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TR 232: SOIL MECHANICS (12 CREDITS)

University of Dar es Salaam

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering

2021
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Chapter 1 : Flow of water through soils

Chapter contents

✓ Types of water in the soil (Ground water)

✓ Permeability of soils

✓ Flow nets

✓ Seepage discharge

✓ Seepage forces

✓ Effects of seepage force on the unit weight of soils

✓ Critical hydraulic gradient and other hydraulic problems

Background: Hydrologic cycle
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Chapter 1 – Ground water

Definition of terms
• Ground water (sub-surface water) refers to all water in soil deposits.
• Ground Water Table (GWT) or the Phreatic surface is the top surface
of the free ground water.
✓ It is at atmospheric pressure.
✓ Can be normal GWT or perched GWT.
• Normal GWT extends over a large area while Perched GWT are
found on local low permeability soil lenses above the normal GWT.
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Chapter 1 – Ground water

Definition of terms continued…
• Aquifers are geological units that can store and transmit water at rates
fast enough (high permeability) to supply reasonable amounts of
water to wells.
✓ Typical aquifers are made-up of sands, gravels, limestones and
sandstones.

o Unconfined aquifer: If the upper boundary of the ground water in the

aquifer is at atmospheric pressure the flow and the aquifer are said to
be unconfined.

o Confined aquifer: If an aquifer is saturated throughout and bounded

above by a layer with significantly lower permeability (Aquiclude or
Aquitard) the flow and aquifer are confined.
✓ For confined aquifers if the pore water pressure (piezometric
head) is above ground level it is referred as artesian. Otherwise it
is sub – artesian.
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Chapter 1 – Ground water

Definition of terms continued…
• Aeration/ Vadose zone: This is the zone which lies between the
ground water table (saturated zone) and the ground surface. Three
distinct zones exist within the vadose/ aeration zone:
✓ Capillary (action) fringe: Water held by capillary action at negative
hydrostatic pressure. Reaches full saturation.
✓ Partially saturated sub-zone: Above capillary fringe where water is
strongly attached to the surface of the soil particles by surface
tension and adsorption
✓ Top sub-zone occurs by continuous upwards evaporation
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Chapter 1 – Permeability
Definition of terms
• Permeability is the capacity of soil to allow water to flow through it.
Also known as hydraulic conductivity.

• Flow is caused by gravitational forces equalising water levels/ head

(pressures) between two points.

• It is not an ‘intrinsic’ property of a soil rather depends on the;

✓ Particle size distribution

✓ Porosity of soil

✓ The shape and orientation of soil particles

✓ The degree of saturation/ presence of air

✓ Mineralogical composition of solids and type of adsorbed cations

✓ Temperature of water (viscosity)

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Chapter 1 – Permeability
Definition of terms continued…
• Importance of permeability of soil mass;

✓ To evaluate the amount of seepage through or beneath dams and

levees, and into water wells

✓ Evaluating the uplift or seepage forces beneath hydraulic

structures for stability analyses

✓ Providing control of seepage velocities so that fine grained soil

particles are not eroded from the soil mass

✓ Rate of settlement (consolidation) studies where soil volume

changes occur as water is expelled from the soil voids as a rate
process under an energy gradient
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Darcy’s Law of Saturated Flow

Definition of terms continued…
• Darcy’s Law of saturated flow (after Henry Darcy 1856), states the
velocity of flow through a porous medium is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient causing the flow.
𝑄
𝑣 = ∝𝑖
𝐴𝑡

𝑣 = −𝑘𝑖
• Where;
• v – Approach (apparent) velocity
• Q – Quantity of water flowing
• A – Cross–section area perpendicular to the direction of flow
• t – Time with which the volume of water steadily flows through the
cross section
Δℎ
• i – Hydraulic gradient, (the fluid head loss per unit length)
Δ𝑙
• k – Soil’s coefficient of water permeability/ hydraulic conductivity
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Darcy’s Law of saturated flow

Definition of terms continued…
• Fluid (piezometric) head explained
• Referring Bernoulli’s principle which describes the mechanical energy
held by flowing incompressible fluid per unit weight of the fluid
(expressed in head length, m);
𝑚𝑔𝑧
❑ The potential head is = 𝑧 where; z – elevation above a reference
𝑚𝑔
datum, g – acceleration due to gravity and m – mass
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣2
❑ The kinetic head is = where; v – fluid average approach
2𝑚𝑔 2𝑔
velocity
𝑢
❑ The pressure head is where u – water pressure and Ɣ – Unit
𝛾
weight of water
𝑣2 𝑢
❑ The total head is therefore ℎ = 𝑧 + +
2𝑔 𝛾
❑ For flow through soils, the water velocity is small
𝑢
❑ Therefore total head ℎ = 𝑧 +
𝛾
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Darcy’s Law of saturated flow

