HOME
Resource Modelling and Mine Design at Obuasi Mine, Ghana
H Eybers1, J Visser2 and C K Boafo3
ABSTRACT
Obuasi Mine in Ghana, with more than 100 years of mining history,
developed from a surface operation into a deep >2000 m underground
gold mine. The challenge is to extract value from narrow veins left after
extensive mining in the wider ore zones of the mine. Since the merger of
AngloGold and Ashanti Goldfields in 2004 the mine strives to achieve
optimum extraction through an integrated Mineral Resource management
process from geological modelling, resource evaluation to mine design
and scheduling.
The shear hosted gold deposit displays complex secondary shears of
variable thickness and continuity. There is an ongoing process of changes
taking place in the way that geological modelling and resource estimation
is done. Recent developments include the use of computerised systems
that support the whole resource management chain from resource
modelling to reserve optimisation. The change in thought and technology
now allows for targeting narrow veins previously ignored in optimisation
and mine design since moving into mechanised mining. The increased
knowledge and confidence in the resource models now allows for
flexibility in mine design, selection of mining method and scheduling and
extraction of the reserves.
The focus area for change is the way the orebody is evaluated and
extraction designed. Since 2005 major changes were made to the
process. This paper considers the historical approach of resource
management. It looks at the individual process changes and qualifying the
way ahead.
OBUASI MINE
Obuasi Mine is located in south-western Ghana some 200 km
inland from the Gulf of Guinea (Figure 1). The mine has been in
operation since 1897 and currently produces around 296 000 gold
ounces per annum from underground operations. The average head
grade is 5.6 g/t. The declared underground mineral resource as at
December 2007 is 108 Mt at 8.9 g/t and 30.7 Moz. At the same
time the ore reserve is 38.3 Mt at 6.4 g/t and 7.8 Moz. Published
Mineral Resource and Ore Reserves are in accordance with the
minimum standards described in JORC (2004).
GEOLOGY
Regional geology
Obuasi Mine is situated along a north-easterly striking 300 km
wrench fault system known as the Ashanti volcanic belt
(Figure 1). This belt is the most prominent of the five Birimian
Supergroup gold belts found in Ghana and comprises
sedimentary and mafic volcanic rocks. The Birimian was
deformed, metamorphosed and intruded by syn and post-tectonic
granitoids. Folding trends are dominantly north-east. Major
faulting has taken place along the same trends.
The contrast in competency at the contact between the
metavolcanic rocks to the east and the more argillaceous rocks to
the west formed a plane of weakness. During crustal movement,
1. MAusIMM, Resource Manager, MRM Department, Obuasi Mine,
PO Box 10, Obuasi, Ghana.
Email: heybers@anglogoldashanti.com.gh
2. Head of Business Planning, Technical Services Africa Region,
AngloGold Ashanti Limited, PO Box 62117, Marshalltown 2107,
South Africa. Email: jvisser@anglogoldashanti.com
3. Chief Mining Engineer, Business Planning – MRM Department,
AngloGold Ashanti Limited, Obuasi Mine, PO Box 10, Obuasi,
Ghana. Email: cboafo@anglogoldashanti.com
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
this plane became a zone of shearing and thrusting. Gold
mineralisation occurs within these graphite-chlorite-sericite fault
zones. The shears are associated with silica, carbonate and
sulfide hydrothermal alteration and occur in tightly folded Lower
Birimian schists, phylittes and greywackes.
Local mine geology
Gold mineralisation within the Obuasi area has a proven
continuous lateral extent of about 8 km along strike and
continues to an explored depth of over 2000 m below surface.
The main shear dips steeply to the north-west at 70° and is
deformed resulting in an anastomising structural pattern.
Characteristic of this type of shear hosted deposit is the
development of strong pinch and swell structures. There are
variations in thickness, continuity, dip and strike of mineralised
shears. The result is a complex geological structure with
unpredictable geometry and grade distribution.
High-grade ore zones within the shears are surrounded by
barren or very low-grade shear or host rocks. There are two main
mineralisation types (Baidoe-Ansah, 1998). The main historical
source of high grade ore is from quartz veins associated with
coarse, visible free gold. The second type is disseminated
sulphides (arsonepyrite predominant) in metavolcanics and
metasediments. The ore zones are defined by the presence of
mineralised quartz or presence of sulfides.
The narrow secondary shears have become the focus of mining
and will form the core of any future deep level extraction.
RESOURCE MODELLING
Historical processes
For many years mineral resource models at Obuasi were based
on polygonal estimation methodology. The polygons were
constructed based on cross-cut mapping and sampling and fan
drilling between levels and cross-cuts. Cross-cuts are between
15 and 20 m apart.
A resource envelope was created from upper and lower levels
of the resource block and lateral extension was limited to the
extent of the sampling information. The polygonal created did
not cover the possible extend of the mineralisation. Average
thickness of the ore zone was implied, which is in contrast to the
known variability. Not all ore zones were considered in the
geological model for polygonal estimates. Some thin secondary
ore zones were excluded from the resource models.
Weighted average grades from cross-cut sampling and drill
holes were used in polygonal estimation. Low-grade intercepts
(below 3.43 g/t – which was based on 2 dwt/short ton) that are
geologically equivalent to the ore zone were not included for
grade interpolation.
The result was resource models with the recognised tendency
to be overestimated in terms of grade and volume and not
representing the geometry of the ore zone. This had a
downstream effect on tons and grade from mine design to
mining. It was felt then that on a mine wide scale the estimates
would be robust based on mass of data. This however did not
support the monthly grade control and reconciliation.
‘Operating experience’ allowed for suitable mining factors to
be applied for estimates of tonnage and grade. It was difficult to
accurately quantify mined material from the stopes and to
approximate the mined grade.
79
H EYBERS, J VISSER and C K BOAFO

