ELEMENTS OF MINERALOGY BY FRANK RUTLE Y LATE LECTURER ON MINEKALOGY IN THE KOVAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, LONDON REVISED BY H. H. READ A.R.C.S, (Loxp,), B.Sc. Hows, (Loxp.), F.G.S. (Lonp,) FORMERLY ASSISTANT DEMONSTRATOX IN THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECIINOLOGY, LONDON INTRODUCTION BY G. T. HOLLOWAY CONSULTING METALLURGIST. NINETEENTH E LONDON THOMAS MURBY & CO. 6, BOUVERIE STREFT, E.C. 1g16O25 TRS EARTH ‘SCTENCES UpearyREVISER'S PREFACE 1 the preparation of the revised eiton ofthis book it has been considered advantageous to. make somewhat fandarentl alterations in reveal paces. The advaace of Mineralogy in recent years the changed pont of view ff economie minerslogsts, and the needs of the preset. hy student have al ben decmed fo jail ste changes Indead, one indication of the eed for some auch revision veas shown ia the evericresing collection of appendices that were tobe found inthe former editions, Neverthe: ess fthas oan the revse's endeavour to conserve as much as possible ofthe origibal, an all alterations have been eatflly considered Part I treats of the Properties of Minerals. The cxginal chapter on Crystallography has been entirely renriten, ads chapter on Oprieal Properties Bat been ie ie hoped, sil be found tefl to the ‘Part Il consists of the description of Mineral Species Here the original acangement bas ben followed, except in regard to the sileates, New ineaductions to the clemcnts have been givens speclly imporiant ang {hese are invoduetons to the principal metals, which, together with certain satisties,bave been supplied by Me. W. G. Wagner In the detailed desription of the ‘minerals the matter bas been better displayed, chemical 344443,formule embodied, and greater stress as been laid on occurrences and uss. Types of ocurrences rather than Uist of lealiies ave been given. A. Glossary of Economic Geology Terms and @ Table ofthe Geologiesl Systems have been added ‘Taroaghoat ibs been the aim of the revise to bring the book into line with modern tendencies in economic ‘mineralogy, and to make an introduction tothe tien Ube pronpecting and determination of mineral deposit Eeonomie mineralogy is a. youthful scienco, but its scopy literstre, and insportance are ever increasing. ffs Book bat helps to gue the atedent and the pres ‘eal mam into a proper appreciation af the value of ‘method in prospcting, valuation, and deter of minerals the work of the reviser vil Bot Ihave been in van. ‘The thanks of the rviser are dus to Mr. G.T. Hello. way for hie introduction, to Be. W. G. Wagner for ‘ipplyig incoductions to certain of the metals (0 Mr: F, Howley and to Mr. G. S. Sweeting for great help in the preparation ofthe manuscript. ‘When the revser was ordered abroad, Mr. HL. G. ‘Smith very kindly ndartook the proof-reading, indexing, and other monotonous task, and for this and for many helpfal suggestions the greatest thanks ate dus. HH. READ. St Avon's Banat,PREFACE, TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION ‘Tw alterations made in tis edition consat chilly in ‘he insertion of a rif outline ofthe recently adopt toeatment of erytabsymmety, the addition of more fan a doven igres of crystals the complete revision of the chemical formule, and the petting of such forrectione and additions at seemed nesifl. The table ofthe thityto groupe of symmetry is mainly adapted from tha given by Professors Penfield and Brash in their “Determinative Mineralogy and Diowpipe Analysis = work which the student may coasul with great ad vantage. BRCONTENTS Propace ay Revisen see ° Pusvace to TatergevtH Epitios, sy Frank Rertey il Ivrnopeetion ay G.T, Hotwoway © = =k PART I PROPERTIES OF MINERALS CHAPTER 1 Cuswustay or Miveeats = 7 CHAPTER IT PuvsteaL Prorenrizs of Mivznate soe at CHAPTER IL Cavstattognamy soe ry CHAPTER IV Iupontant Crvstat Groves ~ se CHAPTER V Orricat. Prorextizs oF Misenats - smNox-Mezattic Mavenats Carbon : Boron > : Sulphior Selenium Ammonitm Sodium = Potassium «| Caleium = Merattic Mivgrats ~ Tusniom = = Therm = Tungsten» Tangiem 2 Molybdenum = Uraniarn Chromium: Manganese ‘rssio Antimony = Bismuth Tallueiom Guossary Grotocteat Svstems Ipex, CONTENTS, PART II DESCRIPTION OF MINERAL SPECIES tts 14 Barium Strontiam © : Magnesiom : Aluminium