9.

Laws and Regulations and Related Technologies

9.1 Life Cycle of Automobiles and Environment Regulations

Automobiles have various impacts on the environment, such as air pollution and global
warming, during production, usage and disposal process. Since such environment load
may threaten human lives, each country enacts laws and regulations to protect the
environment.

(1) Life Cycle of Automobiles and Impact on the Environment

In the past, environmental problems mostly referred to environmental disruptions or
problem of local environmental issues. In the recent years, due to increasing
environmental awareness, global environmental issues such as global warming are also
included.
Automobiles have large impacts on local and global environment in their life cycle
(production, usage and disposal) (Figure 9.1). Among many industrial products, in
particular, since automobiles are large in size and many in numbers, they are one of the
products that have largest impact on the entire environment.

<Automobiles’ impact on the environment> Air pollution

Regional
environ
mental Water pollution
problems

Disposal Noise, vibration

Production

Global warming
Global
environ Resource depletion
mental
problems
Usage
ozone layer depletion

Life cycle of automobiles Impact of the environment

[Figure 9.1] Automobiles’ impact on the environment during its life cycle
 [Table 9.1] Automobiles’ Impact on the Environment During Its Life Cycle (Summary)
Impact on the Environment Cause Automobiles‘

Life Cycle

Air pollution Factory emission Production

Regional environmental problems

Automobile emission Usage

Emissions from waste incineration Disposal

Water pollution Factory waste water Production

Soil pollution Leakage of hazardous substances from landfilled solid waste Disposal

Noise Factory noise and vibration Production

Vibration Automotive noise and vibration Usage

Noise and vibration when disposing waste Disposal

Global warming Energy usage of factories Production

Global environmental problems

Automotive fuel consumption Usage

Production,
Release of CFCs (CFC, HCFC, HFC) into the atmosphere
usage, disposal
Resource depletion Energy usage of factories (fuel) Production

Automotive fuel consumption (fuel) Usage

Usage as automotive materials (materials) Production

Landfill of waste (materials) Disposal

Production,
Ozone layer depletion Release of CFCs (CFC and HCFC) into the atmosphere
usage, disposal

(2) Automobiles and Environmental Regulations

Many countries specify and carry out laws and regulations concerning environmental
control to reduce environmental impact of automobiles. Generally, each country
specifies the policy to countermeasure one specific environmental problem as a law
based on the condition of each country, after categorizing the control target into small
groups and specifying detailed measure against each of them. Therefore, control level
of each country differs depending on the environmental condition of the country and the
degree of its impact in the society. Automobiles and their parts should be designed
after examining the laws and regulations of each country and moves in the future, so
that they comply with the specified requirements of the market country. This also
applies to automotive air-conditioning. The following sections explain the outline of
environmental laws and regulations concerning the design of automotive
air-conditioning and its related technologies (Table 9.2).
 [Table 9.2] Environmental Controls Related to Automotive Air-Conditioning Design
Automotive Aim Outline Impact on the design of

Environmental automotive

control air-conditioning

Control of Measure against It controls the quantity of hazardous substances Reduction and

hazardous water and soil (harmful substances), etc. contained in abolishment of the

substances pollution automobiles to prevent these substances from usage of hazardous

being land- filled when disposing. substances

Recycle control Measure against By setting the standard value (minimum value) of Use of recyclable

resource recycling rate for automobiles, it accelerates the materials

depletion reduction of landfilled solid waste generated from Improvement of

scrapped cars and the re-use of remaining recyclability, such as

materials after reproducing them as materials. montage that makes

removal easy.

Fuel Control Measures By setting the standard value (maximum value) of Reduction in size and

against global fuel consumption when driving the specified weight

warming and mileage, it reduces the fuel consumption and CO2 Reduction in load of

resource emission generated when burning fuel in the automotive

depletion engine. air-conditioning

Emission Measures By setting the standard value (maximum value) of Reduction in load of

control against air emission when driving the specified mileage, it automotive

pollution reduces the release of air pollutant into the air. air-conditioning

Refrigerant Measures By controlling the production and distribution of Usage of non-specified

control against ozone CFC and HCFC, it prevents the ozone layer refrigerant

layer depletion depletion.

9.2 Control of Automotive Hazardous Substances

(1) Background of the Control

An automobile consists of many parts that contain various hazardous substances,
including lead and other heavy metals. Due to underground leakage after disposal and
landfill or due to release into the atmosphere during crushing or incineration, these
substances may enter human body directly and indirectly and cause numerous ill effects
on human health. Thanks to the autonomous efforts by the automobile industry,
hazardous substances content in automobiles is reducing every year. However, they
are not yet completely removed due to technical problems1.
In the past, there was no control over hazardous substances in automobiles, except for
asbestos and some other substances. Reduction of hazardous substances was done
only by the automobile industry as autonomous efforts. However, as concerns has
grown over environmental pollution resulting from ever increasing scrapped cars in
Japan and Europe, administration has started to take some countermeasures as law,
regulation and guideline to fill the deficiency of autonomous efforts only by the
automobile industry.

(2) EU End-of-Life Vehicles Directive2 (Parts concerning hazardous substances)

In European countries, many non-recyclable wastes from automobiles are landfilled as
shredder residue without removing hazardous substances. As this is regarded as one
of the contributing factor of environmental pollution, European countries have
concluded that an appropriate regulation should be specified to control all the related
environmental problems caused by end-of-life vehicles. While they promoted recycling
of automobiles and appropriate disposal of wastes, EU instituted the “EU End-of-Life
Vehicles Directive” in 2000 directing to control the content of hazardous substances.
With this directive, automotive hazardous substances will be controlled in EU countries
for the first time in the world starting from July 2003. Table 9.3 summarizes the parts
concerning the control over hazardous substances in the EU End-of-Life Vehicles
Directive.