OBUASI

FIG 1 - Birimian Supergroup hosted gold belts in Ghana.

The shortcoming of the resource definition impacted on the
ability to optimise the mining method, dilution, recovery, etc.
The Mineral Resource classification for polygonal estimates
was based on sampling spacing. For Measured Resource a
minimum sampling spacing of 30 m horizontally and vertically
was accepted. To be classified as an Indicated Resource, the
sampling spacing must have been between 30 and 60 m. A
sampling spacing of between 60 m and 120 m was considered as
Inferred.
Process turnaround
The importance of geology in the estimation of tonnage and
grade is highlighted in numerous publications over time (eg
Stone and Dunn, 1996; Dominy et al, 1999).
A comprehensive list of key aspects to consider when
computing a resource model was addressed by Dominy et al
(1999). They highlighted the importance of incorporating vein
geometry, effect of other geological features, grade distribution
and geological data. This all comes together in interpretation and
modelling of the geology. Together with the consideration of
resource estimation methods, mining and processing parameters
it forms the basis for a lower risk assessment of narrow veins.
At Obuasi Mine in 1995 a study was conducted to address the
understanding of geological controls on mineralisation. This was
followed up by a training and technology transfer program to
ensure that geologists effectively integrate the geological model
and methodologies in mining and exploration (Etheridge and
Henley, 1995).