Siican = Biaxial silicates Uniaxial Sifieates Isowrepie Silicates Led - + Keon Cobate 2 Nickel i Copper | Mercury 7 Silver 7 Gold Platinam Palladium = : Osmium 2! Iridium : Rhodium 22.2 Rutheaium : 257 38 388 389INTRODUCTION By GEORGE: T. HOLLOWAY “Twa general recognition of Rule's“ Mineralogy "in ite ld form ae a handy book uf reference in shown by the fact that ie pased through thitteen eons during ts suthor's Ife, and thatthe eightecth edition bad been issued before the present revision was undertaken ‘While the general arrangement and compactouss of the work have. been retained ae fa ax posible, the suldions made bythe eitor and the modifications which fave boen introduced by him aod his collaborators are intended as a sep towards a fuller realisation of the wide scope, iterest,and lity of applied or economic Iniperaiogy. As @ development of tis Tetur, tis to be hoped that Rutey may later on find a worthy com fasion in a work dealing flly withthe basiness aspect ‘of mineralogy, i an author who ean devote the time snd tuergy necessary for r0 ict and respoonble task an be found ‘Although miveralogy i generally nd rightly regardet ss science the sly of minerals with view "0 the ‘stermination of thes commaril vale ie 50 a “Ass puely scenic man, the mieralogist regards a aieral as « homogeneous substance of definite compos:stand aloe, and so important to all who sextch for of Ime or handle ores and minerals that it shoal form aa sseotal pact of thee erly training and of their lie's Srerk. Good properties are often “turned down," or Worthless ones reported apon favourably by the. pos pector, redressing operations are wrongly conducted, nd prolucts nelly disposed of through a want of Sepoledgeboth of the main principles andaf the details; cn this knowledge depends the socessulexplitation of ‘mineral, and it for the basis ef economic mineralogy Sod of Ws braze, the valuation of minerals and ores ‘Although the work ofthe economic sinerslogist and geologist form important adjuncts to mining and metal Inrgy, mineralogy at an att—iz, «economic miner slgy”—bas uot recently been almost iguored at olages and teaching institutions throughout the wor fdas been but ile stdied bythe metallorgst fod paniululy by the mining man. ‘The economic finals work bas commonly been regarded. at {ncladed in that ofthe economic geologist, bat St would ‘be wiser to consider that he has eld which i entiely lis ows, bt which overlap that of the geologist at at ver dacreasing rate "The collections. shown in out museums ace msily composed of five specimens, and are likey to lead the Drospector to seacch for minerals of special appearance Such as ae not commonly to be found, except by lack, fo tho actual depesits and may result in his passing over ‘sod ignoring of fliag to recognise workable depos TKant be femembered that the bull of our enormous output of both base and precious metals is now derived from low grade and refractory and mixed aren The deposits of ich or comparatively pare ore have been largely worked oat and ores which were worst only @ few years ago are now mined aad dresed at = proft,taught to apply to the selected specimens on which be ‘as been accustomed to mor "The prospector sould have teen’ trained jo, and have stiied on his own behalf the examination of bot which are the most likely tobe found afeld. Although be cannot, during hie preliminary studies, ‘so or examine the miners ae they occur in st, fe can commonly obtain and make tials upeo’ the ‘rude ore as ti delivered from the mine, and of tbe picked ore, dresed products, and wate The broad feolegical spect of the occurence and asrocaion of fiserals can only he guined in the Beld, and mining faanot be taught fe our colleges. traiing in economic ‘mineralogy title for mining sen, among whom, of course, B included the prospector, and. with whom ie commonly included, although probably wrongly, the oe reser, ca, however, be very eicieatly given, sd is 00 ofthe most essential, although most neglected, parts ‘fa mining man's edcation. Prom this poitof view, a8 ‘well as from that of the metallrgis, the training should Include, ot merely th ieatGeaion and determination ff the atoce of the individal minerals which are aso ‘Sate together, but thal general physical characterises ‘od the