Definition of terms continued…
• Fluid (piezometric) head explained
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Laboratory determination of k

1. The constant head permeameter
o Suitable for cohesionless (coarse-grained) soils
o The hydraulic gradient through the sample is constant over the test
period

Where;
Q – Volume of water flowing through the
specimen in time t

H – Head loss across the specimen

(neglecting losses in the pipes and
connections)

L – Length of the specimen

A – Cross–sectional area of the specimen

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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Laboratory determination of k

The constant head permeameter continued…

𝑄
= 𝑣𝐴
𝑡

𝐻
𝑣 = −𝑘𝑖 = 𝑘
𝐿

𝑄 𝐻
=𝑘 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿

𝑄 𝐻
=𝑘 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿

𝑄𝐿
𝑘=
𝑡𝐻𝐴
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Laboratory determination of k

2. The falling head permeameter
o Suitable for cohesive (fine-grained) soils
o The hydraulic gradient through the sample varies over the test period
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑉𝑎

𝑑ℎ
𝑣 = −𝑘𝑖; 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡

ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑘 𝐴= 𝑎
𝑙 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ℎ1
𝑎𝑙 1
𝑘 න 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑ℎ
𝐴 ℎ
𝑡0 ℎ0

𝑎𝑙 ℎ1
𝑘= 𝑙𝑛
𝐴 𝑡1 − 𝑡0 ℎ0
With;
a – Cross sectional area of the tube 2.3𝑎𝑙 ℎ1
V – Velocity of water in the standpipe 𝑘= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐴 𝑡1 − 𝑡0 ℎ0
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Chapter 1 – Limitations of laboratory determination of k

❑ Inability to replicate the en-mass nature of soil as it exists in the field. Natural
soils are inhomogeneous and anisotropic.

o Inhomogeneity is the variation of soil properties with space.

o Anisotropy is the variation of soil properties with direction.

❑ The small sizes of the specimen tested has a bearing on results attained e.g.
boundary conditions from the smooth sides of the test chamber.

❑ Losses in the tubings of the equipment used for determining k and surface
evaporation have a bearing effect when the permeability to be determined is
very low

❑ No method is available to evaluate k for other than saturated steady state soil
conditions. Most flow will however involve partially saturated soil – water flow.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

1. Borehole tests – Open borehole
o Permeability tests can be carried out in cased or lined boreholes
provided the casing extends below the ground water table.
NOTE: Tests can also be carried out above the water table but
interpretation of the results is doubtful because the water flowing
out of the borehole must first saturate the unsaturated voids
above GWT which affects the hydraulic head.

o The test is carried out by providing a head of water inside the

borehole above the water table level to induce flow into the soil.

o Either a constant head can be maintained at Hc above the water table

by introducing water at a steady flow rate q or a falling head test can
be carried out by measuring the head of water H above the water
table at time intervals t as it falls.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

1. Borehole tests – Open borehole continued

o Sometimes rising head tests have been used by pumping out water below
the water table level but these can be prone to more uncertain results due
to potentially unstable conditions (piping) at the bottom of the borehole.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

1. Borehole tests – Open borehole continued…
o Shape factor f which depends on the condition at the bottom of the casing
(cases A to F) can be derived from the work of Hvorslev (1951) as given in
the Figures below
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Chapter 1 – Field determination of k

2. Borehole tests – Packer tests
o A packer is a rubber bag which is inflated
against the sides of the borehole and around
a tube to form a seal.

o The section of borehole beneath the packer

can then be tested by applying a head of
water H and measuring the flow rate q to
maintain this constant head. The applied
head can simply be the gravity head Hg of
water in the tube above the water table
although it is more common to apply a
pressure p to increase the water head.

o The total head must be limited to ensure that

hydraulic fracturing does not occur.
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Chapter 1 – Field determination of k

2. Borehole tests – Packer tests
o The water table level should be determined
before starting each test since the applied
heads are related to this level. The length of
the test section should be at least five times
the hole diameter and can be several metres
long depending on the stratification and
jointing pattern in the rock.
o With the test carried out below the water
table this requires the soil in the uncased
section to be self-supporting so the test is
usually restricted to determining the
permeability of jointed bedrocks.
o At each test level water is pumped through
the perforated pipe in the test section and a
number of values of flow rate and applied
head should be determined so that a graph of
q versus H can be plotted to check that a
straight line is obtained.
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Chapter 1 – Field determination of k