80 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference

 RESOURCE MODELLING AND MINE DESIGN AT OBUASI MINE, GHANA
As recent as 2002, following a series of external audits and the
decline in gold production, there were moves to change the way
the resource was evaluated. The process change gained impetus
in 2004 when AngloGold and Ashanti Goldfields merged to
become AngloGold Ashanti.
Resource modelling changed from polygonal to block models.
The block models are now constraint based on the geological
model of the shears. The model is developed from extensive
definition and exploration drilling and development mapping and
sampling. Estimates are now based on geostatistics.
Drill holes
The drill holes are of the type core diamond drilling. Exploration
and infill drill hole spacing is typically 40 m along strike, 30 m
to 40 m vertically, and sampled at 1.5 m across strike. The
drilling process is being changed to allow for more definition
drilling from cross-cuts to define the geometry of the various ore
zones. The fan drilling pattern is aimed at closer intersections.
Drill hole spacings of 10 m along strike and dip are now the
target and the changed drilling program is being implemented.
Underground development sampling data
Development sampling consists of reef drive sampling and
cross-cut sampling. Reef drive sampling is not used in estimation
in situations where the full width of the ore zone is not exposed
in the reef drive. Cross-cuts are at intervals of approximately
15 - 20 m. Up to the end of 2007 cross-cut sampling produced
six lines of channel samples per cross-cut. Three horizontal
channel lines across the lode are sampled at 0.5 m interval on the
north and south walls respectively. The process has changed and
only one channel line is sampled on either side of the cross-cut.
The change is based on a variability study. The study showed that
the grade distribution for only one channel sampling is the same
as for all the cross-cut channel sampling. The variability does not
increase with a decrease in sampling. The added benefit of the
reduction in sampling is that extra effort can be made to take a
quality sample.
The sampling is now also extended throughout the entire
length of the cross-cut into the hanging and footwall where no
mineralisation is seen. This is done to identify areas of possible
mineralisation and to assist with geological interpretation. The
various lithological units within the cross-cut are identified and
as far as possible sampling is restricted to the various units
(ie quartz is not mixed with mineralised schist or vice-versa).
All development and drill samples are submitted to the local
mine assay laboratory fire assay analysis.
Database and systems applications
Historically all borehole logs were recorded on logsheets and
geological plans. Since 2002 an in-house borehole database was
used to capture borehole data. Only the sampled intersections
with associated depths, widths, location and assay results were
used for estimation and to identify the mineralised portions of
the shears. Geological data (rock types, mineralisation,
stratigraphic units, etc) were not captured and as such a resource
model lacked the proper geological controls.
In 2005 the database was expanded to include geological
characteristics for use in determining the nature of the orebody. A
project was initiated to capture all historical drill holes (as many as
6000) to be included in the database. This is an ongoing process.
Development sampling data is also included in the Geological
Database Management System. Together with the drill holes a
comprehensive data set is developing to assist in geological and
resource modelling. The more data that is added to the database
the more complex the orebody becomes and is crystallising as
multiple thin shears.
The commercially available range of modules in Datamine is
used in the development of a resource model.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
Geological model – wireframing
Due to the limited geological information in the database there are
currently no geological wireframes. The existing wireframing is
restricted to identifying the mineralised envelope pertaining to a
resource grade cut-off. The wireframing is typically constructed
using the development and drill hole sampling information.
Wireframes are colour coded to represent the individual ore zones
that are modelled. In some areas of the mine there are up to eight
individual zones, which is a huge step forward in understanding
and modelling the geology of Obuasi Mine.
There are isolated high-grade areas outside of the main ore
envelopes. These grades are associated with small ore zones
splaying from the major ore zones and are not easily identified in
the drill holes. These grades are normally located some distance
from main shears.
An indicator kriging run is done to find these high-grade areas
and the indicator kriging identifies areas of grade above 2.2 g/t.
The wireframe is adjusted to include these samples in
collaboration with the geological interpretation of the shear
boundaries. Any other mineralised indicators are considered as
secondary targets and constraint to their own unique zone to
prevent the overestimation of the surrounding areas.
Estimation
Geostatistics is used to estimate into the block models and
ordinary kriging was selected as the best method for estimation.
The colour coding of the wireframe is used to define each
individual ore zone as a kriging zone (KZONE). The drill hole
and development samples are zoned per KZONE and estimation
parameters are determined for each zone. As the model is
constrained based on a resource cut-off grade, the wireframes
distinguish between the high grade ore and surrounding barren
waste. These hard boundaries are used to constrain the estimation
inside the ore zone. A top cut is applied to the sampling data
when modelling the semi variogram. The top cut is determined
from the grade distribution and in general is not more than
0.5 per cent of the data.
The areas that were highlighted by indicator kriging are also
estimated to improve on the geological understanding and to
produce potential mining blocks.
Due to the scale and complexity of the orebody, the method of
estimation and estimation parameters are still areas for
improvement and work is ongoing to optimise the geostatistical
process and controls.
Classification of the Mineral Resource is a function of
increasing confidence in the estimate and is affected by parameters
such as continuity of the mineralisation and the density and quality
of the sampling. The Mineral Resource classification analysis is
done using the ‘15 per cent error with 90 per cent confidence’ rule.
This technique is based on estimating the average grade above
a specified cut-off with less than 15 per cent relative error at
90 per cent confidence. The criterion for a Measured Mineral
Resource is the ability to estimate one month’s production to this
level, while the criteria for an Indicated Mineral Resource would
be one year’s production.
An investigation during 2007 revealed that only a limited
number of blocks were deemed to be classified correctly. The
problem is associated to the fact that the orebody is not sampled
on a regular grid and therefore there are limited areas where the
theoretical spacing is achieved within each individual kriging
zone.
The recommended solution which has been used at Obuasi in
the past is to make use of a nearest neighbourhood estimate for
each block in the resource model. The borehole spacing method
uses a proximity search method to classify the resources into
indicated and inferred.
81
H EYBERS, J VISSER and C K BOAFO
Blocks which lay within a search of 35 m along strike and
35 m down dip of any samples within that same krig zone are felt
to represent a spacing of 60 m × 60 m. Any blocks that fell
within this range are classified as Indicated. Blocks within 20 m
range are classified as Measured. All other blocks that are not
classified as Measured or Indicated, but received a gold grade,
were classed as Inferred.
A minimum of four samples within the search ellipse are
required for the classification to be applied.
Additional resource model attributes
The resource model is also depleted where mining took place. In
recent years a cavity monitoring system (CMS) is used and the
wireframe obtained from this is used to classify the resource as
mined or unmined. Survey data for historically mined areas are
used in an attempt to develop wireframes to deplete the model.
Resource to reserve
With a global resource model in place for all the ore zones the
next step is to determine the economic resource available and to
convert it into a mineable reserve. The process of converting the
resource into a reserve follows a series of steps eliminating
sterile resource created by economic criteria, safety factors,
geotechnical constraints, mine design and extraction constraints.
The first step is to determine a resource cut-off. Pre 2004 the
resource cut-off of 3.43 g/t was used across the board with no
evidence of economic criterion applied. With the new
comprehensive resource model, a grade tonnage profile can be
calculated from which a cut-off grade can be determined. Based
on gold price, costs and profit margins, a required mining grade
can be obtained. The required mining grade is ‘dialled’ into the
grade-tonnage profile as an average grade above cut-off and the
resource cut-off and available volume can be established.
The Mineable Reserves Optimiser (MRO) is a Datamine based
application that analyses a resource model. Using a floating stope
method it delineates an optimal mineral resource based on user
supplied criteria. It creates and evaluates three-dimensional
envelopes of material taking into account factors such as the cut-off
grade, minimum size, shape and orientation of the mining units.
The resource cut-off obtained and the minimum mining unit
(MMU) are used as criteria for the optimisation. Currently the
minimum mining unit (MMU) used for mine design on Obuasi
mine is 20 m × 5 m × 15 m. The units represent the:
Global R esource Block Model
Mineralised wireframes from drilling
and cross-cut sampling
FIG 2 - Development of a planning resource model at Obuasi.
82 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
• 20 m strike intervals of the cross-cuts,
• 5 m minimum width required for current mining equipment
for the selected mining method, and
• 15 m level intervals.
The result of the resource optimisation is a resource model
containing areas flagged as either an economic resource or
inventory.
The second step in converting the resource to reserve is to
eliminate areas that will be abandoned. These areas can be pillars
based on rock engineering recommendations, areas not
accessible due to age of infrastructure and the galamsey activity
(illegal small-scale mining). A resource model further classified
in terms of available economic resource is now available.
Step three is the last step in creating a resource model that can
be used for mine design and further optimisation for the reserve
component. During this step all shaft pillars and crown pillars are
identified in the model. These are areas of the resource that can
not be mined for geotechnical reasons but at a later stage can be
extracted. The integrated model obtained from this process is the
planning resource model (Figure 2). The model comprises only
the economic resource that can be designed and scheduled which
also considers other mining issues.
Previously CAD planning capabilities were not in place to
generate a reserve component. The Mine 2-4D package is now
employed to do mine design and to generate reserves from the
resource model. The whole Mineral Resource Management
process is now integrated from geological modelling, resource
evaluation, rock engineering to mine planning. There is still
room for improvement in all areas and work is ongoing. The
system allows for auditable resource and reserve figures backed
by reproducible processes.
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
With the extensive mining over the years the primary thick, high-
grade ore zones are diminishing and there is a need for change in
methodologies to mining the thinner secondary ore zones.
The value-add of an integrated resource model is the ability to
interrogate the resource by doing scenario planning. For the first
time on Obuasi Mine, an attempt can be made to quantify the
narrow ore zones and to do sensitivity and selectivity analysis.
Available Planning Resource
Model
Narrow Vein Mining Conference
 RESOURCE MODELLING AND MINE DESIGN AT OBUASI MINE, GHANA