prospect of being able to separate them either Iechanivally or by metallurgical means Colleton: of rough migetals, ores and products can easly be made by a student, and he can give himself, if he cannot bean it otherwise, that grounding which is absolutely ‘sential for ie fatare welfare Tis a curious fact and ove ofthe most injurious to the fate of mining eaterprise, that prospecting is ‘ually entrusted to a young abd inexperienced man, and ‘tha it appears tobe regarded as the least important part of mining work stead of being considered one of themost exentil, The inexperienced man is more likely to missor condemn good property than to recommend & tnd one, ands property thee overookod may be lost for feserations through the mere fact that it has ence been Elamined and “torned down” ‘The importance of an ‘Adequate knowledge of mineralogy is great throughout Al the stages of mining and ore dressing, andi is Snfortunate tht, while undertaking the responsibilty ‘of dealing with oinrale and vet apart fom actal rising, and of Yecommending, erecting, and. ronning plants for treating them, mining men commonly Eoow less of either pare or sconomie mineralogy than of any other branch oftheir work "The oce valver tut consider several questions in audison to the acteal composition of the ore. How fan one deal withthe constituents, whetber valuable of bureul?. Whats theivalue? How fr wll the presence of some lead to. penalization, if they ave not removed from thee associates? It i important to remember ‘that market conditions change, abd that an ce neal for pret, wach is wclest fo on6 buyer, may bo mich Sought ater by another, and that sources of revenue ‘may exist even when disaster seems iment. 'A knowledge of economic mineralogy i of sopreme importance tothe mining man as producer and elle, snd tothe metallurist as buyer aod user but the wo scupy entirely diferent postion as tegard the busiest Sipects of the subject The later, or the buyer lor ‘whom he acts, ean refse to purchase what he does fot wast, and’ an impose his own limits as to per ‘rntage vals wich must be reached, and mpurtes which most be removed, of whose mount must not txceed a definite proportion, “He inserts pealsation tnd other clauses which protec him from loss and, fexcept for the growing competition between the morecompetent, and parcalarly between thove sho are on the lookout for by-products, be ls independent of bad tro in the mines or on tbe deeming fore, He pays oly for what be want, and is often able to obtain bls ‘material frac las than he would pay if te prodvcers Posseseed mote than the elementary knowledge of ‘mineralogy, and the crude ideas as to matet conditions Sod requirements with which they are generally equipped. “The mining man or are restr, however, depends for his peofit-om what he sels and itis to his iaterest to Ienow everything posible about his ores ot ncals in fonder 10 minimise loses and to scare the best peicet fir hie producte, The loates depend arly ot bis mechanical eficoncy and on that of his taf, but are Inngly dependent alzo on scareal study of wht he ie treling snd producing, nd on his owe special knowledge fron what he can lata from others as tothe requ: iments of the muskets, What ie only jut saleable {© one Bem, may be particlarly sutale to the re (quirements of another, and. higher price, or at any fate a greater fcity of sale, may be secured by select Ing, deessing, or binding ores or prodbets, or by beating intmind how the purcbser ily to be abe fo himealt deal with the question of Blending ans, x posible 0 know what other material suitable for such porpose are avallabe at th place where the products are treted Sock matters at the cost of transport, sod the best tethod of cooveying the ote fem plate to plc, ate mong the many items of information which should be known by the mining maa, apd must be borne in mind by the valer; and tis fact emphasizes the ecerity, 208 only for a nowledge of minerals and fore, and the melbod of treatment as a commerial Proposition, but for_a broad view and considerable Teovindge of tsinets conditions ently independent ofthese which might ordinarily be considered as included meng his duties "The intimate ation and co-operation which should exist betwoon the mining man and the metallurgists