of a
results the were
aggregate
superplasticizer
of
show use
ing the
of
[127],
SiO the leading
the water
replacement
and and
couldless
presence thecauses
compensation
minimize
CaOof level
addition
and
SiO of , the
is
the
Al of
CaO, decline
method
generally
a
Onegative in
superplasticizer
,
andwhereasAl strength.
during
not
effect
O mix-
advised;
the
in on could
coarsethe
recycle
Al2O3,ofwhereas pretreatment techniques.
2 2 2 3 2 3
of cled SiOaggregate
2 and lesstypically andcontains old weaknesses
mortar;
omy. the
workability
according
of as
X-ray
inferior a
recycled
to of various
result,
fluorescence
the fresh
properties treatment
techniques
aggregateandtest
concrete
literature, the has for a
results
because
itgenerally
should
reductiontechniques
the
similar improvement
show
beof amount
kept thefor recyc
of
presen
ofitsimpurities
higher
below w
3
a result,
ing
according[127],
workability. adopting
and
to a high recycled
theliterature,
addition of aThe aggregate
superplasticizer replacement
could minimize level isshows
7the negative not
3effect advised;
on the
However, and
SiOof fine
inferior
and
2recycled
recycledthe
S.Nevertheless,
properties
slightlyaggregateaggregates.
higher and CaO
madethe
it
basedshould
reduction
and
from
on
Al
be
the
natural
O
kept
workability.
SiO
3 of
2construction
soaking
and
reported
2 and
weaknesses
below
aggregate
impurities
content.
fine of
Recycled The
theand
recycled
of
30%.
studies,
Nevertheless,
slightly seems
are
results
recycled
various
Table
higher theto
necessary.
demolition of
aggregates.
aggregate
use
CaO
have based
studies
aggregate,
treatmentused
of a an
and
waste
The as on
the
on
Al
significant
the
strengths
aggregate
2Othe
recycled
must
natural
techniques
a use
partial
reported
content.
be
of
amountand
made
aggre-
the
aggregate
for
aggrega
The
wate
stu
recyc
S.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
according
workability.
weaknesses
from Sustainability
toless
construction the
of various 2023,
literature,
Nevertheless,
and 15,
Pretreatment x
treatment
demolition FOR
it
based PEER
Technique
should on REVIEW
be
the
techniques
waste from
gateskept
reportedbelow
for
generally
construction
suggest recycled30%.
studies,
decreased Advantages
Table
the
aggregates.
and
thataggregate
their 7 shows
use
demolition
the
compositions strength the
of aansimilar waste strengths
aggregate
and
are 20
generally
durability
comparable of
and
made 28
Pretreatmentcleaned Technique of SiO 2 and
useNo CaO and
Advantages Al 2O3, whereas Table the7. recycled
Strengths and has
Disadvantages
weaknesses amount ofd
No and
gates
and
weaknesses
from
Recycled
the
suggest
treated of
constructionof
aggregate
concrete
that
properly their
variousand
before used
debris
compositions
treatment
demolition
it canas be
will aenable
partial
are
used
of
techniques
waste
and
ing the
workabilitythe
in 2aggregate
comparable
[127],
SiO development
use
concrete
and
for
generally and of
less concrete
and
the replacement
mixes.
CaO
ofdecreased
recycled fresh ofFurthermore,
connected
addition
and debris
concrete
aggregates.
a sustainable
the Al of 2O to ,of
abecause
strength
pretreatment
typically
will the enable
source of affects
circular
recycled
3superplasticizer
whereas and itsthe techniq
concrete the
develop
econ-
recycle
higher
durability could w
attributes.