Methodology 15 500 000

MMU Selectivity - Block 1
5.0

An initial study was conducted to determine the grade sensitivity 15 000 000
through optimisation with different stope dimensions. As 4.8
14 500 000
indicated previously, the MMU used for mine design on Obuasi
Mine is 20 m × 5 m × 15 m, which represents the strike, width 14 000 000 4.6
and depth dimensions. The focus of the study is to only change

Tonnes
13 500 000

g/t
the width of the MMU in the narrow ore zones. For the study two 4.4
13 000 000
areas of the mine were considered where thin ore zones appear.
Mining Block 8 is an area with six individual ore zones and 12 500 000 4.2
Block 1 is a less complicated area with three ore zones. The ore 12 000 000
zones have variable thicknesses (1 - 20 m) and display the typical 4.0
pinch and swell geometry and short range change in strike and 11 500 000

dip (Figure 3). 11 000 000 3.8

1 2 3 4 5
MMU width (m) Tonnes G/t
N

MMU Selectivity - Block 8 Lower

23 500 000 6.4

23 000 000
6.2
22 500 000
6.0
22 000 000

5.8

Tonnes
21 500 000

g/t
21 000 000 5.6
Ore lodes - Block 8 0 40
20 500 000
m 5.4
20 000 000
5.2
N 19 500 000

19 000 000 5.0

1 2 3 4 5
MMU width (m) Tonnes G/t

FIG 4 - Impact of change in mining width.