of ‘course, more or esr admitted, aleboagh commonly ‘goored, by both, but the advisability of association between the metalurgist and the chomicaltecbnologist fr loss understood, and even when resized i earely regarded as having the exter importance wien i really possesses. ‘Many instances might be cited whore 1 inerl which was formery used ony by the chemseal ‘manufacturer is now mainly employed by the metal: Gat This i for lostanes, apecally the case wth ‘manganese ore, andwith hove of tngsten and chrom, find ton great catent with the res of ice tod cabal Many minerals ot ce which are specially penalised, of perhaps refised for one purpose, are thoroughly suitable Sod sometimes preferable for another "The purchase and treatment by the chemist of by. products fom ore dressing and melallrgical operations has often been the salvation of a mie, apd hes some times fred the foundation of a new or prevented the death ofan old branch of chemi! industry and one of the most important functions of the economic miners logit sto indicate to those who rule the destinies of an fore the opportunities and pitfalls which exist. His Influences fle directly of ndgectly throughout the history ofthe development of soy ming property from ste birt tote dent Twill no doubt be contended that forthe ore value or prompetorto consider sich detail o encroach pan the work of others uti batter that they should be ‘eal wth at once. Cases often oocur where & property an be thus proved tobe hopeless under the existing on fltons eventhough its" atay ralue” may be exeletto note that in cerpentne rocks, one commonly finds estes, chrome om ore, icksl ore and cabal ore ‘which may bo actually associated together, or may ooeut in distinct deposits as they do in New Caledonia. Iie extremely important to know wheter the asso. lated’ minerals in cate their presence together is ob- Jectoosbl, canbe separated sufcienty from each other Qycommersal mom 6 meet mere feqeremeate ‘This shouldbe specially borne ia mind by the prompector inthe case of zine blende aod galena, which are commonly ‘sociated together Th some eases, the zinc blende and {he galena af suiinty independent to be abviouly ‘sty of separation ina coats condition by ging or ber twetdrecsing proceses, In others it ie evident that, thougi a portion ofeach mineral maybe spared in fondton of considerable purty, there will be otber por tion, eter lage or smal, which wil roqite fine grind. ing and whose dessng will esl in heavy losses or in the production of lage proportion of intermediate peo duet, which may have to be disctded, or can only be Soldat an extremely Tow rte. Tn some eases the valu thle einer constants are 20 finely divided, oF 20 intimately mixed or intercrystalise, that they eanot be Separated fom each othe, of are associated with other ‘minerals fom which separation iso dicate expen sive that even a large deposit must be considered of Aoubefal value, of perhaps unteatable by preset ‘methods. “The physical state ofboth the valnble and Sorat minerals infact, a poi of ital importance jn considering the valve of most mineral deposits, and in Alesina tothe possiblity of working them der the ‘tuditios which era inthe locality, "The association of gold and aller andeven of platinus sod palladiam with copper, coppeenickel, and many ‘the ote, olen a auc small tounts sto sppeat 0bbe worthless judge from aa assay of the original or, ‘5 olten suicienty important, on account af te concen tration which occurs inthe dressing or smelting of sch ore, o render valable a deposit which, om the result of S mere analysis, might appear 10 be worthless. Not ‘nly are these valuable metals concentrated, bat certain ter constituents, such ae bismuth, eles, ete are leo concentrated with them in te cecealyticreiiog of trade copper. The "mad lee at the anodes dissolve ‘tains gold silver, often platinum snd paladiae, and ‘eualy bath and selenium, wbich would be lot the tlestealyticpurifeaton were ot cared ot “The accion of certain elncral inal depots is of particular intrest and of growing importance, on account ofthe enormous quantities of material whieh ae tow dressed by dodging and other hydraulic methods for the recovery of gold, platinum, 8m, montzite, nd ‘ther valuable minerals. "Some, of these were formerly