[Table 9.3] Summary of the Part Concerning Hazardous Substance Control in the EU
End-of-Life Vehicles Directive
Item Description
Control The use of lead, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium shall be
prohibited. (Depending on the application, some of the heavy metals are
allowed, such lead in solder, etc.)
Target of The control applies to new vehicles sold on and after July 1, 2003.
Application

(3) Move of Controls in Other Areas

Note1: Although some alternative materials that do not use hazardous substances are commercialized,
since automotive components require high durability under severe usage condition (temperature,
vibration, etc.), it is not always easy to switch over to alternative materials.

Note2: End-of-Life Vehicles Directive is a regulation of collective EU (the European Union). In

European countries, attention should be paid; satisfying the requirement of End-of-Life Vehicles
Directive does not necessarily mean that is also satisfies the control over hazardous substances of the

member country are both satisfied.

In Japan, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry specified the ELV Recycling
Initiative in 1997. This guideline sets the target to reduce the usage of lead (excluding
lead in the battery) to one-half by the end of 2000 and to one-fifth by the end of 2005
based on the usage in 1996 as the base value. To clear this target, the automobile
industry is proceeding the adaptation, by switching the radiator to aluminum-made, etc.
In the deliberation of the Automobile Recycling Law started in 2000, introduction of the
control over hazardous substances was examined. However, recognizing the effort of
automobile industry, it was concluded that lead, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent
chromium should be reduced on an autonomous effort by the industry.
In the U.S., labeling has become mandatory to the vehicles that include
mercury-containing parts in some northeastern states. However, there is no move to
introduce control over automotive hazardous substances as in European countries.

9.3 Automobile Recycling Regulation

(1) Background of the Regulation

(i) “3R” Concept and Law Regulations
Due to deteriorating waste problems in each country, such as shortage of landfill, etc.
and increasing environmental awareness in the global scale, there is an active move to
promote “3R” aiming to use resource effectively. “3R” stands for “Reduce” (to reduce
usage and to reduce waste), “Reuse3” (to re-use), and “Recycle” (to reproduce into
material and energy) collectively (Table 9.4).
From the viewpoint of law and regulation, Germany is most ahead of other countries as
it specified “Cyclic Economy Law” that legislated the “3R” concept in 1994 for the first
time in the world. Japan also specified “The Basic Law for Establishing the
Recycling-based Society” in 2000 to facilitate the realization of 3R.
[Table 9.4] “3R” Concept
3R Description Example Priority

Reduce To reduce usage, reduce waste Drinking water without using a cup. High

Reuse To re-use (use many times) After drinking water with a cup, washing the
cup and using it again.

Recycle To reproduce Drinking water from a plastic bottle and

(1) To reproduce as material (1) Reproducing the plastic bottle into fiber, etc.
(material recycle4) (2) Burning the plastic bottle to reproduce it as

(2) To reproduce as heat and energy.

energy (thermal recycle) Low

Note3: Sometimes “Reuse” and “Recycle” are called “Recycle” collectively.

(ii) Current Situation of Automobile Recycling and Institution of Law and Regulation
In 1990s, approximately 5 million vehicles in Japan and 8 million vehicles in EU
countries were scrapped annually. Seventy to seventy-five percent of them were
recycled as usable parts, iron, and nonferrous metals. The remaining 25 to 30% were
land-filled as shredder residue. Compared to other industrial products, recycling rate
of automobiles was considerably high. Nevertheless, because automobiles are large in
size and in numbers, there was a demand for continuous improvement of recycling rate
(Table 9.4). Because of this move, Japan and European countries started to deliberate
the measure for the improvement of automotive recycling. In Japan, the Ministry of
Economy, Trade and Industry specified the ELV Recycling Initiative in 1997 and set the
recycle target values. In EU, ELV directive was specified and a recycle standard
values that have legal binding force were specified.

[Table 9.4] Different Types of Recycling Rate5

Type Description

Recyclability rate It indicates the rate of reusable and recyclable parts by weight when the
vehicle is scrapped.

Recycling rate It indicates the actually reused and recycled rate at dismantlers, etc. by
weight.

(2) Japan’s ELV Recycling Initiative and Future Move

Japan has set the recycle target values as in Table 9.5 in ELV Recycling Initiative.
This guideline was legislated to facilitate planned and autonomous effort by the related
industries to satisfy the recycle target values.

[Table 9.5] Recycle Target Values of Japan’s ELV Recycling Initiative

Type Year 2002 Year 2015

Recyclability rate 90% or more

Recycling rate 85% or more 95% or more

Shredder residue volume 3/5 or less of 1996 base level 1/5 or less of 1996 base level

Note4: Reuse of waste plastic as fuel and chemical raw material, through gasification and oil

conversion by chemical decomposition, etc, is sometimes called “chemical recycle”. Chemical recycle
is considered as one of the material recycle in a broad sense.

Note5: Until the recyclability rate is reflected to the recycling rate, it will take about ten to twenty
years (average use years of automobiles in each country).
Automobile industry takes steps to satisfy the target values on a planned base.
However, due to decreasing iron scrap price and increasing final disposal cost, and
increasing tendencies to charge users for dismantling, there was concern that effort on
an autonomous effort only does not provide clear distinction of roles by manufacturers,
users, and dismantlers and does not provide sufficient improvement of recycling rate in
the future. To solve such concern, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry has
started deliberation to legislate Automobile Recycling Law6 that specifies the
controlling method of dismantling process, sharing method of recycling cost by users,
recyclability rate and recycling rate from July 2000, aiming to enact the law in 2004.

(3) EU End of Life Vehicles Directive (Recycle-related Part)

In EU countries, End-of-life Vehicles Directive specifies the recycle standard value as in
Table 9.6. In this directive, two types of standard values are specified: one is collective
rate when all of reuse, material recycle, and thermal recycle are performed and the
other is the rate when only reuse and material recycle are performed. There is a
limitation of thermal recycle in term of rate. The recyclability rates are also specified
in the same manner.

[Table 9.6] Recycle Standard Value of EU End of Life Vehicles Directive

Application Reuse, Material Recycle and Reuse and Material
Timing Thermal Recycle Recycle

Recyclability Not determined 95% or more 85% or more

rate7

Recycling rate January 2006 85% or more 80% or more

January 2015 95% or more 85% or more

9.4 Automobile Fuel Control

(1) Background of the Control

(i) Introduction of Fuel Control as Measure against Resource depletion.