3. Borehole tests – Piezometers
o In this test a constant head is applied to the
sand filter surrounding the piezometer so the
dimensions of this zone must be known with
reasonable accuracy. The constant head is
maintained by an elevated water container
with the tap to the piezometer turned on.

o The test is only suitable for soils of low

permeability.

o To measure flow at any stage the tap to the

water container is turned off. Water flows
from the burette to the piezometer tip and the
quantity of flow Q ml in time t minutes is
measured. The constant head is maintained
by raising the burette so that the meniscus
always remains at the same level.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

4. The Pumping Out Test – Unconfined aquifer
o Flow is radial towards the test well and the observation boreholes are
in line with the test well along the radius of the circle of influence.
o Outside the circle of influence G.W.T is not lowered.
Q
q = = vA
t
Q dh
=k 2rh
t dr
r h
Q 21 2


t r1 r
dr = k  2hdh
h1

Q  r2 
(
ln  = k h2 − h1
t  r1 
2 2
)
Q r2 q r2
k= ln = ln
t (h2 2 − h12 ) r1  (h2 2 − h12 ) r1
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

5. The Pumping Out Test – Confined aquifer

o Derive an equation to determine

the permeability of a confined
aquifer from pumping out test.

✓ Principle is the same as for

unconfined aquifer however area
perpendicular to the radial water
flow is constant.

6. The Pumping In Test

• Used when bedrock level is very deep or where permeability of
various strata is required.

• A casing perforated only at the level of the aquifer is lowered in the

observation well and the flow required to maintain a constant head in
the casing is determined then the soils permeability is calculated.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Stratified (layered) soils

Soils in there natural states are typically inhomogeneous and anisotropic.
For flow parallel to the layers/ bedding plane;
o Total water flowing through the soil is the summation of water
flowing through each strata.
o Total head loss across each strata is constant equal to total
hydraulic head available
q = q1 + q2 + q3
H H H H
k hor d = k1 d1 + k 2 d 2 + k 3 d 3
L L L L
k1 d 1 + k 2 d 2 + k 3 d 3
k hor =
(d 1 + d 2 + d 3 )

k hor =
 kd i i

d
h

k h dh
k hor = o

d
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Stratified (layered) soils

For flow perpendicular to the layers/ bedding plane;
o Water flowing through the strata is the same
o Total head loss is equal to head loss across each strata.

H = H1 + H 2 + H 3
dq d1q d 2 q d 3 q
= + +
k k1 k2 k3
d d1 d 2 d 3
= + +
k k1 k 2 k 3
d
kv =
dn
k
n

h
kv = h
1
0 k h dh
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Actual velocity of water through soils

Although approach velocity is considered for water flow across an entire
cross section of the soil, water can only flow through the voids of the soil.

For continuity; Water flow through the full soil mass cross section = Flow
through the soil voids

𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠 - (1)

𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑣
Substituting = = 𝑛 in (1)
𝐴 𝑉

𝑣 = 𝑛𝑣𝑠

Where;
v is the approach (apparent) velocity
vs is the seepage velocity

However, vr, the real seepage velocity, varies from void to void
depending on the actual voids dimensions
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Practical coefficients

(From Terzaghi et al. 1996)

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Chapter 1 – Empirical permeability relationship for granular soils

(From Terzaghi et al. 1996)

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Chapter 1 – Effect of temperature on k

It can be shown theoretically that for laminar flow condition in saturated
soil mass;
𝛾𝑤
𝑘 ∝
η

𝛾𝑤
𝑘=𝐾
η
Where Ɣw – unit weight of water
η – dynamic viscosity of water which is temperature dependent
K – Absolute permeability
K is expressed in units of length squared. It is independent of the
permeant properties.
A correction for the effect of temperature may be obtained through;
𝑘𝑡 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑘20
kt – value of k corresponding to a temperature of t
k20 – value of k corresponding to a temperature of 20°C (standard room
temperature)
𝑅𝑇 – Temperature correction coefficient
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Chapter 1 – Water seepage equations

Assumptions
o Darcy’s Law is valid
o The soil is completely saturated (Sr = 100%)
o The soil is homogeneous (k is constant everywhere in the aquifer)
o The soil is isotropic (k is the same in all directions)
o The size of the element remains constant (i.e no expansion or
contraction)
o The flow takes place in a steady state condition

Consider the velocity of flow and

piezometric levels for two-
dimensional flow of water through
a soil element: -
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Chapter 1 - Water seepage equations

𝑣𝑥 – velocity of flow in the horizontal direction
𝑣𝑧 – velocity of flow in the vertical direction