litle more thea curosties ‘They become concentrated inthe Soa product from the dredge, and mast be removed flther in oder to get vd of them oF to recover tern ‘wile the metal or mineral which isthe aca sm ofthe Mover, is being seprated, Zicons ate ow thus Shtsined by the hundreds of tons, tanierous ion or, Fich in titan, by the thoasandsof tons, fogeter with topaz, gamete te. Their output exconds the present demandeo! the marie, although such demande are rapidly lncresing. In many cate, these minerals, which may be called by-product far exceed in quaatly the mizeral for which the search ie being made, anda fen com pletely eneleable. The buyers are often bt ltle felerened ip them, of are doublfl as to cotnuity of supply, and ate also fequealy not aware of the act that the supply could be maintained, i the producers knew (Oat any demand existed, or was tly to exe‘The effec of changein market conditions is wellsbown by the ease of baunte, ae present the only commercial source of toe metal alvminiom. ‘The demand for thie ‘material i largely increasing but the lass of oe sa for ‘making meal aluinirs very diferent frre hat ‘eed twenty or tity yeas ago. The peocess ow em ployed for producing alumina for such manslacterehaste. fulled is certain qualities of bait which wee formerly Unsleable, being largely used, and others which were formely considered of good quality for making the metal, being, ow employed for enticely diferent pusposee, Slien and titanium ar highly objectionable tothe manu actrees of alominivn, at on takes very litle die fence. On the other Hand, those who employ bauxt or the production of abrasives or of retvctory material, ‘which uve i very large and reply inteasng, pero treat lose willing to use the lie of or t0 which the lumii manulatiters object. "The nowmefale minerle in an oce deposit ate often fas important ar the metalic They may saris the ‘alting, or may be saleable when removed by dressing, for they may be injurious and perhaps incapable of removal. "Thereare many cates where 2 mineral deposit {tales om account ofthe presence of perhaps smal ‘tsouat of other material which becomes cooentated withthe valuable mineral. Sach ie rometimes the care Tih ane Blende associated with barytes or Gaceapat, Shick are dificult remove by wet dressing, and may ‘become concetiated inthe desse product to an extent ‘hich results in so heavy @penalistion a to ender the ‘whole propesition enremuneative one.ELEMENTS OF MINERALOGY INTRODUCTORY ‘THE NATURE OF MINERALS ‘The Mineral Kingdom—Natore bas been divided intothee great department, called the animal, vegetable abd mineral Hogdoms. Tt is tothe last excosively that the sience of Mineralogy relates. "Whether or not any small an extent so not to alloc the ‘ye, appats black; but sf i rect all the vibrations ofthe diferent colour which compore white light the ody will appear white” Again, fit reoct the’ rot bration ef rdiary light and catinguih all the other ‘bration, ie will appea eed; and so on for the other Clears,‘The colours of minerals vary very gresty, even in the same apecienapecinena being found baving ery dlleeat slurs Quarts is commony colourless or wit, but it {slo found of pinkish yellow, green, brows, and Amathytine colour, and somatimes quite black Corum dum i also found of many colours, varying fom pale Towa to deep red and dark hse: the to later varieties being haowa by the names of ruby and sapphice. The same cystal, ven, may exibit diferent colours, asin Some specimens of tourmaline. "The sch of a tinal is the colour ofits powder, and may be quite diferent fom that ofthe mineral in Imass. For iestanc, black micaceous hematite gives @ ted pores. ‘Some minerals, when tured about or looked at ia Aierentdizetons, display a changing eres of prismatic out, suchas af seen in the talabow, ot 08 looking hough a ace prism. Thie elle ply of lows, the colours being preduced by the spiting up ofa ray flight as it enters and emarges from a medium denset fan the at. ‘The splting of the ray is caused by the tunaqual Bending of the coloured constituents of white Tigh 10 whieh under these eizeumstanceait subject. The diamond and opal ford examples. Change of eur is a somewhat similar phenomenon extending over broader surfaces, the sucesion of colours taking place iy