Note6: In Automobile Recycling Law, it is planned that each manufacturer must recover the shredder

residue, air bag, and refrigerant without charge on a mandatory base. As with refrigerant, the
Fluorocarbons Recovery and Destruction Law (2001) specifies it as mandatory that the automobile
manufacturers should recover refrigerant without charge from 2002 ahead of other two items (reused

or destructed after recovery).

Until mid-1960s, there was no control over automotive fuel in the world. Automobile
manufacturers improved technology for better fuel economy only from the viewpoint of
user’s cost reduction. As the oil crisis occurred in 1973, however, the situation has
drastically changed. Better fuel economy was demanded to save energy and resources
as a national policy. In this move, Energy Policy and Conservation Act was
promulgated in 1975 and fuel control system called CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel
Economy) control was introduced from the 1978-year model vehicles in the U.S. In
Japan, the Law concerning the Rational Use of Energy was promulgated in 1979 and
fuel control was introduced from 1985. Although fuel controls in Japan and the U.S.
were strengthened gradually afterwards, partly due to decreasing fear of oil crisis, these
controls became less severe in terms of standard level and punishment compared to the
improvement of fuel economy technology.

(ii) Introduction of Control over Fuel Economy as Measure against Global Warming
In 1990s, there were growing calls for improving automotive fuel economy from the
viewpoint of measure against global warming, mainly in European countries. In EU
countries, after discussion between automotive industry and EU commission, it was
determined that countermeasure against global warming was carried out by industry’s
autonomous commitment (CO2 emission control) in 1998.
In Japan as well, Law concerning the Rational Use of Energy was amended in 1998, in
which fuel economy control was substantially strengthened in terms of target vehicle
types, fuel economy standard value, punishment, etc. The U.S. is still deliberating
whether or not to toughen the CAFE control, several years behind from Japan and
European countries.
Some European countries have introduced not only laws concerning automotive fuel
economy but also a system to distribute economical burden also among users by
imposing tax on the fuel (called environment tax or carbon tax), so that users who
generate high CO2 emission bear the corresponding economical burden. Japan is
currently considering the introduction of this system.

Note7; It is planned to include recyclability rate as a mandatory requirement when obtaining

permission of automobile. However, since the calculation method of recyclability rate is not

determined, it is not yet ready for actual use. When the calculation method is determined by ISO, the
EU Commission will determine the application timing and then the recyclability rate will be added to
the mandatory requirement of the permission for the actual application.
Expanding Understanding

Automotive Fuel Economy and Global Warming

Automobile is propelled by burning fuel, such as gasoline and light oil, in the engine.
When fuel burns, CO2 is generated. This is one of the contributing factors to the global
warming. Therefore, to reduce impact on the global warming, fuel efficiency should be
improved. This means that the structure of automobiles should be changed so that the
fuel consumption per mileage is improved.

Expanding Understanding

What is Global Warming?

Global warming is a phenomenon as the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere increases, as the human activities expand, temperature of entire Earth
increases. Recent report8 estimates that the average temperature of the Earth should
increase by 1.4 to 5.8℃ by the year 2100. Due to this estimation, concerns over
increased sea level, change of ecological system, food shortage, etc. are rising.
Many greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, are considered to
contribute to the global warming. Among them, the contributing rate of carbon dioxide,
generated by large volume by human activities, are particularly high.

Examples of greenhouse gases

Water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chrolofluorocarbons (CFC), hydrochrolofluorocarbons (HCFC),

hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and perfluorocarbons (PFC)

Chemical formula

Heat radiation Solar heat

Heat radiation

Solar heat
Heat storage Heat storage

Global warming gases Global warming gases

Normal state Global-warming state

The mechanism of global warming

Note8: IPCC Third Assessment Report

Expanding Understanding

Global Approach against Global Warming

Since 1980s, when concerns over the effect of global warming increased, many
international commitments have been done. The following is an outline of such
commitments.
Major international commitments against global warming
Year Commitment

1988 An international study organization, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), was established

by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP).

1992 Rio Earth Summit was held. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted; The

goal was set that the greenhouse gas emission should be returned to the level of 1990 by 2000.

1995 First Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (COP1) was held; The convention was determined to be insufficient. It was determined that the

protocol which specifies the goal after 2000 and the concrete commitment of developed countries shall be

adopted in the Third Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention

on Climate Change (COP3).

1997 Third Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (COP3) was held; Kyoto Protocol that specifies greenhouse gas reduction goal by developed

countries, etc. was adopted.

From Forth to Seventh Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on

1998 to Climate Change (COP4-7) were held; Operation rules of protocol were discussed, aiming to place the Kyoto

2001 Protocol into enactment in 2002. The rules were adopted by COP7.

Outline of Kyoto Protocol

Controlled gases9 CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6

Standard value of

each country for Greenhouse gas reduction rate (compared to the base level of 199010)
Country
<Target year: 2008 to 2012>
reducing global
Europe 8%
warming gases
US11 7%

Japan 6%

Note9: Although CFC and HCFC are also greenhouse gases, since they are already controlled by the

International Convention Concerning Ozone Layer Protection (Montreal Protocol), they are not
specified by the Kyoto Protocol.

Note10: As with HFC, PFC, and SF6, the reduction rate is compared to the base level of 1995.

Note11: The U.S. has announced that they will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol in 2001.
(2) Fuel Economy Control in Japan, Europe, and US
(i) Fuel Economy Control for New Vehicles
Table 9.7 specifies the control over fuel economy of new vehicles in Japan, U.S., and
European countries.

[Table 9.7] Outline of fuel economy control for new vehicles in Japan, Europe and US
Area Target vehicle type Control method

Japan Gasoline and diesel - Target vehicles models are classified into 48 categories according to
vehicles with the its fuel, weight, and usage, etc. For each category, standard value is

total weight of 2.5t specified.

or less - Automobile manufacturers should satisfy the standard value by

totaling the average fuel economy of all the vehicles sold in each
category.