SiO The weaker
2 and slightly higher interface
CaO and that
Al O [38].
increased
attributes. However,
3 content. theThe recycled
water
weaker
results aggregate
absorption
ofinterface
studies and
that
on made the from
increased
recycled old constru
mortarthe w
aggre-
aggregate [38].
omy. typically
workabilityHowever, contains
of recycled
X-ray fluorescence
fresh old
concrete mortar;
aggregate
test results
because as2show
made aSiO result,
omy.
of
Tablefrom
itsthe
workability.
soakingof X-ray techniques
construction
presence
higher
7.
and fluorescence
Strengths
the water of
and
Nevertheless,
slightly for
and
SiO the
absorption
higher
recycled weaknesses,
CaO CaO,
test
aggregate,
2 improvement
demolition
based and and
results
[126].
of on
Al Al
thethe waste
show O
However,
pretreatment
the
O of
in
the
reported
content.
useold
2 3 coarse
mustpresen
of mortar
the wate 
be
the
techniq
Thestu
attributes.
Tabledecreased
that
gates suggest S. that
The
7. Strengths weaker
theand
their interface
weaknesses
bonding strength
compositions ofthat increased
pretreatment
were
are that
cleaned
2
the
decreased
comparable the
leading
and 
techniques. Accumulation
water
Absorption
the
causes
treated
and absorption
bonding ofofthe
properly
connected ofand
nano-scale
strength
decline
before
to the
2
nanoparticles
were
in
source
3
itmaterials
strength.
can the
be leading
used
concrete As in
inferiorand properties
soaking
cleaned
Table fine
7. of
and Absorption
the and
recycled
Strengths the
recycled
treated Pretreatment
Nano-silica
and of nano-scale
reduction
aggregate,
aggregates.
properly
weaknesses of
TheTechnique
before
coatingimpurities
of the materials
natural
it
ofand use
can
from
gates
ing
pretreatment RA of are
fine necessary.
aggregate
be the water
recycled
used
construction
suggest
[127], and in
that
techniques.the Advantages
compensation
seemsaggregates.
concrete
and
their
addition todemolition
have
mixes.
compositions
of a amethod
The significant
natural
Furthermore,
wasteare
superplasticizer during
generally
comparable mix-
aggregate
amount
recy-
could d
Nano-silica coating of that
a andRA decreased
the
result,
[38]. use
However,No
S.
1 of
adopting the bonding
concrete
a
recycled high debris strength
recycled will were
enable
aggregate
a and
cled the
the
result, leading
development
use of
on
replacement
adopting
aggregate causes
leads
concrete
the to
of
surface
a
typically high
levelofa
debris the
leads decline
non-uniform
sustainable
recycled
is
contains will
generallyto olda in
enable
denser
aggregate strength.
distribu-
circular
not
mortar; thein- As
develop
econ-
advised;
replace
as a res
S.
1 Recycled
ing
of cled 2 aggregate
[127],
SiO and
aggregate
and onless the
the used
surface
typically
CaOadditionasaggregate
and
Pretreatment aAl partial
leads
of[79]
contains 2O ,to made
aggregate
a denser
a 3superplasticizer
old
whereas
Technique of
mortar;
[38].
from
SiOthe
attributes.
workability. in- construction
2replacement
as
and
However, could
aThe
recycledresult,
less minimize
CaO
recycled
weaker
Nevertheless,
and
typically
techniques
aggregateand
Advantages demolition
the
Al
aggregate
interface affects
has
2O
based negative
for
3a thethewaste
, whereas
similar
that
onmade work-
effect
improvement
amount
the
from
increased
the
must
reportedon be
the
recycle
ofstu
constru
the w
Pretreatment [79]Technique aaccording
result,
omy.
cleaned X-rayadopting
andto
No fluorescencea properly
the because
treated high
Advantages
literature, recycled
test it results
should
before aggregate
show
be omy.
according
itwaterof kept
can the
inferior
be replacement
X-ray presence
below
used to the
30%.
propertiestion.
fluorescence
terfacial
in level
ofTable
SiO
literature,
concrete and 2,test
transition isshows
itgenerally
Disadvantages
CaO,
7mixes.
the shouldand
results
reduction
zone. theAl show
be
Furthermore, 2not
O of3 in
strengths
kept advised;
the coarse
presen
below
and
impurities
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whereas
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Soaking in between
mild acid the
improved cement
 The deposition of calcite in the  The deposition of calcite in the  Increased
reactivity.
