a.

Synthesis of Aspirin from Salicin:

1. Obtain Salicin: Salicin is a naturally occurring compound found in plants such as willow bark. It
can be extracted from the plant material or purchased from a chemical supplier.

2. Hydrolysis: Salicin is hydrolyzed to produce salicylic acid. This can be achieved by treating Salicin
with hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4) at elevated temperatures. The reaction
typically takes place in a reflux apparatus to prevent the loss of volatile components.

3. Purification: The resulting salicylic acid is purified by filtration or recrystallization. Filtration

involves removing any insoluble impurities using a filter paper. Recrystallization involves
dissolving the salicylic acid in a suitable solvent, such as ethanol, and then allowing it to slowly
cool and crystallize. The crystals are collected by filtration.

4. Esterification: The purified salicylic acid is then converted into aspirin through esterification. This
process involves reacting the salicylic acid with acetic anhydride (CH3CO)2O in the presence of a
catalyst such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The reaction takes place at a controlled temperature and
can be monitored by observing the disappearance of the salicylic acid and the formation of
aspirin.

5. Workup: After the esterification reaction is complete, the reaction mixture is cooled and poured
into cold water to precipitate the aspirin. The precipitate is collected by filtration and washed
with water to remove any remaining impurities.

6. Purification: The collected aspirin is further purified by recrystallization. The crude aspirin is
dissolved in a suitable solvent, such as ethanol, and then allowed to slowly cool and crystallize.
The purified crystals are collected by filtration.

7. Drying: The purified aspirin crystals are dried to remove any remaining solvent. This can be
achieved by either air-drying or using a desiccator.
 8. Characterization: The final product, aspirin, can be characterized by various techniques such as
melting point determination, infrared spectroscopy, and thin-layer chromatography to confirm
its identity and purity.

b. 1. Nutraceutical: A nutrient or food believed to have curative properties. A food used as a drug.A
nutraceutical is a pharmaceutical alternative which claims physiological benefits. For example we
have vitamin D, green tea, selenium etc
2. Functional food: Any fresh or processed food claimed to have a health-promoting and/or
disease-preventing property beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Examples are soy
protein and fishy oil fatty acids
3. Primary metabolite: It is a kind of metabolite that is directly involved in normal growth,
development, and reproduction. It usually performs a physiological function in the organism (i.e.
an Intrinsic function). A primary metabolite is typically present in many organisms or cells.
Example is carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and nucleic acid components.
4.Herbal medicine: also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine, refers to using a plant's
seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long
tradition of use outside conventional medicine.

(e) Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites that have been found to have a wide range of
biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-viral, and anti-cancer
properties. They are present in a variety of plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, tea, and
chocolate, and are also available as dietary supplements.

One of the main functions of flavonoids is to act as antioxidants, which means that they neutralize free
radicals and protect cells from oxidative damage. Free radicals are unstable molecules that can cause
damage to cells and contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular
disease, and neurodegenerative diseases. Flavonoids can also activate antioxidant enzymes, such as
glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, which helps to protect cells from oxidative damage.

Another important function of flavonoids is to modulate the immune system. They can activate immune
cells, such as macrophages and T-cells, and stimulate the production of cytokines, which are signaling
molecules that help to coordinate the immune response. Flavonoids can also inhibit the activity of pro-
inflammatory enzymes, such as cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase, which are involved in the production
of inflammatory mediators.

Flavonoids have also been found to have anti-allergic properties. They can inhibit the release of
histamine from mast cells, which are involved in allergic reactions, and reduce the permeability of blood
vessels, which can help to reduce the symptoms of allergies.

In addition to their anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties, flavonoids have been found to have
anti-viral and anti-cancer properties. They can inhibit the replication of viruses and tumor cells, and
induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells. Flavonoids can also inhibit the formation of
new blood vessels, which is a key step in the growth and spread of tumors.
Flavonoids have also been found to have neuroprotective properties. They can cross the blood-brain
barrier and protect neurons from oxidative damage and inflammation, which can help to reduce the risk
of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Overally, the functions of flavonoids are diverse and include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic,
anti-viral, anti-cancer, and neuroprotective properties. These properties make flavonoids an important
class of compounds with potential health benefits.