US Vehicles with the - Standard value is specified for two categories: passenger vehicles
total weight of 8500 and light trucks
pounds or less - Automobile manufacturers should satisfy the standard value by
totaling the average fuel economy of all the vehicles sold in each
category.

Europe Vehicles with the - Autonomous control shall be exercised.

nominal riding - One standard value is specified for the target vehicles (no category)
capacity of 9 persons - Automobile Manufacturers Association Incorporated in Europe,
or less Japan and Korea shall observe so that the average fuel economy of all
the vehicles sold in each category satisfies the standard value.

Figure 9.2 indicates the change of the fuel economy standard values for new passenger
vehicles in the past. At present, in Japan, the U.S. and Europe, the fuel economy value
is measured as the automotive air-conditioning is turned off.
Fuel economy standard value (km/l)
18
17
16
Japan (Gasoline)
15
Japan (Diesel)
14 U.S.
13 Europe
12
11
10
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

[Figure 9.2] The fuel economy standard values for passenger vehicles in each country1213
(ii) Environmental Tax (Carbon Tax)
As explained in the previous section, some countries in Europe impose so-called
environmental tax (carbon tax) on fuels. Table 9.8 indicates the introduction status of
environmental tax (carbon tax) in Japan, US and Europe.

[Table 9.8] Introduction of Environment Tax (Carbon Tax) in Japan, US and Europe14
Country Introduction Situation Country Introduction Situation

Finland Already introduced (Application from England Already introduced (Application

1990) from 2001)

Sweden Already introduced (Application from Switzerland Already introduced (Application

1991) from 2005)

Norway Already introduced (Application from France Introduction under deliberation

1991)

Denmark Already introduced (Application from Japan Introduction under deliberation

1992)

Netherlands Already introduced (Application from US Amendment of fuel economy

1992) control under deliberation,

Germany Already introduced (Application from including introduction of the

1999) environment tax

Italy Already introduced (Application from

1999)

9.5 Automotive Emission Control

(1) Background of the Control

From 1940s to 1950s, due to the development of industries and motorization in large
cities in developed countries, air pollution has become a serious problem. In the State
of California, U.S., in particular, the level of air pollution was much more serious than
other large cities, partly due to its topography. To improve this situation, the State of
California has determined to practice a new emission control15 over automobiles besides
conventional control over industrial emission. With this move, control over blow-by
Note12: Fuel economy standard value for gasoline and diesel vehicles in Japan is the standard value for

vehicle class, including passenger cars with 1.2t empty vehicle weight.
Note13: Fuel economy values for Japan, US and Europe above are indicated in km/l [driving mileage

(km) per 1 litter of fuel] to make comparison easier. Strictness of the standard due to the test method
is not considered.

Note14: Supplemented to the extract from “The Point at Issue Concerning Tax against Global

Warming” (August 8, 2001), reference material of the Ministry of Environment.

gas was introduced from the 1960-year model vehicles. From 1966-year model
vehicles, the emission control over automobile emission from the exhaust pipe was
introduced.
After that, similar emission controls were specified in Japan, US Federal government,
and European countries, one after another. These controls were strengthened later
and control against evaporated emission (fuel evaporated from tank, etc.) and OBD
(On-board diagnostics system for emission reduction system) control were added until
now.

(2) Emission Control in Japan, US and Europe

In Japan, US and Europe, air pollution in large cities is in a serious situation at present.
It is planned that emission controls shall be strengthened further in the future. Figure
9.3 indicates the changes of emission standard values of gasoline passenger cars.
Standard values indicated here are measured when automotive air-conditioning is
turned off16.
Expanding Understanding

ZEV (Zero Emission Vehicle) Control in the State of California, U.S.

In the State of California, U.S., automobiles manufacturers will be obliged to sell Zero
Emission Vehicles (ZEV), such as electric and fuel cell vehicles, on a stepwise base from
the 2003-year model vehicles, as a part of automotive emission control.

Emission standard value (km/l)

0.6

0.5

0.4 Japan
California, U.S
0.3 U.S. federation
Europe
0.2

0.1

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

[Figure 9.3] Emission standard values of gasoline passenger cars in each country
Note15: It controls over the emission of air pollutants exhausted from automobiles, including carbon

monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM).
Note16: The U.S. has introduced control over emission measured as the automotive air-conditioning is

on.
9.6 Refrigerant Control

As a typical global environmental problem, the ozone layer depletion due to mass
consumption and accumulation of released artificial chemical substances such as
chrolofluorocarbons (CFC), hydrochrolofluorocarbons (HCFC), halon, and methyl
bromide, require international commitment. As with CFCs, since its impact on the
global warming is also concerned, the countermeasure is being discussed in each
country, including their alternative substances.

(1) Refrigerant Control from the Viewpoint of Ozone Layer Protection

Based on the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, concluded in
1985, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted
in 1987. However, the information obtained from scientific data made it clear that the
rate of stratospheric ozone depletion was faster than estimated and conventional control
over CFCs did not protect the ozone layer sufficiently. Therefore, the control was
strengthened four times in 1990, 1992, 1995 and 1997 by amending the protocol, etc.
Table 9.9 indicates the control schedule of specified CFCs including the R12 (CFC-12)
refrigerant for automotive air-conditioning.

[Table 9.9] Control schedule of specified CFCs based on the Montreal protocol (Revised
in September, 1997)

Production
1999
quantity Montreal protocol (London)
(%)

1992
Montreal protocol (Copenhagen)

[Year]

Note17: Emission standard value was obtained by adding the standard value of hydrocarbon (HC) and
that of nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Note18: Emission standard values in Japan, U.S. and Europe above are indicated in g/km [emission (g)

when driving 1km driving] to make comparison easier. Strictness of the standard due to the test
method is not considered.
(2) Refrigerant Control from the Viewpoint of Global Warming
In Kyoto Conference for Prevention of Global Warming (COP3) in 1997, it was concluded
that the release of six gases should be reduced, including CO2, a major factor of the
global warming, and other gases that have large global warming effect such as PFC,
SF6 and HFC that is used as refrigerant.
At present, there is no move to reduce the refrigerant for automotive air-conditioning
R134a (HFC-134a) itself, however, legislation concerning recovery and taxation of
refrigerant is being deliberated in Europe. Table 9.10 indicates the moves of major
countries.