A reduces
controlled the temperature
workability.
environment is leads to the
Carbonation treatment Carbonation treatment and treatment.
the aggregate
depends on many tois improved.
factors, such as
4 4the bonding
and
pores theHeat
present andwithout
aggregate ischanging
inmechanical
the improved.
recycled the
rub- aggre-  necessary
pores The in order
disintegration
enhancement
present in the ofcarrythe
recycled out the
in recycled
the quality
aggre- ag- of
Heat and mechanical
[130] by rub-  The 5 friction between [130] the cement  mechanical
Effective
Increased
the in
vacuum the detachment
temperature
pressure, of
leads
CO2 ad- to the
concen-
6 5 Acid treatment followed  gate chemical
Effective disintegration.
in the
leads totreatmentbingdetachment
[131]
a denserefficiently surface. of ad-  The
gate gregate.
friction
the
leads mild
rubbing.
between
carbonated
to a denser the
recycled cement
surface. aggregate 
bing [131]
mechanical grinding [66]  The andMechanical
the aggregate
deposition of is improved.
calcite in the   Although
hered
The mortar
disintegration
deposition
tration, and inacid
ofthe ofhandling
recycled
calcite the recycled
duration in the isaggre-
of the ag- 
Heat and mechanical
Carbonation treatment rub- hered mortar
Carbonation in the recycled
treatment aggre- and Problems
the
notdepends aggregate related
on many is to uneven
improved.
factors, such as heat-
5
4  pores 4removed
Effective Heat the
in
present and loose
the particles
inmechanical
detachment
the recycled onrub- thead-
of aggre- pores gate. that problematic,
gregate.
ingpresent
treatment. toinworse
proper
the recycled aggre-
bing [131]
[130] gate.
5surface of the recycled [130] aggregate.  Effective the
handling lead
in
vacuum the
is still detachment
pressure,
necessary. performance.
CO2 of ad- concen-
 gatehered
The mortar
leads
friction bing
aindenser
tobetween [131]
the recycled surface.
the cement aggre-   gate
The Problems
leads tobetween
Increased
friction arelated
denserthe
temperature to uneven
surface.
cement
leads to the
heat-
hered mortar
tration, and in recycled
the duration of the 
aggre-
gate.the aggregate is improved.
and and ing
the lead
disintegration
aggregate to worse is
of performance.
improved.
the recycled ag-
Heat and mechanical rub- Heat and mechanical rub- gate.treatment.
5  Effective
5 in the detachment of ad- Effective gregate. in the detachment of ad-
bing [131]  The friction between bing [131] the cement   The Increased
friction between temperature the cement leads to the
hered mortar in the recycled aggre-  hered Problems
mortar in related
the recycled to uneven aggre-heat- 
and the aggregate is improved. and disintegration
the aggregate is of improved.
the recycled ag-
Heat and mechanical rub- gate. Heat and mechanical rub- gate.ing lead to worse performance.
5  Effective
5 in the detachment of ad- Effective gregate. in the detachment of ad-
bing [131] bing [131]
hered mortar in the recycled aggre-  hered Problems
mortar in related
the recycled to uneven aggre-heat- 
gate. gate.ing lead to worse performance.
 1 tion treatment (sodium sili-  Recycled on the surface aggregate
leads with sodiumin-
to a denser sil-
[79]  Ternary blended impregnation is
Chemical and impregna-  More 2 compact cate,
andsilane
stable ITZ. icate
terfacialandtransition
silane impregnation
zone. re-
less effective due to the formation
tion treatment (sodium sili-  Recycled slurry, and polyvinyl
aggregate alco- sil- sulted in an increase in hydration
with sodium
of a hydrophobic layer by the poly- 
2 cate, silane icate and silane
Chemical hol) impregna-re-  products.