The rate of water volume flow into the element;

𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑣𝑥 . 𝑑𝑧. 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 . 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦

The rate of water volume flow out of the element;

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧
= 𝑣𝑥 . 𝑑𝑧. 𝑑𝑦 + . 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑧. 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 . 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦 + . 𝑑𝑧. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
From continuity;
𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧
+ = 0 – (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
This is a differential equation of 2D water flow
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Chapter 1 - Water seepage equations

After Darcy’s Law, the velocity components can be rewritten as

𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
𝑣𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 . and 𝑣𝑧 = −𝑘𝑧 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
and being the hydraulic gradients in the x and z directions
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
respectively.
Inserting the expression in equation (1);
𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑧 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

Since 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 as the soil is isotropic

𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧

This is the Laplace’s differential equation of 2D water seepage.

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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Definition of terms
The analytical solution of the 2D seepage equation has two functions;
flow or stream function, Ψ and potential function, Φ.
Geotechnical seepage problems have complex boundary conditions
which excludes the use of analytical solutions and therefore Flow net
solutions or numerical solutions are opted.

A flow net is a graphical representation of two–dimensional steady–state

groundwater flow through aquifers. It is graphical solution of the
Laplace’s equation for 2D flow constructed using flow lines and
equipotential lines.

Flow lines (flow or stream function, Ψ) are paths along which water flows
through a cross–section. Infinite number of flow lines will exist but for an
adequate flow net only a few (4 – 6) need to be drawn.
Equipotential lines (potential function, Φ) are lines of equal energy level
or equal total head. As water flows through the pore spaces energy is
dissipated and equipotential lines act like contours of energy loss.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Rules for construction of flow nets
o Flow nets are created using a converging trial and error graphical
technique.

o All flow nets comply with the following criteria;

1. No two flow lines can intersect

2. No two equipotential lines can intersect

3. Flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right angles

4. Flow and equipotential lines are smooth

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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Rules for construction of flow nets continued…
5. Square blocks/ fields: The areas bounded by equipotentials and
flow lines must be as near square as possible (Curvilinear
square)

6. Since no flow takes place across an impermeable boundary such

a boundary is a flow line (Ψ = constant)

7. A submerged permeable boundary along which the head is

constant will be an equipotential line
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

The flow can be confined or unconfined and in a homogeneous or
inhomogeneous/ heterogeneous, isotropic or anisotropic soil medium;
Case 1: Confined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils;
a) Draw the cross–section to scale simplifying the problem taking
advantage of symmetry and identify all the boundary conditions
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 1: Confined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils continued…

b) Sketch the initial flow lines. It is a trial and error process so expect
to do some level of erasing before the final output. Add the
equipotential lines.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 1: Confined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils continued…
c) Select an integer value for NF, the number of flow tubes. Larger
values of NF produce more precise flow nets but also require more
effort to finalize. NF = 2 – 3 is on the coarser side and NF = 4 – 6 is
usually a good compromise between precision and effort.

d) Check for major errors and go back to rectify, adjust, correct and
revise accordingly.
e) Refine the flow net.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 2: Confined flow in homogeneous anisotropic soils
A ‘normal’ (isotropic conditions) flow net solution is performed but on a
transformed cross-section where the equivalent horizontal and vertical
permeabilities are equal then the transform is inversed to create the flow
net in the original space.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 3: Unconfined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils
1. The upper flow line is unknown and has to be constructed during
the analysis process (See literatures for the various procedures).
2. The process starts by estimating the location of the phreatic
surface. Once located all the boundaries of the flow region are
defined and the solution proceeds as with the case for confined
flow.
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Chapter 1 - Water seepage equations – Finite difference solution

Consider a grid with rows spacing of ∆𝑦 and column spacing of ∆𝑥. In this
two – dimensional setting, the head function is a function of x and y, h =
h(x, y).

Write down the finite difference approximation to the second partial

derivatives of head at the point (x,y);
𝜕2𝐻 ℎ𝑥+∆𝑥,𝑦 + ℎ𝑥−∆𝑥,𝑦 − 2ℎ𝑥,𝑦
≈
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥,𝑦 ∆𝑥 2

𝜕2𝐻 ℎ𝑥,𝑦+∆𝑦 + ℎ𝑥,𝑦−∆𝑦 − 2ℎ𝑥,𝑦

≈
𝜕𝑦 2 𝑥,𝑦
∆𝑦 2
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Chapter 1 - Water seepage equations – analytical solution