[Table 9.10] Outline of Controls over HFC, PFC and SF6 in Major Countries (as of
October 2001) 19
EU EU Commission is asked to prepare the draft of policies concerning the production
and usage of HFC, PFC and SF6. The outline is that by improving the efficiency of
recycling, leakage protection and cooling system of these gases, it aims to reduce
their usage.

Sweden Regulation aiming to reduce the leakage from the cooling system was introduced.
Authorization system of installation and servicing staff was introduced. It specifies
that a leakage test should be conducted once a year and refrigerant of disposed
devices should be recycled or destructed on a mandatory basis.

Denmark Regulation concerning the usage and recovery of refrigerant was introduced.
Introduction of taxation system, aiming to reduce the emission of HFC, PFC, and
SF6, is planned.
Regulation to abolish the sales and usage of HFC, PFC and SF6 by 2006 is under
deliberation (does not apply to the refrigerant for automotive air-conditioning).

Germany “Eco-label” indicating an HFC-free cooling system was introduced.

Usage of HFC as solvent was prohibited.

Netherlands Standard value for leakage from the cooling device was specified.

There is an autonomous control concerning the emission of HFC23, generated from

the production of HCFC22.
Reporting system concerning the reduction of HFC and PFC is being deliberated.

Norway Analysis report on the introduction of taxation system that aims to reduce the

emission of HFC, PFC and SF6, was issued.

U.S. Recovery and recycling of HFC, which is used in cooling devices and automotive
air-conditioning, was specified as mandatory.

Japan Fluorocarbons Recovery and Destruction Law was specified. In which, recovery of

HFC used in industrial refrigerating air-conditioning devices and automotive

air-conditioning is specified as mandatory from 2002.
Expanding Understanding

Other laws and regulations regarding automotive air-conditioning

As laws and regulations regarding automotive air-conditioning, there are EMC Control
(control over emission quantity of undesired electromagnetic waves and prevention of
malfunction due to electromagnetic waves), Control over Room Air Pollution (control
over the concentration of Volatile Organic Compound, such as formaldehyde, generated
from adhesive, etc., in the room bedsides laws and regulations explained in Section 9.2
to 9.6.
Note19: Supplemented to the extraction from “Norwegian Pollution Control Authority Report

1754/2001” (SFT).
9.7 Concepts of Recycling

(1) Background of Recycling

Environmental problems had started as a local problem and have become a global
problem such as global warming (Figure 9.5). With this background, recycling should
be considered from the point of both resource depletion and environmental protection,
such as problems of soil and underground water pollution caused by land filling of solid
waste and release of poisonous substances generated at the time of recycling.
This section first explains about recycling and then about environmental problems.
At present, many resin products among industrial products are produced from naphtha,
which is obtained by refining crude oil. Automotive parts and automotive
air-conditioning units are among them. Deposit of crude oil that can be drilled is
expected to last only for 40 to 50 years. To deal with this problem, study on biomass,
which is a raw material for non-crude oil based resin, is being conducted. However, it
seems to be long until commercially profitable pass-production becomes possible.
Mining limit of metal resources are different according to the type of metal: some
experts expect that with lithophile element such as aluminum and magnesium, mining
limit is about 1,500 years, with siderophile element such as iron and nickel, about 300
years, and with chalcophile element such as copper, zinc, lead, it is shorter with another
30 years.
While these materials are constantly produced and accumulated in our society, used
materials are discarded and land filled. However, since people have become more
environmentally aware than ever, new establishment of final landfill site has become
increasingly difficult. In some places, it is only two to three years left until the existing
final landfill site is completely full.
Against this background, Germany and some other European countries have proposed a
necessity of recycling and have started to create a recycling-oriented society, in which
resources are recovered and actively re-used as artificial resources. As a summary of
such commitment, those countries have instituted EU End of Life Vehicles Directive in
2000.

Date 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Itai-itai disease Exhaust gas Ozone layer depletion

Environmental Minamata disease Photochemical smog
Global warming
problem
Mine pneumoconioses Yokkaichi asthma
Work places Region Japan Worldwide

[Figure 9.5] History of Environmental Problems

(2) Concept of Recycling
From the viewpoint of effective use of resources, the best practice is to use something for
a long time by repairing it. Basic idea of solving the waste problem can be expressed
by "3Rs". Recently, in contrast to "3Rs", a new concept "5Rs" has been suggested.
With "5Rs", there are "5Rs" defined in terms of actions and those defined in terms of
environmental technologies (Figure 9.6).

Reduce: To reduce the amount of waste and resource usage.

3Rs Reuse: To re-use used products as they are
Action Recycle: To recycle used products as resources to produce new products
5Rs
Refuse: Not to buy or obtain unnecessary things
Repair: To keep using the same thing for a long time by repairing it
Environmental
technology 5Rs Refine: To change materials to enable re-use and recycle
Recovery to Energy: To utilize the used-product finally as energy resource