[128]
impregnation
and More compact and stable ITZ.
vinyl alcohol solution, which acts
slurry, and polyvinyl alco- sulted in an
tion increase(sodium
treatment sili-  Recycled aggregate with sodium
in hydration sil-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932  Economical
as a barrier for the method.
treatment 21 of 27micro-
compact
hol) [128] products.
2 Pozzolaniccate,slurry
silaneimpreg- icate and silane impregnation re-
 Improved
structure. the bond between the
nation
slurry,(fly
andash, GGBS, alco-
polyvinyl silica sulted in an increase in hydration
 Economical
3 treatment method. 
newIncreased
mortar and the recycled
amount of silicaaggre-
fume
Pozzolanic slurry impreg- fume, and
hol) metakaolin)
[128] products.
Table 7. Cont.  Improved the bond between the gateproduces
due to theanincreased
insufficient interfacial
pozzolanic
nation (fly ash, GGBS, silica [129]
S.
3 new mortar and the recycled 
aggre- reactivity.
transition
Economical zone.
treatment method. 
fume, and
Pretreatment metakaolin)
Technique Pozzolanic
Advantages slurry impreg- Disadvantages
No gate due to the increased pozzolanic   Addition
Improved theof bondpozzolanic
betweenmaterials
the 
[129] nation (fly ash, GGBS, silica
reactivity.
3 new reduces
mortar the
and workability.
the recycled aggre-
fume, and metakaolin)  TheDuring the dissolution
deposition of calciteof certain
in the
Carbonation treatment 
gate Thedueenhancement
bacteria, to theisincreased
there quality of
pozzolanic
in the
the possibility
4 [129] pores present in the recycled aggre-
[130] reactivity.
thatthe carbonated
ammonia will berecycled
produced, aggregate
 The Thedeposition
addition of bacteria to in
of calcite thethe gate
which leads to a denser
is harmful and can surface.
corrodesuch as
Carbonation treatment recycled aggregate produced a depends on many factors,
7 4 Bio deposition [132] pores present in the recycled aggre- the reinforcement.
[130] different and effective the vacuum pressure, CO2 concen-
gate leads
morphology to in
a denser surface.
the calcite phase.  TheThedeposition
outcome of the treatment
of calcite will
in the
Carbonation treatment  The tration,
friction and
be dependent onthe
between the duration
the of
type cementof the 
4 pores present in the recycled aggre-
[130] and treatment.
the aggregate
bacteria, the number isof
improved.
bacteria
Heat and mechanical rub- gate
added,leads
and to a denser surface.
 The5 friction between the cement   Effective
Increasedin the temperature.
thetemperature
detachmentleads of ad-to the
bing [131]
and the aggregate is improved. hered mortar in theofrecycled
disintegration aggre-
the recycled ag- 
Heat and mechanical rub-
5 Due to theexistence
Effective in the detachment
of porous ad- The
mortar, priorofresearch gate.
has gregate.
frictionthat
found between the cement
using recycled ag- 
bing [131]
gregate in concrete hered mortar
negatively in the
affects itsrecycled
microstructural 
aggre- behavior
and Problems
the aggregate related
and durability toattributes.
uneven heat-
is improved.
Heat and mechanical rub-
Therefore, adding mineral
gate.
5 admixtures, such as fly ash,  GGBS, ingmetakaolin,
Effective lead
in theto worseand silica fume,
performance.
detachment of ad-
is necessary in order to improve the bing [131] effect of recycled aggregate concrete, which is
negative hered mortar in the recycled aggre- 
due to the filler effect and the improved pozzolanic reactivity gate. of the cement that increases
its strength. However, techniques such as the inclusion of additional cementitious materials
in the right amounts not only act as a filler but also aid in the hydration reaction, increasing
the number of hydration products, decreasing the amount of pore space in the concrete, and
resulting in recycled aggregate concrete with a more compact structure and higher strength
and durability [133]. Still, the properties of RA vary so widely among the sources that it
needs more testing before it can be utilized in the broad sense of concrete applications.