0 40
Ore lodes - Block 1
m
FIG 3 - Obuasi ore lode geometry.
Using the floating stope method, different stope widths were
optimised to determine the change in selectivity. Stope widths
of 5 m, 4 m, 3 m, 2 m and 1 m were optimised with a float
increment (subcell) of 1 m.
The output is a block model with cell sizes specified by the
float increment and it defines the volume and grade of the best
stope configuration. The wider stope width needs a thicker ore
zone to achieve the head grade and will mine more waste in thin
zones. The result is increased tons at lower grade. The narrower
stope width enables more thin ore to be mined while achieving
the head grade. This produces less waste which mean less tons
but at a higher grade.
A deficiency in the software is the ability for the floating stope
and block cells to follow the geometry of the reef. Currently it
only optimises in a fixed direction and dip and is not optimum
for the type of orebody being mined. As this is an initial study,
the results are only an indication of the change in grade that can
be achieved. Further investigation is underway to optimise the
stope width for any change in dip and strike.
Analysis
In Block 1 the average resource grade (excluding dilution)
achieved for a stope width of 5 m is 3 g/t for all the ore zones at a
head grade of 2.2 g/t. The grade improves five per cent to 4.1 g/t
when the stope width is reduced by 1 m to 4 m. If it was possible
to mine a 1 m wide stope the grade would improve by 26 per
cent. To mine an idealised 3 m wide stope would see a nine per
cent reduction in tons and an improvement in grade of 11 per
cent (Figure 4).
The analysis was performed on all three ore zones together. If
the study is expanded to analyse the effect on the individual ore
zones at different cut-offs, a further improvement in grade can be
expected at variable stope widths.
In Block 8 Lower there is no difference in a stope width of 4 or
5 m but narrower widths do have an improvement in grade and
lower tons. The reason that there is no change can be attributed
to the overall thicker ore zones present and the undulation of the
ore zones. A five per cent improvement in grade and six per cent
drop in tons is possible at a 3 m wide stope width (Figure 4).
The reason why the grade improvement in Block 1 is more
than double than in Block 8 can be attributed to the difference in
geology. The undulations in the ore zones and the variable
thickness over short distances in Block 8 would suggest that
a blanket 3 m wide stope will not be optimal. The importance
of geological control is highlighted in this analysis. This
understanding forms the basis of the continuous improvement of
the resource model in narrow vein areas on Obuasi Mine.
OBUASI UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS
History
Introduction
Ancient mining in Obuasi included techniques such as trenching,
scooping up and panning gold-bearing materials found in soils
and areas of heavily weathered gold-bearing rock. The
techniques of shallow mining started in pre-colonial days.
With the introduction of deep mining, mining operations were
historically concentrated in relatively narrow high-grade veins
using cut-and-fill as the predominant method. Until the mid-
1980s, approximately 70 per cent of underground mining was
undertaken using the cut-and-fill method and 30 per cent using
sublevel caving and other methods.

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 83

H EYBERS, J VISSER and C K BOAFO

The cut-off grade below which mining was not economically
feasible was 11 g/t during that period, largely because of
constraints in milling capacity. In 1990, Obuasi mine commenced
a study to evaluate its ore reserve at cut-off grades similar to mines
in other parts of the world.
The Obuasi mine determined that, at a cut-off grade of 3.4 g/t,
the underground ore reserve in the exposed workings and
explored areas would increase from seven million tonnes to
31 million tonnes, with average mining widths increasing from
some 6 m to over 10 m in the sulfide areas.
This determination enabled the Obuasi mine to consider the
introduction of mechanised mining methods, which enable larger
scale mining and increased productivity.
The range of mining methods employed up to year 2002
includes mechanised open stoping (60 per cent of total);
mechanised cut-and-fill (ten per cent of total); sublevel caving
retreat and reclamation (12 per cent of total); pillar extraction
(<1 per cent of total); ‘conventional’ captive cut-and-fill (<1 per
cent of total); vamping or the cleaning of lateral ore transfer
ways spillage (<1 per cent of total); and stope preparation (16 per
cent of total) (Figure 5).
Current mining methods
The range of mining methods currently employed in Obuasi
includes mechanised open stoping (75 per cent) and sublevel
caving (25 per cent). The mechanised open stoping methods are
transverse, longitudinal and narrow vein longitudinal retreat.
Table 1 shows the mining method and orebody width.
Sublevel caving
A methodology carried out only in Block 5 and 6 and Block 2. It
is based on the principle that the ore is fragmented by blasting,
whilst the overlying host rock fractures and caves. It is a ‘top
down’ method, with the ore being extracted level by level
downwards through the orebody. Mining is longitudinal, with the
number of reef drives dictated by the width of the orebody. The
distance between reef drives is 9 m skin-to-skin.
Cross-cuts are developed at 30 m intervals. Depending on the
width of the orebody, more than one reef drive may be developed
parallel to the strike of the orebody, with a minimum of about
100%
TABLE 1
Mining method and orebody width.
Mining Open stope Open stope Narrow vein Sub level
method transverse longitudinal longitudinal caving
retreat
Average +10 m 5 - 10 m 2-6m +6 m
width
6 m pillar between them. A slot raise is mined at the block-end of
the stope in a cross-cut close to the hanging wall. Slot extension
holes are drilled in the cross-cut across the width of the orebody.
The sublevel vertical spacing is 15 m and cross-cuts are
developed at 30 m intervals. A slot raise is mined at the
block-end of the stope in a cross-cut close to the hanging wall.
Slot extension holes are drilled in the cross-cut across the width
of the orebody.
Sublevel open stoping – transverse
The mining method used predominantly in Block 1 and Block
8L, but also in other areas, where the width of the orebody is in
excess of 10 m.
The design is based upon the extraction of a single lift, with a
primary and secondary stope configuration. Access is via
cross-cuts from the permanent footwall drive, usually placed in
the footwall. Following the backfilling of a stope void, the filling
horizon becomes the next extraction level.
The stope dimensions are typically 15 m on strike for both the
primary and secondary, and are extracted vertically to the full
height of the sublevel. From the cross-cuts, a slot drive 15 m long
is developed parallel to and close to the hanging wall. A slot
raise is mined up to the drilling level at the stope block-end. The
crown and hanging wall are supported with cement grouted cable
bolts from the drives.
Slot extension holes are drilled from the slot drive on the
hanging wall and fan holes drilled down to the mucking level
from the cross-cut at a burden of about 2 m. During blasting the
slot extension on the hanging wall is blasted to create the initial
free face. The rest of the holes are blasted into the slot. Drilling
is downwards using electro-hydraulic drill rig with a 76 mm
diameter hole size.