[Figure 9.6] 3Rs and 5Rs

Main approach to recycling is to recover used products and obtain resources from them
to product new products. To create a recycling-oriented society, which aims to realize
"zero emission" by minimizing new capital investment and eliminating waste and
landfill, it is necessary to cultivate and develop a "venous sector of industry", which
covers a reverse direction of conventional industry, such as recovery, reproduction and
process (Figure 9.7) in addition to the conventional arterial industry centering on
production and consumption.
Ideal style of recycling is
"closed-recycling", in which Resources

waste is reused as raw material

Recovery Dismantle Closed Recycling
of original products. However,
Reuse
in case of resin and other Usage Repair Sorting
Recycling
materials, since quality of Refuse Manufa
Reduce
Material
cturing Heat
material deteriorates due to Other product A
recovery
Cascade Recycling
reproduction, it is necessary to
use reproduced material for
other products ("cascade Other product B

recycling") or to consider other

applications.
Recycling method can be Landfill

divided into two: material

[Figure 9.7] Forms of Recycling
recycling and thermal recycling
(Figure 9.8).
In material recycling, used material is re-used as material. Metals, for example, are
substances, which are never lost and permanent, and should be therefore all "materially
recycled" in principle. Recycling of resin can be divided into material recycling and
chemical recycling. In material recycling, which is material recycling in a narrow
sense and is also called "mechanical recycling", resin is reused as it is as material. In
chemical recycling, which is also called "stockyard recycling", waste plastic is
synthesized into gas and oil though decomposition by heat or chemical reaction to
return it back to chemical raw material. One example of chemical recycling is using
waste plastic as reducer when extracting iron from iron ore. Chemical recycling
sometimes includes usage as thermal energy without returning the material into
chemical raw material.
Thermal recycling basically refers to recovering thermal energy, electricity or steam by
burning waste and reusing it for production. It also includes a part of chemical
recycling explained above and solid fuel RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) that is dehydrated
and solidified for better combustion efficiency.
As a method to obtain the best solution for recycling, an environmental assessment
using LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) has become indispensable in order minimizes the
impact on the environment in the entire process from collection of raw material,
transportation, production of raw material and products, distribution, use, reuse, to
waste. Together with the development of infrastructure in the market, it is necessary
to determine a suitable recycling method for each production category.
As a conclusion, following points should be observed in designing and production as we
proceed with recycling of products in the future.
(i) A maximum recycling with minimum environmental impact according to LCA.
(ii) No emission of poisonous substances in the course of recycling and after landfill.
(iii) Improved economical efficiency for better recycling business

Refining <aluminum, iron>

Material Mechanical Mine-mouth recycling <copper, nickel>
Recycling Recycling Recycling according to material <non-metal such as resin>
Recycling as cement material <incinerated ash>
Recycling
Reuse as raw material for blast furnace
Chemical Recycling
Synthesized to oil
<resin>
Synthesized to gas

Thermal Recycling Synthesized to oil

<resin, rubber> Synthesized to gas
RDF < > indicates representative materials

[Figure 9.8] Types of Recycling

(3)Methods and Technologies of Recycling
This section explains about methods and technologies to sort products according to the
material and to reuse them as raw material.
Recycling methods can be divided into (1) manual disassembly and sorting and (2)
crushing and sorting with machine. With method (1), since a worker disassembles
parts using a multi-purpose tool such as screwdriver and a disassembly tool, almost
100% sorting rate can be attained but the processing capacity is low. With method (2),
products are put into a crusher as a whole, crushed into small pieces, and the small
pieces are sorted mechanically according to their physical property and electrical
characteristics. Therefore method (2) has higher processing capacity than method (1)
but lower sorting rate.
Table 9.11 indicates representative sorting method using machine.

[Table 9.11] Mechanical Sorting Methods

Sorting Method Description

Sieving Separation A method to sort materials according to the size of crushed solid particles.
There are rotary-drum type and vibrating type.

Gravity Separation This method uses the difference of specific gravity to separate two kinds of
solid particles. When external force is applied to two kinds of slid particles

with different specific gravity, they move in a different manner. There are
wet method (liquid gravity separation*) that utilizes hydraulic power, etc. and
dry method (wind gravity separation) that utilizes wind power.

Magnetic Separation This method uses strong magnetic field to separate iron and other magnetic
objects from other objects.

Electri Eddy Change of magnetic flux penetrating an object generates eddy currents
cal Current proportional to the conductivity of that object. Together with a magnetic
Separa Separation field, these eddy currents induce movement of the object. This separation

tion Method method uses difference of movement power thus induced to separate non-iron

metal from the crushed waste, from which iron metal is already removed.
This is usually used to separate aluminum.

Electrostatic This method uses difference of electrical characteristic (electrification

Separation characteristic) of each material. Since electrification characteristic varies

according to conductivity, withstand voltage, moisture content, permittivity,
etc., difference of electrification characteristic can be used to separate metal

and non-metal.

*) It has been reported that the recover of resins with a difference of specific gravity 0.1 was possible
with hydrocyclone method at a purity of 99.9%. Its application to a mechanical selection of resin

material is awaited.
Figure 9.9 indicates an example of a plant, where products of air-conditioning unit,
which are most suitable for recycling, shall be crushed and sorted.

Magnetic No. 1 wind Non-iron No. 2 wind Volume

Crusher sorting sorting reduction
power sorting power sorting
machine machine machine machine machine

Crushes Takes out iron Separates Removes Sorts the content into Compresses
products pieces with crushed pieces aluminum two layers according waste to
under suspended with low specific pieces by to the difference of increase the
certain size rotating gravity, such as eddy specific gravity using holding
urethane foam currents wind power. capacity
magnet
and styrene foam
No. 1 wind power
No.１風力選別機 Non-iron Weight or volumetric
Cyclone sorting machine 非鉄選別機 定量供給機
サイクロン
sorting or counting feeder
No.１磁力選別機
No. 1 magnetic No.２風力選別機
No. 2 wind machine
sorting machine power sorting
machine
破砕機
Crusher

Plastic volume
プラスチック減容機
reduction machine

[Figure 9.9] Crushing-Sorting Plant with Representative Machines

9.8 Approaches to Recycling

(1)Actual Situation and Problems of Automobile Recycling

End of life vehicles are brought into a
dismantler, where engines and underbody parts
Dismantler
解体業者 Shredding agent
シュレッダ業者
are dismantled and pressed. Then, they are
使用済 み自動車

brought into a shredding agent, where they are 廃棄物

10～25% Waste
プ レス

End-of
crushed and metal pieces are sorted out. With life cars: Press
ing
this method, recycling rate is 75 to 80% and the
annually 50～55%
rest is disposed as shredder residue. 5 million
500
vehicles 20～35%
Shredder residue contains resin and glass. 万台/年
取り外し
選別
Sorting
disassembly
Researches are conducted to develop a method
to sort shredder residue for recycling. In a Engine, transmission,
エンジン、ﾄﾗﾝｽﾐｯｼｮﾝ Iron,
鉄 non-
study, recycling rate over 90% is reported. tire, battery, catalyst, etc. iron
タイヤ､バッテリ､触媒等 非鉄金属metal

However, it is difficult to separate resin from

shredder residue and further improve recycling [Figure 9.10] Flow of Recycling

rate. Therefore, a possible approach may be to

remove bumpers, instrument panels, and other
large resin parts before pressing.