6. Conclusions
This paper discusses the properties of recycled aggregate, fresh concrete, and hardened
concrete and the capacity of various treatment approaches to improve the inferior properties
of recycled aggregate. The following issues were identified after a careful examination of
the recycled aggregate concrete research:
• The water absorption rate of recycled concrete aggregate can be reduced using various
methods, such as carbonation treatment, the addition of supplementary cementitious
materials with a two-stage mixing approach, hydrochloric acid, H2 SO4 acid, and acetic
acid immersion treatments, impregnation with calcium metasilicate, the addition
of pozzolanic slurry (nano-SiO2 , silica fume, and fly ash slurry), the addition of
a superfine powder (phosphorous slag, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and
fly ash) with a superplasticizer, heating–scrubbing, and the immersion of RCA in a
crystallization agent.
• We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each improvement method, includ-
ing the mixing approach, acid treatment, carbonation treatment, and the addition
of pozzolanic material. The addition of pozzolanic materials and pre-soaking us-
ing nanomaterials effectively and economically improved the detrimental effects of
recycled aggregates.
• The optimum level of replacement of different pozzolanic materials with recycled
concrete aggregate was found to be 7% for silica fume, a liquid-to-solid ratio of 10:1
for silica fume slurry, a combination of 10% superfine phosphorous slag with 10%
GGBS, a combination of 60% GGBS and 7% lime, and 3% replacement of nano-silica.
In addition, a combination of fly ash, slag, and silica fume was found to mitigate the
adverse effect of RCA and improve the mechanical properties.
• The top-cited articles and keyword co-occurrence visualization provided us with the
most- and least-studied areas, which may help us to improve the research field further.
As recycled aggregate is similar to natural aggregate, the material can be utilized as a
fine and coarse aggregate if the proper enhancement techniques are adopted. Moreover,
based on the literature, adequate workability and strength in a concrete made from recycled
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4932 22 of 27

aggregate could be attained at up to the 30% replacement level. Furthermore, durability

properties could be enhanced with the addition of various supplementary materials and
treatment methods even in high-strength concrete, as the properties keep improving over
the curing period. By doing so, a significant amount of building and demolition waste
could be used, which could help to reduce the use of virgin materials in the construction
sector in order to protect the environment.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.S.J., T.P. and S.A.; data curation, H.S.J. and T.P.; formal
analysis, H.S.J., P.G. and P.F.P.; funding acquisition, Á.R.-V.; methodology, H.S.J., T.P., S.A., Á.R.-V.
and P.G.; project administration, P.F.P.; software, H.S.J., S.A., N.M.-C., Á.R.-V. and P.G.; supervi-
sion, T.P.; validation, H.S.J., T.P. and P.F.P.; visualization, N.M.-C.; writing—original draft, H.S.J.;
writing—review and editing, H.S.J., T.P., S.A., N.M.-C., Á.R.-V., P.G. and P.F.P. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Anna centenary research fellowship scheme (Grant No:
CFR/ACRF-2021/AR1) of Anna University, India. The author thanks Vicerrectoria de Investigacion y
Desarrollo (VRID) y Direccion de Investigacion y Creacion Artistica DICA, Proyecto presentado al
Concurso VRID-Iniciación 2022, VRID No. 2022000449-INI, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción,
Chile. Centro Nacional de Excelencia para la Industria de la Madera (ANID BASAL FB210015
CENAMAD), Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Vicuña Mackenna 7860, Santiago, Chile, and
Dirección de Investigación de la Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Anna centenary research fellowship scheme of
Anna University, India.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

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