when the. specimen ie forned, at in bre done COpslacace in somewhat pearly or milky appearance. pal and moooetone are examples Tridacace is display of colours dus t the refraction and interference of ays of ight in minute sures which wall in thin lis of alr or liquid, These fissures are tes the result of incipient fracture. Irdescence may Sometimes besten in quartz, ele and len‘THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 35 Sil sth nearly metallic ste observed in extn Aitetions in bypersthene te, andi ue to theelletion ftom minute poallely arranged enclosed plates or eaves ‘Some minerals tarvsh onthe suface whea expose {0 the ain sometimes exhibiting iiescent colours This tarash’ may result either from oxidation, or fom the ‘hamical action of sulphur and other elements which are ieserally present inthe atmoephere inte quater. ‘Tamich may be distinguished trom the rue ealoet by chipping or seratching the mineral, when the supericial ‘ature of the tarnish wil be at once revealed. Copper Dries often tarnishes tan idescent mistire of colour, Ebi is then called peacock copper ore Erabescte larmshes readily on exposure tothe at, ‘The property poses by some crystals of displaying Aifeentcaloute wen viewed in diferent directions by transite light, and more partially by polarised ight, ie called larson (cee tox). Some crystals under these ‘dierent conden extibit two colours, oters three, the former being dicroie, the latter wichoie Cordirite {s an example of « plecebecie mineral. A fuller consideration of pleoceim is reserved for Chapter V. ‘Lustre —The laste of minerals difers both ia in sy and in kind. There ares Kinds of lstee si As a a a oan me a SECIS as Sie a Shae (AESTISY Sigs Onstengs penn it ta ep oe ott afer at be te of» pel, uly Hit, eesaftey of ok ae ea et SSE arty ef es rel manta od mere 1. Adkuantne ~The eo he dsc ‘The lustre of minerals may be of diferent degrees of intensity accaring tothe amount of light reflected fom their surfaces. Thus, when the aulace of minerals ‘ficiently beiliant to reflect cbjects distinctly, ooking ss would do, is sid tobe splenden.” When (he surface ie less briliant and objects ae teflected {indistinctly ts denribed a shining. When the surface stl es brillant and incapable of affording any image, itis termed glistening, and glimmering deseibes a stil tote feble lustre ‘Transparency-—A mineral is transparent whea the cutlnes of objects seen through it appear sharp snd Sisinee "Rock erytal (quart) sod selenite aro good fvamples. Minerale are sad to be eubtransparest or femitaneparent when the objects seen throogh them Appear indian. Translucency.—If i s imposibe to see trough ‘mineral whieh, nevertheless, is capable of transiting Tight, the mineral is teascent, This condition fe vey cmon among minerals. When no ight is ansmited, ‘mineral i oa, tit mast be noted that thi refers oly 10 the appearance ac ordinary seen. A. large ‘umber of appareotly opaque minerals become trans: Iscent wen eu into tery thin section, ad this property is lngely used forthe dentifction of minerals in rocks (Gee Chapter V.), Many minerals which ate opaque in the mas, are tinnlucent on the sharply broken ges spd in splinters, for example, the common back Mints from the Chale Refraction and Polarisation.—These properties to her "nih peeehiim wil be coasdered in Capter V.Phosphorescence and Fluorescence.—Phospor: cescence isthe property which some substances possess of ‘iting light under carts conditions as when heated or Fubbed. Pieces of quartz when rubbed together a a far room emit a phosphorescent ight. Some varieties ‘of fluo-spar, when powdered aud bated onan ron pat, Alsply a beight phosphorescence. Exposure to sualight for oven ordsary difased light wil bce phosphor: ‘scence fom many migra, which may be observed by ‘wanslering thom rapidly toa dark room, ‘Some minerals when exposed to cerlaia electrical radiations emi ight. This phenomenon is best exhibited Dy flue spa, whence the fete Muoresoeace Taste —Characters of mineral dependent ypon taste ‘are only perceptible when the minerals re soluble in ce Ee : Sligo Odour—Some minerals have charsteritic odours when struc, rubbed, breathed upon, of bead, Spe Oa aig peor asi oat capt ‘pag dae Aasicoss Our i ay when eed won,* ELEMENTS OF MINERALOGY Feel—Smact, greasy or unctuous, hase or meagre or rough, ae kinds of fel of minerals that ay aid in entseation Gases and Liquids —Onygen, nitrogen, and carbon Aioidoare examples ofatral gases: and wate, mereury, petrol, are examples of natu liquids Solids.