(2)Current Situation of Air-Conditioning Unit and Countermeasures

Currently, air-conditioning parts are crushed together with a vehicle, except for
compressor with an engine, and then sorted. Metal consists of about 74% of the entire
air-conditioning system per mass rate; this means that resin of about 26% per mass rate
is being disposed. Among them, more than 90% is from air-conditioning unit, including
case, door, link, and motor housing.
Polypropylene resin (PP) accounts for almost 90% of the entire resin, the rest are ABS,
PE, POM, PAT and urethane foam, etc.

エアコンシステムSystem
Air-conditioning
Disassembled
取り外し部品 parts Batch shredded parts
一括シュレッダ部品
Mass
質量
constitution ｺﾝﾌﾟﾚｯｻ
Compressor ｺﾝﾃﾞﾝｻ Piping
Condenser ｴｱｺﾝﾕﾆｯﾄ unit
配管 Air-conditioning
構成比率
ratio 33% 14% 7% 46%

金属
Metal Resin
樹脂
Recyclability
各製品の リビルト
Rebuilt ４７％ ５３％
Rate
リサイクルof Each
Product
可能率
99% 95% 82% ｺﾞﾑ18%
Rubber
Breakdown
システムの of ｼｭﾚｯﾀﾞﾀﾞｽﾄ
Shredder residue
ﾏﾃﾘｱﾙﾘｻｲｸﾙ(金属）
Material recycle (metal)
the system's
リサイクル （埋め立て）
(landfill)
recyclability
可能率内訳 33% 13% 6% 22% 26%
rate

[Figure 9.11] Mass and Recyclability Rate of Each Product of Air-Conditioning System

Other
その他樹脂 resin Iron
Non-iron
鉄 ＰＯＭ Packing
ﾊﾟｯｷﾝ その他
Others
非鉄
ﾊﾟｯｷﾝ
Packing ＰＥ 2.2% 1.1% 1.5%
2.8%
Power transistor
ﾊﾟﾜﾄﾗ ＡＢＳ
Servo
ｻｰﾎﾞ 3.7%
Non- motor ﾊｰﾈｽ
Harness PP
非鉄 ﾓｰﾀ PP
iron
エバ
Evaporator Case
ケース
Usage Rate
Heater
ヒータ Door
ドア by Material
Blower
ブロア
Non-iron
非鉄 モータ Link,
motor リンク他etc.
Packing ＰＰ
Non-iron
非鉄 PP ﾊﾟｯｷﾝ
Iron
鉄 88.7%
PP
PP
Packing
鉄 ﾊﾟｯｷﾝ
Iron
Rubber
ゴム
Other resin
その他樹脂

[Figure 9.12] Configuration of Parts and [Figure 9.13] Usage Rate of Resin
Materials of Air-Conditioning Unit (mass rate) Material in Air-Conditioning Unit
On the other hand, in case only air-conditioning units are crushed and sorted in a plant
with the same process formation as in Figure 9.9, better recovery and sorting rates and
higher recycling rate were obtained when workers had disassembled metal parts and
electrical parts as much as possible before crushing.
Likewise, to attain 100% recycling rate,
Recovery rate and sorting rate %
workers have to remove heat exchanger and 99 99.5 100 99.6
100 96 98 99
97
all electrical parts before crushing in both 97 98
90
cases. However, since resin sorted out from
80 83
metal contains several materials in it, it is
necessary to separate resin materials with
60
liquid gravity separation (explained above). Case,
Ａ door, link,
Ｂ joint parts
Ｃ
Crushed
It is considered that mechanical separation of products

air-conditioning unit for material recycling is Heater Recovery Sorting

core, Crushing size rate % rate %
impossible. evaporator,50mm per side ▲
expansion or smaller
Therefore, in order to perform material valve, 19mm diameter
●
blower or smaller
recycling with air-conditioning unit, it is motor
necessary to consider manual disassembly of
parts as a prerequisite. For this, products [Figure 9.14] Recovery and Sorting Rate
of Resin Material of Air-Conditioning Unit
design for easy disassemble is necessary.

(3)Product Design for Recycling

Suitable product design for recycling is reported for each product from each industry.
Among them, photograph and film manufacturers and copier manufacturers are ahead
of other industry areas. Besides material recycling, they have succeeded to reuse their
product partially by improving test methods. Manufacturers have best utilized the
characteristics of their products as they established the recycling procedure, such as
their products have shorter life cycle and easy to be reused and it was easy to establish
the infrastructure for product recovery by utilizing the sales network.
In the contrast, automobiles have long life cycle of more than 10 years, during which,
product structure changes drastically due to performance improvement and weight
reduction. Therefore it is not possible to reuse automobiles as it is; they should be
materially recycled. For this purpose, following points should be addressed in the
product design; (1) Products, which contains resin at a high rate that later becomes
shredder residue, should be so designed that they can be easily removed, and (2)
Products, which shall be removed, should be so designed that workers can easily
disassemble them, so that recycling rate of resin shall be improved. Ease of
disassembly is an important factor when reducing the numbers of disassembly process,
which affects the processing cost saving greatly.
A product, which is easy to remove and dismantle, has following three characteristics:
 - Number of parts is small.
- Number of joints is small and they can be easily found.
- A product can be disassembled with a simple tool.
(No tool --> general tool --> special tool, disassembling tool)
A product, which is easy to be recycled, has following four characteristics:
- The product is easily to be disassembled.
- Number of materials is small and no special material.
- Each part has a material indication.
- The product does not contain hazardous substances