Substitute these expression into the Laplace equation;
ℎ𝑥+∆𝑥,𝑦 + ℎ𝑥−∆𝑥,𝑦 − 2ℎ𝑥,𝑦 ℎ𝑥,𝑦+∆𝑦 + ℎ𝑥,𝑦−∆𝑦 − 2ℎ𝑥,𝑦
𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 =0
∆𝑥 2 ∆𝑦 2

Assuming isotropic conditions;

ℎ𝑥+∆𝑥,𝑦 + ℎ𝑥−∆𝑥,𝑦 − 2ℎ𝑥,𝑦 ℎ𝑥,𝑦+∆𝑦 + ℎ𝑥,𝑦−∆𝑦 − 2ℎ𝑥,𝑦
+ =0
∆𝑥 2 ∆𝑦 2

Assuming ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 to get the approximate values of h at all the grid points;

ℎ𝑥,𝑦 = 0.25 ℎ𝑥+∆𝑥,𝑦 + ℎ𝑥−∆𝑥,𝑦 + ℎ𝑥,𝑦+∆𝑦 + ℎ𝑥,𝑦−∆𝑦

There are two approaches that can be taken to use this equation to find
h(x,y) at all grid points; (a) Iteration (by using e.g. MS Excel or Matlab) or
(b) Simultaneous equations.
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Chapter 1 – Seepage discharge

Consider an element of soil from a flow net: -

The quantity of water flowing per unit time per unit width through the
element is;
Δ𝑄𝑥 𝐴 Δ𝑏𝐵
𝑞𝑥 = = 𝑘𝑖𝑥 = 𝑘𝑖𝑥
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
B – Dimension of soil mass perpendicular to the plane
A – Area of inflow (= Δ𝑏𝐵)
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑘𝑖𝑥 Δ𝑏
∆𝐻 ′
The hydraulic gradient across the element is 𝑖𝑥 =
∆𝑙
∆𝐻′ ′
Δ𝑏
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑘 Δ𝑏 = 𝑘∆𝐻
∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
∆𝐻
For a curvilinear square flow net ∆𝑏 = ∆𝑙 therefore 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑘∆𝐻 ′ = 𝑘
𝑛𝑑
Where 𝑛𝑑 are the number of equipotential drops across the flow net
20/04/2021 43

Chapter 1 – Seepage discharge continued…

Multiplying the flow through one channel with all the flow channels
(stream tubes) in the flow net gives the total flow per unit width across
the channel;

𝑄 𝑛𝑓
= 𝑞𝑥 . 𝑛𝑓 = 𝑘. ∆𝐻
𝐵 𝑛𝑑

𝑛𝑓
is characteristic of flow net and is independent of the permeability k
𝑛𝑑
and total head loss ∆𝐻, It is known as the ‘shape factor’ of the flow net.

For anisotropic soil masses k for seepage discharge calculation =

𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧 .
20/04/2021 44

Chapter 1 – Seepage force

Seepage force is a (drag) force exerted on the soil solid particles
during water seepage.

Consider water flowing through a square soil element: -

Water force on entry face = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1 𝐴

Water force on exit face = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2 𝐴
Face area per unit width of element = ∆𝑙𝑋1
Volume affected by seepage force = ∆𝑙 2 1
Hydraulic gradient i = ∆ℎΤ∆𝑙
Seepage force on sand particles = Water force on entry – exit face

= 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1 ∆𝑙1 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2 ∆𝑙1 = 𝛾𝑤 ∆ℎ∆𝑙1

Seepage force per unit volume;
𝛾𝑤 ∆ℎ∆𝑙1
j= 2
= 𝑖. 𝛾𝑤
∆𝑙 1
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Chapter 1 – Seepage forces

Effects of seepage force on the unit weight of soils
For vertically downwards water flow (positive) it can be shown that the
seepage force per unit volume acting downwards is;
𝑗↓ = 𝑖 − 1 𝛾𝑤

For vertical upwards water flow (negative) it can be shown that the
seepage force acting upwards is;
𝑗↑ = − 𝑖 + 1 𝛾𝑤

The resultant effect on the soil element unit weight is therefore given
as γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 + j
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Chapter 1 – Critical hydraulic gradient

Is the hydraulic gradient on upward water flow through a soil element
at which the contact stresses (effective stresses) on the soils solids are
reduced to zero a condition commonly known as boiling, piping or
quick condition.

Applies to cohesionless soils (sands).

It can be shown that the critical hydraulic gradient,

𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 𝛾′ 𝐺𝑠 −1
𝑖𝑐 = = =
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒

The critical hydraulic gradient will therefore depend on the particle

density and particle packing and can range between 0.6 – 1.0.

𝑖𝑐
Factor of Safety against critical hydraulic gradient conditions =
𝑖𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