90%

80%

70%
% Production Tonnes

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2,008

2,009

2,010

LOM
2,007

Years

Open Stoping Sublevel Prep Vamping Square sets Stope Prep. Pillar Ext. Reclamation
Conv. C & F Mech. C & F Sub-Level

FIG 5 - Underground mining methods.

84 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference


Key points
• The cross-cut is 6 m wide within the reef for providing
improved cable bolting coverage and blasthole drilling.
• No support tees are required. Only one tee is mined at the
end the cross-cut for drilling and blasting the slot. ‘Tee’ is a
reef drive along strike in a transverse open stope.
• A reinforced pillar is created below the level. It is supported
with backfill and provides stability to the access cross-cut for
mining the up dip stope.
• The secondary stope pillar is presupported from the Primary
cross-cut.
• The cable bolt layout for support of the crown will be done
for individual stopes depending on ground conditions.
• The toe of the last blasthole is 4 m below the level.
• The part of ore in the pillar, below the level, is lost.
Sublevel open stoping – longitudinal
This method is predominantly used in the South of the mine, in
Block 8 Upper and Sansu; it is selected for areas where the
transverse stoping method is not required, ie in areas where the
orebody width is less than 10 m.
From a drive, usually placed in the footwall, cross-cuts at 30 m
intervals are developed to access the ore and define both the F/W
and H/W contacts. The stopes are panelled out 30 m long on
strike. A reef drive is developed and slot raises placed at the two
extremities of the panel.
Slot extension holes are drilled parallel to the slot raise.
Production holes (76 mm) are drilled in the form of a fan.
The two extremity slot extension holes are blasted to create
free faces, large enough for the fan holes to be blasted into.
Blasting of the fan holes progresses inwards closing in at the
central cross-cut.
Key points
• The drive is 4 m wide and is located near the middle of the
reef for providing improved cable bolting coverage and
blasthole drilling. The drive may be moved for ground
stability considerations.
• No support tees are required.
100%
90%
80%
70%
% OF MINING METHOD
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2008
Sub-Level Caving
Narrow Vein Mining Conference
RESOURCE MODELLING AND MINE DESIGN AT OBUASI MINE, GHANA
• Reinforced pillars are created below the level. They are
further supported with backfill and provide stability to the
access cross-cut for mining the up dip stope.
• The cable bolt layout for support of the crown will be done
for individual stopes depending on ground conditions. The
cable bolts in the pillar will be extended to at least 2 m into
the walls.
• The toe of the last blasthole is 4 m below the level.
• The part of ore in the pillar, below the level, is lost.
Future mining methods
Open stoping is planned to be the predominant mining method
on the mine, while sublevel caving method will be reducing from
the current 25 per cent to less than ten per cent towards the end
of life (Figure 6). The introduction of open stoping longitudinal
retreat mining will be introduced during 2008.
Longitudinal and transverse stoping
The stopes are mined either as longitudinal or transverse based
on the width of the ore. Ore widths greater than 10 m are treated
as transverse and widths less than 10 m are treated as
longitudinal, due to geotechnical considerations.
The development regime and stope strike length for
longitudinal stopes has been reviewed and in certain areas the
15 - 20 m distance between cross-cuts for about 300 m strike
orebody has been replaced by a single access cross-cut for the
same strike length resulting in longer stopes on strike. This
change resulted in a significant saving in waste development
metres (Figure 7) and mining will now be conducted on a trial
basis.
Open stoping longitudinal retreat
The improved geological modelling techniques allow
identification of medium- to high-grade narrow veins for the
implementation of an appropriate narrow mining methodology.
The current resource breakdown by width suggests that
35 per cent of the resource at an average gold grade of 7.7 g/t lies
between 1.5 to 6 m (Figure 8). Currently, orebody with widths
less than 6 m is classified as narrow vein and therefore a revised
open stoping longitudinal retreat method will be implemented
(Figure 9).
2009 2010 LOM
YEARS
OS - Longitudinal OS-Long Retreat(Narrow Vein) OS - Transverse
FIG 6 - Mining method trend.
Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 85
H EYBERS, J VISSER and C K BOAFO

Previous

Proposed

FIG 7 - Development saving using revised longitudinal method.