To verify the current situation of practice, it is necessary to perform an environmental

impact assessment in terms of recycling rate and hazardous substances as well as the
fuel efficiency (weight reduction) of air-conditioning system as a whole in each step of
development and design.
Condition of Trial Cost Calculation
Figure 9.15 indicates disassemble 1. Calculation excludes the following cost:
- Recovery cost of the unit
time of worker and an example of - Equipment and Facility expenses
2. Landfill cost: 82.5 yen/kg
recyclability rate evaluation of 3. Sales cost of valuable resources: Actual sales cost at the end of 1998
4. Labor charge for disassembly: 0.3 yen/sec.
air-conditioning unit. From 600
Yen
seconds after the start of 100
ﾘｻｲｸﾙ可能率 1000 Profit
Recyclability rate
disassembling, disassembly of 800

servomotor, harness and other 50

Sales cost of 600
廃材売却費
waste
Recyclability 400
small parts, which are difficult to Rate % 200 Recycle
0 Recycle merit
ﾘｻｲｸﾙﾒﾘｯﾄ
0 merit
be disassembled, starts. From Waste processing cost
廃材処理ｺｽﾄ -200
this point on, the recyclability rate Disassembling
分解ｺｽﾄcost
-400

becomes leveled off and does not -600

-800
improve much even when -1000 Loss
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
operators work on them twice as Disassemble Time (sec.)
long.
[Figure 9.15] Recyclability Rate

(4)Future Problems of Recycling

It is not decided yet if air-conditioning system is crushed together with the entire
vehicle or if it is removed. In both cases, it is necessary to eliminate hazardous
substances.
This section explains about problems of the recycling of air-conditioning unit, which is
especially difficult in the recycling of air-conditioning system. There are mainly two
problems: one is to prepare infrastructure such as facility to recover, sort, separate, and
reproduce air-conditioning system and the other is to improve the recyclability rate.
Table 9.12 summarizes this from the technical point of view.
 [Table 9.12] Technical Problems of Recycling Air-Conditioning Unit

Problem Countermeasures Aim

Integration of resin Integrate ABS, PE, NY, and Only with two types, sorting becomes easier.
material PBT into PP and ROM Also since difference of specific gravity

becomes 0.35, sorting with hydro cyclone

becomes possible.

Elimination of Eliminate packing It reduced disassembling time.

urethane packing Use Elastomer as sealing Application of reproduced material will be

expanded as the purity of PP resin increases.

Processing method of Determination of the range, to As the number of disassembly steps is

small and difficult-to- which mechanical crushing reduced with a partial utilization of machine,

process items, such as and sorting are applied greater economy can be attained.
servomotor and

harness

Reduction of number Use snap-fit fastener instead Easy to disassemble.

of parts of using joint parts such as Elimination of disassembly, separation, and
screws. sorting

Change of product Eliminate adhesion and Easy to disassemble.

configuration swaging. Add supplemental
holes for disassembly.

Regarding integration of resin materials, one approach may be to narrow them down to
general material PP and functional material POM (Figure 9.16).
It has been confirmed that urethane packing
can be reformed after being crushed with PP
Specific 0.9 １.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
material, such as case and door, and 比重
Gravity
PP-T20 PP-Mi40 POM-N
re-pelletized. However, when the proportion １．０５ １．２７ １．４

of urethane form is too high, mechanical

PE ABS ＮＹ66 PBT
property of recycled material deteriorates ０．９４ １．０５ １．１４ １．３１

and the shrinkage percentage changes.

Since urethane foam, which is light, tends to [Figure 9.16] Integration of Resin
gather at the upper part of hopper when Materials
being crushed and this reduces the crushing
efficiency, the amount of urethane foam
should be kept as small as possible.
Regarding servomotor, although it is small and difficult to be disassembled, it is
possible to attain a recycle rate of 95% by mechanically crushing servomotor, separating
iron and copper from it, and using the remaining resin as raw material for blast
furnace.
9.9 Hazardous Substances

(1)Corresponding Parts and Countermeasures

EU end of life vehicles directive prohibited the use of four substances; Pb, Cr6+, Hg, Cd.
Regarding endocrine disruptors such as formaldehyde, each country is trying to
establish own regulation and automobile manufacturer is trying to set up own
voluntary regulation. Regulations by automobile manufacturer are at present in a
state of flux and its movement requires attention.
This section explains about four
substances contained in automotive
[Table 9.13] Some Products and Parts
air-conditioning. Containing 4 Substances Prohibited by
Pb is used as additives in free-cutting the EU End-of Life Vehicles Directive

aluminum to improve free-cutting ability

Material Application
in addition to solder. It is also used for
Cr6+ Galvani Bright chromate Bracket, clamp
cation electrodeposition coating of surface
zation Yellow chromate
treatment. Cr6+ is widely used for
Black chromate
chromate surface treatment as well.
Green chromate
Table 9.13 summarizes some of the
Aluminum chromate Evaporator
products and parts containing these four
Dacro treatment Bracket, clamp
substances.
Galvanized steel sheet Door, blanket,
As soon as an alternative material is
clamp
developed, these materials are switched
over to new materials. Regarding black Pb Cation electrodeposition Bracket, clamp

and green of galvanization and part of coating MgCl pulley

soldering and contacts, no alternative Soldering Electric parts

materials have been found yet. With Free-cutting aluminum Piping joint

these, it may require a different approach, Cover Harness

such as replacing galvanization with Cd Connector Sensors

alternative material of cation electro- Hg Not available

deposition coating.

(2)Future Trend of Regulations and Countermeasure

Following the EU end of life vehicles directive, corresponding laws in each EU country
will be enacted and enforced. In addition to these laws and regulations, as automobile
manufacturers are expected to set up voluntary regulations as well, time of phase-out is
expected to be front-loaded and target of regulations may expand. In the future, it is
necessary to observe the movement of related parties and to switch to alternative
materials ahead of the regulations.