—With the exception of mercury and the satural mineral oi ll the mineral with which we have to deal ae found in the solid state and the properties dependent on their state of aggregation are Dow com sidered Form.—Unier favourable circumstances minerals ‘assume certain definite geometial forms called erytals ‘herecogition of which isa valuable aid in the identifies tion of minerals. Crystals are considered in Chapter IT ‘The following general descriptive terms are associated sith the crystal character of the miner Syria Men eta se Serge at 4 oni are Se dee ‘The indeterminate forms, not necessarily dependent on crystal character, Which minerals assume, are desribed by various names, which are given in the fllowing ist ‘Mappa Rime hapeds ecepying the seam eves in a Sata agen ome* BLEMENTS OF MINERALOGY ‘and gradual substitution of particles of new and diferent Imieral mater for the egal particles, which are stceeivaly removed by water o¢ other solvents This ind of "Peetdomorphism difers from the. preceding ‘erly in the circumstance thatthe now tenant eaters before the old tenant has ently evacuated his quarters “4 pesudamorph by alteration is duo to gradual chemical change which crystals sometimes. undergo, {heie composition becoming so altered that they are no longer the same minerals, sltbough they stil retain the sliforne ‘Peoudomorphs may generally be recoguised by want of sharpoess in the angles ofthe crystals, while thet faces usually presot a dll and somewhat gran of earthy aspect. Dimorphism—When the same chemical compound is capable of exystalising in two diferent systems it Said to bo dimorpious—eg. carbonate of lime, which 26 Calesper is rhombohedral, while as aragonite i Is ortho fhombie in erysalisation. Sulphur is also dimorphous, Sines it crystals both inthe orthorhombic and meno, lini systems. ‘When a compound is capabo of erstlising in three diferent types of exysils, it is then said to be Ur rmorphow—rg, titanic oxide, Ciysalletion of ay Cenpoted iat till greater numberof aytens be spocen (of as polymorphism, Hardness.—Hardoess varies very great in minerals, and is one ofthe most important tests infact the fist— ‘bch shoud be made in determining s mineral.” Hard Bess should be tested by rabbing the specimen over a tolrably fine-cet fie, and noting the amount of powder and the dogre of noice produced by 0 ding ‘The lest the powder and the prester the oie, theharder will be the mineral. On the other hand soft ‘mineral wil yield much powder and. But litle poise, ‘The noise and amount of power should be compared with that produced. by: minerals which are used as Handard etamples for hardness tests. The scale in {general use, and known by the name of Mobs" scale is here appended, andthe stodent would do well to commit ie to memory. Tt is important to note, however, that these minerals donot advanee in any deiite or regular ratio of hardness, Tale. Common flited variety. 2 Rock salt Or gypeum 5 Calespar ‘Teastpaent variety. 4 Fluoespar 1 Crystalised variety Apatite =.) “Teaneparent erytaliced variety. & Peper (Grehacac) cleavable varity. 7. Quarts <1. Transparent varity. Topas Transparent rst 9. Sappice Cleavable variety, or corundm, 1, Diam ‘The tial may also be made by endeavouring toeratch the specimens enumerated ia the list with the mineral funder examination. I, for example, the mineral will erat felspar and will ot scratch quart wil have 8 Jardaes between 6 and 7, which would bo wiitten 623, 65, 675 accouding to" whether Tt approaches more ely fo felspar or quartz in hardness, Hardness may alco be tested by mnane of & pene, ox even the finger mall; the former sratching up t0 6, fod the later to 25." (Fioger-salls, however, vary is hardness) ‘Windows may be used in an emergency as a sbtitte for apatite, and fin for quarts. During there {als the colo and lose ofthe stele of scratch andthe colour of the powder should also be noticed. To ‘etermine the liter in dbl case i ie well 10 rb some ofthe powder on piece of white pape, or scratch the mineral poo. & piece of unglased.porelain ot roughened gate. Tenacity.—Minerals possess certain properties de pendent pon thir tenacity, of which the’ flowing are themest important: (e) Swili—A. mineral is sald to be sete when it may be cutwitha knife bat not malleable Example rapt, steal, ee. (0) Maleailiy.—Mineals are malleable when slices ct from them tay be flatened oxt under 8. ame. ‘Example: native gold slver copper platinum, et (@) Dac. -Alnerals are docile when they can be rawa Oat ito wites, and these properties belong only to metallic minerals and, of thos, only to mative metals Dotto minerls ae always malleable, (i) Flesiity is the property of ending. In some minerals it can be observed by experimenting upon their Plates or lamina only. A flexible mineral reais beat [ter the pressure is removed. Exanpe: tle, elenite, ‘Sater, et (e) Blowers only fom Besbity in the portion beat pinging back its former postion. Example: mica () Brant emracter common o many miner, snd ie shown by their crumbling ot Byiag 10 powder [tated of yiellog asic, Example: ieotpysleaatve seni, apatite, angie, uorspar ete FFracture.—I is very important to note the character of facture, as displayed on the broken or chipped Surfaces of mineral. Tt is also equally important that the student should distinguish between te smth, Hat surfaces, restiting from the cleavage of a mineral, andthe iregulir surfaces characterising tue facts, and hich ae totally independent of cleavage ‘The oberver may ere note the colon of the mineral, which should always be jaiged fom a recent fracture, {not foo a surface which has been long exposed to {he ation ofthe ait. By this, Bowever, it bot implied ‘at be sald brea or chip goad crystals at erptaline fon fsa far more valuable and constant charter by which to determine @taineral than its colour, an, ia ‘many eases, than is facture ‘Fracture ie aid tobe EES ee it or wey Hat damon Ye acacia Yun sine ee tee all ET at axed Cleavage —Cosay relate to crystalline frm ie the tendency to split along define plasesporsessed by many ‘ineral, which in etch cleavable mineral species bears constant relation t a certain fee or to etal Facey tthe for ia which the mineral etyatalses, Its i portant 10 distinguish between fracture and cleavage, at {Re former fs iegule and not comvecied with th ye talline for of the mineral, Mineral tay cleave ia one, tw, thee, or more direction, but one cleavage fenerallyto be obtained with greater ate than the others Inthe plane of clesage the molecles composing the ‘mineral ae closely packed tgeter, wilt aright angles to this plane tho cking is not to close. This last iret’ iy therefore, a diretion of least cobesion,and hence spliting of clenvage easly occurs along t Cleavage is often of great assistance in determining tinerals which closely resemble one another in erysta line frm andi other enteral characters. In geology, ‘erain rocks, such a6 sate whieh split across thee Planes of bedding are sad tobe cleaved, but his cleavage Bb the real of molecular change produced by pres, ad bas no connection withthe cenrage which exist im mierale. Rockall, galen, calespar, fucr-pat, selenite, mica, hornblende, felspar, ee, afford good examples of cleavage Gliding planes and secondary twinning ar elated to cleavage, and ate produced in'a mineral by presare— ‘4, dong the preparation of thin see of ealet, the Ffesore of guadiog the mineral always eatees’ the ‘inera to show an exellent cleavage sod somesecondary ‘inning. Surface Tension.—The ditference of various igids to diferent minerals Tis for numerous procanes of ore tepration and com centration, ‘The surface tension betmennvarout metallic ‘uphids and oli greater than that betweea the gengue tinerals quatz,eseite ete» and the same. medium. Tr the orginal Elmore Peet paste of sulphide and inagee ir mined with oil nd water and agitated’ the oi fei into a layer above the water and caries with it the sulphides, "Somewhat of the same principle under Tes the method of extracting diamonds from bloe ground, by causing them to adbere to grease po shaking tables ‘The vais Flotation Press dapend on sutfaceteasion. In thes, bubbles of ga o ai attach themselves fo vine= bende and fost thi mineral to the srt laving other sulphides and. gangue material st the bottom of the Tigi.