Resource per ore lode width category

The biggest challenge in using narrow vein mining as
16% 10 explained by Steward (2005) will be:
14% 9.5 • with narrow-vein mines there is usually a lot of extra
9 material (dilution) handled;
12%
8.5
10% 8 • lack of precision mining, ie taking too much waste out in an
Oz

effort to get the vein of gold;

g/t

8% 7.5
6% 7
• high dilution reduces the profitability of an operation as it
6.5
4% increases costs and results in poor use of resources; and
6
2% 5.5 • the narrower an orebody, the more exposed it is to the risks
0% 5 associated with achieving precision in mining and inaccurate
2.25

3.75

5.25

6.75

8 .25

17.5

22. 5

27.5

32.5
0.75

10.5

13.5

Width (m) - Class Midpoint
FIG 8 - Resource percentages by lode thickness.
The current Obuasi reserves include traditional narrow veins
above 50 level and the deeps project below 50 level (unproven).
Mining the narrow veins with longitudinal retreat caters for both
crown and back stability due to known traditional ground and
stress effects. Geotechnical criteria and ground control
parameters are taking into consideration in the mine design.
The current issues which have brought about this type of
mining method in some mining blocks are:
• high waste development (waste/ore ratio >50 per cent),
• low productivity (<7000 t/month) per stope or mining block,
• high unplanned dilution (up to 30 per cent) due to hanging
wall failure,
• high cost $/t,
• narrow veins treated as thick reef (developed same way up to
10 m width), and
• timely information on reef width and variation.
The ore to waste ratio comparing the two methods indicates
a potential saving of 25 per cent at the 6 m cut-off point
(Figure 10) as a result of less waste metres that will be required
to extract the shear zone.
dilution prediction.
. Tonnes Grade
Key points
• The development rate is critical for high production,
development ends need to be at least six months ahead of the
current working stopes to ensure quality resource drilling and
then to establish a proper geological model. The geological
model is critical to proper design and control of the mining
plan.
• Stability of the reef drive is crucial for the success of the
method. Ground support precautions are required.
The fill management
• Waste rock: all waste must be dropped in stopes after initial
set-up development. A few cut-and-fill lifts can consume part
of the initial development waste. An internal pass may be
dedicated to this, if necessary. The ideal place will be to use
the waste for topping up the stopes already filled with
hydrafill. This will provide better roadway for equipment.
• Hydrafill: hydrafill will be poured from an extremity slot
raise and also through the ramp access via a vertical or
inclined hole. This will be reviewed on a stope by stope basis
and in certain cases the stope span will be reduced. Drainage
holes must therefore be provided.
• Bulkheads: hydrafill bulkheads have to be built before
mining past the rock pass accesses or as per geotechnical
recommendations.

86 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference

 RESOURCE MODELLING AND MINE DESIGN AT OBUASI MINE, GHANA

CROSS CUT TO REEF

AT 10M VERTICAL SPACING

SHAFT ACCESS

38L

BSVS
SHAFT

RAMP
SHAFT ACCESS
VENT RAISE
CROSS CUT TO REEF AT
VENT RAISE 10M VERTICAL SPACING

FIG 9 - Longitudinal retreat mining for narrow vein.

60%
Waste/Ore Ratio

50%
Longitudinal

40%
W aste/O re r atio

30% Thin reef

R e duc tion

Transverse
20%

10%

0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
<-------Longitudinal|| Transverse------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Reef width m

FIG 10 - Longitudinal retreat waste tonnes to ore tonnes generation.

• Connection to ventilation raises may not be flat cross-cut but

a raise at say 45°. This will avoid the need to build a fill wall
and resulting leakages from it.
• Waste in startup: quickly mine some cut-and-fill lifts and
backfill the initial waste in them. Otherwise existing passes
will have to be used to dispose of initial waste generated in
the area. First sublevel can then be higher than normal. This
will also increase the storage capacity of the passes.
Storage in rock passes
• If using tracked cars for gathering from all internal passes,
the combined storage should be large enough to fill the train.
• If using trackless for gathering from internal passes, the
required minimum capacity for the main pass should be at least
1.5 times the train capacities. It can be achieved by increasing:
• height,

Vent and rock pass management • diameter,

• number of passes, and
• Shallower vent passes for reducing speed and dust, and
• dropping ore to a lower tracked level.
• keep the rock pass at safe distance of 20 m from reef.
Thick portions of reef: it is desirable to mine reef wider than Ventilation
10 m with transverse stoping. A footwall subdrive will be required
Through ventilation is desirable but ramp access and reef drives
for that length. It will be desirable to locate the access ramp at the
development will need to be done under forced ventilation. It is
boundary of thin and thick reef. This will make footwall drive essential that their total length is within the 180 m maximum
easily accessible. Transverse stopes can be mined in double lifts, if legal distance. Upper portions of rock passes can be used for
required. providing through ventilation, where possible.

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 87

H EYBERS, J VISSER and C K BOAFO

TABLE 2
Narrow vein equipment selection.

Development Activity Dimension (m) Equipment type

Drilling Mucking/cleaning/haul
Ramp 4×4 Jackleg ST 3.5(2.8 t bucket)
Footwall drive 4×4 Jackleg ST 3.5(2.8 t bucket)
Lateral Cross-cut to reef 3×3 Jackleg ST 2D(1.8 t bucket)
Reef drive 3×3 Jackleg ST 2D(1.8 t bucket)
Access to orepass, vent raise 3 × 3 (sublevels) Jackleg ST 2D(1.8 t bucket)
Access to orepass, vent raise 4 × 4 (main levels) Jackleg ST 3.5(2.8 t bucket)
Orepass 1.8 × 1.8 Alimak/stoper ST 2D(1.8 t bucket)
Vertical Waste pass 1.8 × 1.8 Alimak/stoper ST 2D(1.8 t bucket)
Vent raise 2.4 × 2.4 Raisebore
Longhole drilling Activity
Support holes Wagon/skid mounted pneumatic, simba for longholes
Production holes Wagon/skid mounted pneumatic, simba for longholes

Definition drilling CONCLUSION

Advance definition drilling is essential for locating reef drives
within the good quality reef. This can be achieved by drilling
definition holes from the available cross-cuts a level below.
Existing cross-cuts to the ventilation raise, rock passes and ramps
may be used for this purpose.
Vent ducting
Small size loaders must be used for reef drive development
leaving sufficient space for ventilation ducting. The loaders will
only operate in one direction; therefore the ventilation ducting
must be placed on the side opposite to the driver canopy.
Charge density
The charge density in the boundary blastholes must be reduced
by using:
• low density explosive,
• spaced cartridge explosive,
• small diameter holes, and
• small diameter cartridge explosive.
Blasting sequence
The boundary holes must be timed in such a way that the effective
burden is reduced for these holes. This can be achieved by timing
them last. This measure will help reduce wall damage and
dilution.
Equipment selection
Today, a selection of standard ‘slim size’ machines is available,
allowing mechanised mining in 2 m wide drifts. The range of
slim-size machines includes the face drill rig for narrow drifting,
matched with same size longhole rig. The small drifter jumbo and
longhole rig, complemented with the 2 m3 bucket LHD loader is
all that is needed for mechanised mining of the 2.0 m wide vein.
The equipment selection for open stoping longitudinal retreat
that will be considered is shown in Table 2. More work is
required to ensure that the appropriate equipment is selected to
ensure high productivity with the lowest amount of dilution.
A vast narrow vein reserve can be mined using modern
techniques, and the right mining equipment will undoubtedly add
value to the Obuasi asset; the major challenge will be the change
in mindset, the establishment of advance grade control, up to
date geological model and the implementation of a sound mining
plan that will allow the mining of these narrow veins safely and
profitably.
Continuous improvement in geological understanding,
research into and refinement of modelling and estimation
processes will minimise the business risk.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to AngloGold
Ashanti management in particular Obuasi mine for their
assistance and permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Atlas Copco, 2008. Application underground mining (accessed: 1 June
2008).
Baidoe-Ansah, W, 1998. An application of the Conolly (Contour) diagram
to the GCS quartz vein; Obuasi Mine, MSc thesis (unpublished),
University of London.
Dominy, S C, Annels, A E, Wheeler, P, Simon, G and Barr, S P, 1999.
Geology in the resource and reserve estimation of narrow vein
deposits, Exploration and Mining Geology, 6(4):317-333.
Etheridge Henly Williams, 1995. Structural controls on gold
mineralisation in Ashanti Gold Mine, Etheridge and Henley
Geoscience Consultants, in-house report (unpublished), Ashanti Gold
Mine Corporation Ltd.
JORC, 2004. Australasian code for reporting of Mineral Resources and
Ore Reserves (The JORC Code), The Joint Ore Reserves Committee
of The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Australian
Institute of Geoscientists and Minerals Council of Australia.
Stewart, P C, 2005. Minimising dilution in narrow vein mines, PhD
thesis, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, The University
of Queensland.
Stone, J G and Dunn, P G, 1996. Ore Reserve Estimates in the Real
World, second edition, special publication 3, p 160 (Society of
Economic Geologists: Littleton).

88 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference