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Gold Particle Characteristics in Narrow Vein Deposits –
Implications for Evaluation and Metallurgy
S C Dominy1,2, Y Xie3 and I M Platten4
ABSTRACT
Narrow vein gold mineralisation generally contains both fine (<100 μm)
and coarse (>100 μm) gold particles. The in situ size and shape,
deportment, distribution and abundance of the particles controls deposit
sampling characteristics, grade distribution and metallurgical properties.
Particles can range from individual disseminated grains, clusters of
particles and masses above 1 cm in size. At each end of the coarse-gold
to fine-gold spectrum, the samplability of a deposit ranges from
relatively simple for fine-grained disseminated gold particles, through to
extremely difficult for very coarse particles. Deposits generally show a
background grade of mineralisation dominated by disseminated fine
gold particles. Drilling will resolve the background grade well, though
is likely to considerably understate the grade related to the coarser gold
particles. Gold mineralogy has a significant impact on metallurgy, with
key factors affecting recovery being particle size, deportment, liberation
parameters and silver content of gold minerals. For coarse gold particles
the focus should be on liberation and the early removal of the particles
from the mill circuit by gravity concentrators and gold traps. Finer
particles will require more grinding to liberate prior to flotation or
cyanide extraction. The determination of gold particle sizing is thus
required to minimise evaluation and geometallurgical uncertainty and
lower project risk.
INTRODUCTION
Narrow vein gold deposits can be defined as having a true width
of less than about four metres. They represent a globally
significant source of gold, which is often exploited by
junior/small-medium sized companies. Their evaluation poses
particular problems because of inherent geometrical, geological
and grade complexities. The veins display strong grade
anisotropy with multiple grade populations generally observed.
Economic grades are associated with discrete ore shoots, which
show a high-nugget effect and are either structurally and/or
lithologically controlled.
The nugget effect has two principal components: the
geological or in situ nugget component and the sampling nugget
component. The geological nugget component is related to the
natural distribution of the gold within the mineralisation and
short-scale variability (Platten and Dominy, 2003; Dominy,
Platten and Raine, 2003). The sampling nugget component is
related to errors induced by inadequate sample size, preparation
methods and analytical procedures (Dominy, 2004; 2007).
Small-scale geological variability, and gold particle size and
distribution affect both the geological and sampling nugget effect
1. FAusIMM(CP), Executive Consultant and General Manager (UK),
Snowden Mining Industry Consultants Limited, Abbey House,
Wellington Way, Brooklands Business Park, Weybridge Surrey KT13
0TT, England. Email: sdominy@snowdengroup.com
2. Adjunct Principal Research Fellow, School of Science and
Engineering, University of Ballarat, University Drive, Mount Helen
Vic 3353.
3. Professor of Applied Mineralogy, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology
Beijing, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District Beijing 100083, China.
4. Principal Geologist, Snowden Mining Industry Consultants Limited,
Abbey House, Wellington Way, Brooklands Business Park,
Weybridge Surrey KT13 0TT, England.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
(Dominy, Platten and Raine, 2003; Platten and Dominy, 2003;
Dominy and Platten, 2008). Further discussions on the nugget
effect, its cause, effect and problems can be found in Platten and
Dominy (2003), Dominy et al (2001; 2003) and Dominy (2004).
The particle size characteristics of gold are relevant to both
resource estimation and extraction. This information is required
at an early evaluation stage when understanding of the deposit is
changing most rapidly. Exchange of information and integration
of testing procedures ensures most effective use of funds
(Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008).
Sampling is challenging in gold deposits, particularly in
narrow vein deposits that contain coarse gold particles
(Sketchley, 1998; Dominy et al, 2000; Roberts, Dominy and
Nugus, 2003; Dominy and Petersen, 2005; Johansen and
Dominy, 2005; Cintra et al, 2007; Gonzales and Cossio, 2007;
Dominy, Platten and Xie, 2008). The use of diamond drilling and
fire assays (ie small sample supports) in this environment often
results in an understatement of grade. In addition, the undercall
is augmented by wide-spaced drilling that gives rise to an
information effect. The information effect refers to the fact that,
even during production, the real mining block grades are not
known due to a lack of information (eg samples). In some cases,
other parameters such as quartz texture, mineralogy, structural
features and geochemistry can be used to provide an indication
of gold grade potential – the so-called gold proxies (Dominy and
Johansen, 2004).
Larger diameter drill holes improve the likelihood of obtaining
a representative sample mass in theory, but rarely in practice
unless scaled-up to tens of tonne bulk samples (Dominy, Platten
and Xie, 2008). A move from NQ to HQ diameter core may have
little effect, unless the entire sample is taken for assay. This will
be problematic from the perspective of verification sampling at a
later date. The proportion of coarse gold has a direct impact on
the effectiveness of sampling, where more coarse gold will
require bigger samples and more specialised protocols.
Short-term variation is characteristic of narrow vein settings
and coupled with relatively small tonnages, is likely to result in
significant changes to the character of mill feed and reliability of
estimation procedures. Monitoring of gold grain size parameters
during exploitation is useful to both disciplines.
The size, shape/deportment, abundance and distribution of
gold particles have a fundamental control on deposit evaluation
from the perspective of both drilling and sampling. In addition,
these characteristics will also exert a strong control on the
metallurgical extractability of gold. This contribution discusses
the issues of gold particle sizing and distribution based on the
authors experience within narrow vein systems.
MATERIAL CHARACTERISATION
The need for characterisation
A key precursor to deposit evaluation is the characterisation of
the mineralisation to determine in situ gold particle sizing and
deportment (Dominy, 2007; Dominy, Platten and Xie, 2008;
Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008). It is important to ensure that
sampling protocols fit the mineralisation type and are not just
stated to be so-called ‘industry best practice’.
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Holistic testing
The measurement of gold particle sizes and their distribution can
be gained through observation of drill core, rock samples, etc.
Extensive mineralogical studies as part of wider paragenetic and
geometallurgical investigations are required (Chryssoulis and
McMullen, 2005; Angove, 2005).
A holistic evaluation should include (Dominy, 2007; Dominy,
Xie and Platten, 2008): inspection of drill core, exposure, etc;
mineralogical study; metallurgical testing; progressive
crush/grind, screening and assaying; duplicate/repeat sample
determination, fire assaying to extinction and comparative assay
tests; and heterogeneity testing (eg Gy 50 Piece test). FIG 1 - Range of gold particle sizes from the Ballarat East Project,
Each technique above provides information about aspects of Australia (photo: Ballarat Goldfields Limited).
the gold particle size and distribution that is relevant to the
design of a routine sampling program for the deposit. No
individual technique provides sufficient information on its own
and some data may only be interpreted using observations
from other sources. Integration of observations from several
techniques will give the most robust assessment for the design
of the sampling program. Holistic programs are part of wider
geometallurgical studies, and will support resource evaluation
through increased geological knowledge and sampling
optimisation (Dominy, Platten and Xie, 2008; Dominy, Xie and
Platten, 2008).

GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS

Size of gold particles

General sizing
Many styles of gold mineralisation are dominated by the
presence of coarse (>100 μm) and often very coarse (>2000 μm)
gold particles. In some cases 40 per cent or more of the gold is
greater than 100 μm in size. Other systems are dominated by
very-fine (<10 μm) disseminated gold particles (eg Carlin style
mineralisation). The size of particles affects the sampling and
metallurgical characteristics of the deposit, and can range from
individual disseminated grains from 100 μm to 2000 μm in size
through to ‘nuggets’ greater than 2000 μm in size (Figures 1
and 2). Masses of gold, thin continuous sheets, dendritic growths
and/or wires can be also be seen (Dunn, 1929). One of the largest
single masses of gold was discovered at the Hill End goldfield
(Australia) weighing 286 kg, other large masses were recorded
from the Australian Bendigo and Ballarat goldfields (Dunn, 1929).
Coarse gold particles >300 μm are generally visible in hand
specimen, core, etc. The proportions of different particle size
populations vary considerably between deposits and internally
within them, showing dominantly fine gold, dominantly coarse
gold or mixed coarse/fine gold populations (Table 1). For
example, in the Orion gold mine (Canada) two styles of
FIG 2 - Coarse gold particles from the Bendigo Project, Australia.
Particles from the St Anthony’s Reef after treatment in the New
Moon plant. The relatively unmodified particles on the left were
collected in the boiler box (prior to grinding), whereas the hammer
mill modified the rounder grains on the right (photo: Bendigo
Mining Limited).
mineralisation exist in close association: quartz veins and
breccias dominated by clusters of visible gold and pyritised
basalt dominated by fine gold.
Gold particle size reflects a variety of geological factors:
original mode of deposition of host and gold, original void space
between host crystals, exsolution or recrystallisation of gold and
host, later deformation of host minerals and redistribution of
gold. Discrete size populations may exist in complex structures
with multiple veins and/or lengthy history of deformation and
recrystallisation (eg fine gold within intact parts of sulfide grains
and coarse gold within fractures in sulfide grains).
Studies have shown that gold can occur as large dispersed
masses throughout the host mineral(s). Visually, gold particles
may appear to be single (though potentially clustered), but in fact
are connected through the host mineral. This is typical of some

TABLE 1
General characteristics of gold particle size end members.

Gold particle Size range Size range Size range Visible gold GRG Sampling K Grade range Example
scenario 100 μm 1000 μm recorded (%) constant (g/t Au) projects
(g/cm1.5)
Fine-gold <5% 0% Up to 100 μm. No <10% Up to 1000, Up to 10 g/t Au, Carlin,
dominated Mostly <50 μm generally <500 commonly USA
2 - 5 g/t Au
Mixed 20 - 70% <5 - 30% Up to 5000 μm. Possibly, rare >20 - 70% >1000 to 15 000 Up to 30 g/t Au, Vivian,
fine-gold Mostly <1000 μm to common commonly Australia
coarse-gold 5 - 15 g/t Au
Coarse gold >70% >30% Up to 10 000 μm Yes, often >70% 2000 to 250 000 Up to 120 g/t Au, Bendigo,
dominated or larger masses abundant commonly Australia
5 - 15 g/t Au

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 GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS IN NARROW VEIN DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND METALLURGY
very high-grade deposits (eg Central Norseman and Gympie in
Australia, Sixteen-to-One in the US and Campbell-Red Lake in
Canada). In three-dimensions, individual grains may reach a few
millimetres in size, though the larger connected mass may be
tens of centimetres in size. This has clear implications for
sampling, as the gold particle size between the in situ mass, and
field sample and pulverised material can be very different.
In one case investigated by the authors, the in situ connected
mass was close to 10 cm3 in volume. In drill core it was restricted
to the core diameter (48 mm), whereas after pulverising (to
P80-75 μm) particles were between 120 μm and 1350 μm in size.
The latter emphasises the problems of pulverising in the presence
of coarse gold particles (Royle, 1989; Wooldridge, 1998;
Dominy et al, 2000).
Predominantly fine-gold deposits may contain sufficient
coarse gold to affect sampling. Springer (1983) reported on a
microscopic study of gold particles from 50 Canadian deposits.
It found that some 75 per cent of the gold particles observed
were between 0.1 μm and 100 μm in size; the most common size
being between 40 μm and 50 μm. Some 25 per cent of the total
population fell into the coarse gold type with sizes ranging
between 100 μm to 10 000 μm.
Coarse gold particle sizing
The expectation that a coarse gold problem can be always
recognised through the presence of visible gold (generally
particles >250 μm in size) is misguided. In many cases visible
gold particles can be elusive, particularly when only drill core is
available. Such particles can be either of the ‘fine’ coarse type
(eg 100 μm to 350 μm) which are intrinsically difficult to see or
as very coarse (eg >1000 μm), but rare particles that will have a
marked impact on sampling. These very coarse particles are
surprisingly not always recognised during logging and mapping.
Given that coarse gold-bearing systems are the most
challenging to sample effectively, there are two principal type
end-members.
The most difficult coarse gold systems to sample and evaluate
are those that contain highly dispersed coarse gold, and where
there is often large amounts of very coarse gold. Gold can be
present as either isolated particles and/or as clusters of particles.
Key examples are Bendigo and other Central Victorian deposits
and the Norseman systems. As little as 20 per cent of diamond
drill intersections in the deposits can contain economically
indicative gold grades (>1 g/t Au).
FIG 3 - Gold particle size curves for selected coarse gold deposits.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
The less challenging coarse gold systems are those such as
sections of the Red Lake mine (Canada) where the gold
distribution, whilst still often being dominated by coarse/visible
gold material, is more ‘evenly’ distributed through ore
shoots/zones. A notable feature is that a high number of drill
holes will intersect economic grades (>4 g/t Au). At Red Lake
some 85 per cent of all drill holes intersecting the High Grade
Zone contained visible gold, and 40 per cent of all assay grades
are generally above 30 g/t Au.
Gold particle sizing can change within a mineralised zone. For
example, in the Norseman mines there is a general 50 per cent
upgrade between the resource and produced grade (Olsen, 2004).
At the Norseman Bullen mine, the size of the gold ‘nuggets’ and
their relative rarity generally increase with depth. Hence the
resource grade became lower with depth as the ‘rare nugget
events’ were difficult to intersect with drill holes. However,
production grades were locally up to 800 per cent with respect to
the original resource grade.
The size of gold particles exerts a strong control on the
characteristics of a sample, and how effective sampling and
assaying will ultimately be. The proportion of coarse gold has a
direct impact on the effectiveness of sampling, where more
coarse gold will require bigger samples and more specialised
protocols. In general terms, where more than ten per cent of
contained gold is above 100 μm in size, particular care should be
taken during sample collection, preparation and assaying.
Gold particle size curves
Figure 3 shows gold particle size curves for eight deposits that
contain notable quantities of coarse gold. The Bendigo and
Ballarat deposits show the greatest proportion of coarse gold
above 100 μm (both >90 per cent), though Bendigo shows a
higher proportion of >1000 μm particles.
Table 1 shows the general characteristics of the gold particle
size end-member models and the fine/coarse gold mixture.
Gold particle shape
Gold grain shape affects the release and sampling of grains.
In situ particles can be simple, equant and rounded shapes, rods,
plates or complex forms with deep re-entrants in their outline
(Platten and Dominy, 2003: Figure 4). Gold grains filling narrow
fractures may form plates or thin sheets (<1 mm thick but
extending 10 mm to 100 mm in fracture plane).
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Gold particle distribution

Gross particle location

Gold particles can be located anywhere within a mineralised
narrow vein structure. However, in some deposits there are clear
local controls on gold within the vein itself. For example, at
Bendigo gold is often associated with pressure solution sutures
(eg stylolites) and/or within quartz-shale contacts (Dominy,
Platten and Raine, 2003). The latter is also observed in the Wattle
Gully deposit (Australia). Potter, Sheriff and Collins (2008) note
that at the Sand Queen mine (Western Australia), in 80 per cent
of cases gold particles occur along or close to the wall rock
contacts. In the sulfide-locked fine-gold environment, Platten and
Dominy (2007) reported the accumulation of gold-rich sulfides
in the footwall of the B Lode, Hadleigh Castle mine
(Queensland, Australia). Highly localised controls on gold
particle distribution are shown to exist.

Clustering effects
In the majority of cases, gold particle distribution within vein
structures can be considered in terms of clustering at different
scales (Dominy and Platten, 2007). Clustering can be recognised
on three levels: the micro-, meso- and macro-scale (Table 2).

TABLE 2
FIG 4 - Idealised sketches of typical gold particle shapes: Summary of types of clusters and relative scales.
(a) rounded anhedral; (b) rounded with some facets; (c) peg; Scale type Example Impact on sampling Scale
(d) plate; (e) rod; (f) equant, anhedral with concave facets; of clusters protocol design
(g) composite form with type f combined with rods and sheets to
Micro Clustering of grains Definite impact Less than
give deep re-entrants in outline; (h) irregular anhedral with
on the subhand 10 cm
concave facets; (i) thin sheet between anhedral columnar quartz specimen scale
grains; (j) plate spanning entire width of fracture, plate sides
defined by fracture walls; (k) bladed films formed on late lineated Meso Clustering of groups Potential impact 10s cm to
of ‘micro’ clusters few m
surfaces; and (l) very small equant grains define a thin sheet-like
volume between quartz grains. Individual particle sizes are Macro Large-scale clustering For drill grid design >10s to
generally between 100 μm and 2000 μm (from Platten and of clusters and/or and placement 100s m
meso-clusters on the
Dominy, 2003).
ore shoot scale

Macro-scale clusters effectively form ore shoots that are

Gold particle deportment structurally and/or geochemically controlled. Overall ore shoot
Deportment addresses the association of gold particles with other grades are higher than the surrounding vein, which may be
mineral phases. For example, gold particles may be enclosed barren. Ore shoots represent a primary macro-cluster, whereas
within or located around the edges of arsenopyrite or pyrite any contained smaller subshoots will represent secondary macro-
grains. From a sampling perspective deportment is not critical, clusters. In some cases small high-grade zones may comprise
unless gold is associated with telluride minerals or electrum and groups of clusters over a few metres – meso-clusters (Figure 5).
recovery through a bottle roll assay (eg accelerate cyanide
extraction using LeachWELL) is applied.
Where the sulfide containing fine gold is a relatively rare
component in a dominantly quartz vein, but contains significant
amounts of the gold (or millimetre-scale sulfide-rich vein in
non-auriferous host rock), subsamples must contain a
representative proportion of the sulfide grains. This can be
considered in two ways:
1. effectively there is a potential nugget effect in the sulfide
distribution in the sample, which carries with it an effect on
the gold grade in any subsample; and
2. sulfide grains represent clusters of fine gold particles and
produce heterogeneity at the scale of the primary sulfide
particles in the in situ rock and at the scale of fragments of
crushed sulfide in processed sample.
This suggests that the size of finest gold grains relative to the
primary grain size of host sulfides and size of fragments at
successive stages of crushing may be significant in some cases. FIG 5 - A hand specimen of ore from the Garrard Reef at Bendigo,
This overlaps with data needed to ensure effective metallurgical Australia showing a cluster of coarse gold particles on the
recovery of ultrafine gold. centimetres scale (photo: Bendigo Mining Limited).

94 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference

 GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS IN NARROW VEIN DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND METALLURGY
Studies by Koch and Link (1971) recognised clustering in ore
shoots at the Homestake gold mine (South Dakota, USA) and
were likely to be describing meso- to micro-scale clustering.
Homestake contains stratabound to stratiform gold mineralisation
hosted in iron-rich sediments within Archean metavolcanics. The
gold is locally hosted in disseminations and vein or stringer
systems. The shoots were approximately 75 m along their strike
and extended over 50 m down dip. Koch and Link provided no
physical description of the clusters; though concluded that to
enable the clusters to be properly resolved, more diamond
drilling was required. By implication, the clusters are likely to be
at the macro-scale.
The smallest-scale of clustering is on the 15 cm or less scale.
Individual gold particles cluster in groups, potentially leading to
locally extreme gold grades (Figures 5, 6 and 7). Clusters can be
described as being either 3D or 2D. The 3D clusters are those
that have a 3D form, often close to being spherical in nature
(Figure 6), whereas 2D clusters are linear in form with two long
dimensions (Figure 7). Micro-scale clustering has the greatest
effect on sampling. The occurrence of clusters (or larger
connected masses of gold) has clear implications, as the effective
gold particle size between the in situ mass, and field sample and
pulverised material can be very different.
FIG 6 - Gold cluster (8 mm maximum dimension) contains gold
particles from 30 μm to 1600 μm diameter hosted in quartz with
minor sphalerite. Careful observation shows that some of the
particles form small 3D networks of gold. Represents a small
high-grade cluster related to the background mineralisation from
the Chidlaw Lode, Gwynfynydd mine, Wales, United Kingdom
(width of view 2 cm).
FIG 7 - Core photograph from Bendigo, Australia. The intersection
reveals a linear cluster of very coarse gold particles associated
with stylolitic sutures in quartz (photo: Bendigo Mining Limited).
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
Observation indicates that an enhanced coarse gold problem
can be present in some deposits due to the presence of clusters at
the micro-scale. These give the effect of individual coarse gold
particles (Figures 6 and 7: Dominy and Platten, 2007; Pitard,
2007). Clusters may also occur in fine gold deposits where they
produce an apparent- or pseudo-coarse gold effect. This is
signalled by an unexpected high nugget effect from variography
and poor correlation between field sample duplicates. Clusters
can be accounted for through the definition of an agglomerated
particle size when optimising sampling protocols.
Key conclusions – clustering effects
Current research leads to a number of key conclusions in relation
to gold particle clustering.
Firstly, clustering is a remarkably common feature in many
narrow vein and other types of gold deposit. It is a feature that
often goes unnoticed, or at least not seen for its significance.
Secondly, the presence of extreme gold assays can often be
attributed to clusters of gold particles (Figures 5, 6 and 7). There
is much debate as to how these extreme grades should be treated
during estimation, ranging from top-cutting to indicator
methodologies (Bird, 1991; Healey, 1993; Dominy et al, 2003).
However, the key issue is that these assays usually represent a
real high-grade population (assuming good sampling and
assaying practices are employed) that may contain a substantial
proportion of the total gold inventory. It is therefore important to
understand the underlying short-scale geological and grade
continuity controls of these grades before manipulating them
during estimation (Dominy, Platten and Raine, 2003; Dominy
and Platten, 2008). In some cases, top-cutting may not be
appropriate and it would be better to model the zone around the
samples separately.
Finally, the sample characterisation stage should include an
assessment of clustering, in addition to the standard descriptions
of the gold particle size distribution to permit effective protocol
optimisation (Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008).
Background gold grade and relation to gold particle
size
In some gold deposits, there is evidence to show that the fine and
coarse gold particles may be part of separate paragenetic stages.
In general, the fine gold particles are likely to be relatively
disseminated through the orebody (or ore shoot) and responsible
for a ‘background’ grade of between 0.5 g/t Au and 4 g/t Au. The
coarse particles are more likely to be dispersed in nature and
probably clustered. In addition, the coarser particles are more
likely to be related to higher grade zones or shoots. General
observations by the authors of numerous mesothermal/lode-gold
vein deposits suggest that this background fine/gold versus
coarse gold relationship is common. It should be noted that the
background grade is not the same as the mineralisation indicator
grade, though in some cases they may have close values.
Pitard (2007) proposed a mathematical approach (the
Ingamells method) to the estimation of background gold content.
The authors apply a combination of statistical analysis of assays
(from heterogeneity studies and drill core, etc), supported by
mineralogical and metallurgical determination.
By defining the theoretical particle distribution and sizing for
one tonne of ore, it is possible to model the probabilities of
achieving certain numbers of particles in a given sample mass
using a Poisson distribution (Dominy, 1997).
For example, given that one tonne contains approximately
100 coarse gold particles (∼2500 μm particles) representing a
grade of 15 g/t Au, the mean number of gold particles in 1 m
of NQ core (~5 kg) sample is 0.5. This gives a 61 per cent
probability that it contains no gold particles, a 30 per cent
probability that the core will contain a single particle and a
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S C DOMINY, Y XIE and I M PLATTEN
seven per cent probability that it will contain two gold particles.
It is easy to see how a tonne of ore with an expected grade of
15 g/t Au can be severely understated. If clustering occurs, the
effect will be more pronounced. Using the above case where
100 gold particles cluster into just two-cluster groups, then the
probability that the whole core sample will contain zero particles
is 99 per cent, one particle one per cent and three particles
zero per cent.
If one tonne of ore contains 800 000 60-μm fine ‘background’
gold particles, they will contribute about 1.7 g/t Au to the total
grade. In this case the probability of missing gold particles in the
same sample is effectively zero. The core will have a Poisson
mean of 4000 contained gold particles. Thus for a total grade
16.7 g/t Au, drilling will generally resolve the background
fine-gold grade well, but poorly resolve the grade of the coarse
particles (assuming 100 2500-μm particles) which contribute
89 per cent of the total gold inventory.
Identification of the background grade and associated gold
particle sizing characteristics is important, since it may represent
the only part of the mineralisation that can be drilled and
sampled effectively. For example, if a deposit with a mean grade
of 10 g/t Au has a background grade of 2 g/t Au related to fine
gold and the rest of the inventory (8 g/t Au) is related to coarse
gold, then 70 per cent of the contained gold can potentially be
severely under-called by drilling. In addition, the break-even
cut-off grade of the deposit is important. In another example, the
background grade is 6 g/t Au, the cut-off grade 4 g/t Au and the
mean grade 12 g/t Au. In this case drilling is likely to evaluate
the background grade which is above the cut-off grade
effectively. The coarse gold population will yield up to an
additional 100 per cent of gold above the background. In this
example, the situation is manageable, whereas in the former
example the cut-off grade (assuming 4 g/t Au) was within the
high-grade fraction thus making evaluation more challenging.
Gold particle abundance
Together with particle size, the abundance of gold particles has a
direct control on local gold grade. A greater abundance of gold
particles will lead to a higher grade. For example, a single 0.5 cm
diameter gold particle in one tonne of rock will yield a grade of
1.2 g/t Au, whereas 100 particles either dispersed through the
rock or clustered will yield a grade of 120 g/t Au.
SAMPLING APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Sampling is a critical component to all stages of a mining project
as it forms the basis for mineral resource and ore reserve
estimates. It includes the sampling of in situ material and broken
rock. In all cases, the aim is to gain a representative sample to
accurately determine the grade of the material in question. Field
sample collection is followed by sample reduction in both mass
and fragment size to provide an assay charge for analysis.
Errors can be introduced during sample reduction and
homogenisation, especially in the presence of coarse gold
(Royle, 1989; Dominy et al, 2000; Dominy, 2004). Sample
reduction relates to the method by which samples are reduced in
mass for further preparation and analysis; with inadequate jaw
crushing prior to sample splitting being a common source of
error. Errors can be introduced at each stage in the sample
reduction and splitting process, not only because of the selection
of an inadequate sample volume, but also because of
contamination and a poorly homogenised sample pile, which
may result in non-representative subsamples. Further errors may
also be introduced by poor analytical procedures and data
transcription.
96 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
Application of Gy Sampling Theory
Introduction
A commonly applied tool to optimise sampling protocols during
evaluation is the Gy Sampling Equation for the Fundamental
Sampling Error (‘FSE’: Gy, 1982; Pitard, 1993; François-
Bongarçon, 1993; François-Bongarçon and Gy, 2001).
The Gy Equation is the only sampling theory commonly
applied in the mining context, and addresses key sampling
questions. These include:
• what weight of sample should be taken from a larger mass of
ore, so that the FSE will not exceed a specified variance;
• what is the possible FSE when a sample of a given weight is
obtained from a larger lot; and
• before a sample of given weight is drawn from a larger lot,
what is the degree of crushing or grinding required to lower
error to an acceptable level?
The sampling constant (K, as defined in the Gy Equation: Gy,
1982; Pitard, 1993) is dependent on the microscopic properties of
the minerals. Specifically, K is proportional to gold particle
shape and size, and inversely proportional to gold grade. As the
liberation (particle) size increases, the K value also increases. A
large K value is related to samples with larger gold particle sizes
and a lower grade. It has the dimensions of g/cmα for gold, where
α usually takes the value of 1.5 (François-Bongarçon and Gy,
2001). The value of K is an important and generalised measure
of ore characteristics, where values below 150 g/cm1.5 pose little
or no sampling challenge and above 5000 g/cm1.5 may lead to
extreme issues (Dominy and Petersen, 2005).
In situ sample size
The Gy Equation has traditionally been used to optimise
sampling protocols for broken rock (eg material fragmented by
blasting, crushing or grinding), but there is no reason why it
cannot be used to indicate the in situ sample mass. The
variability modelled is the ‘in situ nugget variance’ rather than
the FSE. In this special case, the liberation term of the formula
does not exist, and the gold particles take the value for the
particle fragment size of the lot mass. Thus for a given accepted
variability (eg ±15 per cent), the sample size can be determined.
For example, a mineralised vein of grade 5 g/t Au and gold
fragment size of 1000 μm requires an in situ sample mass of
about 600 kg to be taken. The same mineralisation dominated by
fine 50 μm gold particles requires a 5 kg sample.
Like any mathematical approach, this methodology must be
considered to be an estimate of the likely required sample mass
and should be tempered with realism and geological knowledge.
Gold particle size – the liberation diameter
Sampling liberation diameter – definition
A problem of applying the Gy Equation is the definition and
determination of the liberation diameter (François-Bongarçon
and Gy, 2001). In the strictest sense the liberation diameter (dL)
is defined as the particle size of a grind that liberates 95 per cent
of the mineral of interest (Gy, 1982). However, in the presence of
coarse gold this diameter, strictly applied, can be sub-100 μm
and lead to inadequate sample protocols.
Gold particle populations commonly include a wide range of
sizes, commonly several orders of magnitude and spanning the
coarse-fine boundary. Once fine gold represents a substantial
quantity of the total gold present, it is likely to define the dL.
Clearly this information is important for ore processing, but is of
Narrow Vein Mining Conference
 GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS IN NARROW VEIN DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND METALLURGY

limited use for calculating K as the particles most responsible for Bendigo example above, the background mineralisation requires
the nugget effect are ignored. For sampling procedures in gold an an in situ sample of about 20 kg, whereas the coarse gold
alternative definition of dL is required. (>500 μm) mineralisation requires an in situ sample of close to
For example, in a recent case the dL value was found to be 15 t. The run-of-mine ore indicates an in situ sample size of 10 t.
85 μm and yielded a K value of 300 g/cm1.5. However, the ore
contained abundant visible gold up to a maximum of 1000 μm in
Gold particle shape – the shape factor
size, yet a low K value indicated a relatively simple sampling The shape factor (‘f’) as defined by Gy (1982) is a dimensionless
protocol. In reality, the protocol used was inadequate for the factor that gives a measure of how different the shapes of the
coarse gold fraction. Based on a mineralogical/metallurgical gold particles are from an ideal cube. It is dependent upon the
study, K was recalculated for a dL value representing the mineralogical characteristics of the ore and to the degree of
95 per cent passing (dLmax) value for the gold particles. The dLmax grinding – hence gold liberation. As the f value reduces, so does
value of 750 μm yielded a K of 8000 g/cm1.5. Thus for gold the sampling constant K (assuming all other parameters remain
deposits, the dL value should be defined as dLmax to represent the the same).
coarse fraction. If gold particle clustering is observed, then the The value for a perfect cube is 1.0 and for needles 0.1. Most
combined clustered-particle liberation diameter (dLclus) needs to minerals have a shape factor of between 0.2 (eg flaky particles)
be defined (Dominy and Platten, 2007). and 0.5 (eg approximately spherical particles). The value 0.5 is
generally taken as the default value for in situ particles (eg
non-liberated gold particles in rock fragments, etc), whereas
Practical issues of the liberation diameter liberated/pulverised gold particles are likely to have a value
For the purpose of sampling protocols, it should be noted that the approaching 0.2.
dLmax value and sample fragment size reduce in parallel. Figure 2 shows coarse gold particles from Bendigo, liberated
Crushing rarely has a notable effect, except on ores with very from their host as a result of processing. Those liberated by
coarse gold particles (potentially >0.5 cm in size). However, crushing retain a shape indicative of their in situ form, whereas
pulverising to P90 -75 μm can have a marked effect on the gold those liberated by hammer milling have been transformed to a
particle sizing. For fine particle sized ores, pulverising will spherical shape.
liberate gold and lead to some gold particle size reduction. For
coarse gold dominated ores, pulverising will result in gold Gold particle abundance – gold grade
particle size reduction, but it is possible that >100 μm particles Sampling calculations should be undertaken at an appropriate
will still dominate the pulp. This results in high pulp- gold grade likely to be either the run-of-mine grade or breakeven
heterogeneity and provides the well-known challenges of cut-off grade. Optimisation around the cut-off is often considered
preparing and assaying coarse gold ores (Royle, 1989; Berkman, to be most appropriate to discriminate between ore and waste.
1998; Dominy et al, 2000; Dominy and Petersen, 2005). Table 3 summarises gold particle characteristics and key
descriptive terminology.
In situ issues of the liberation diameter
There is observation and modelling-based evidence to suggest TABLE 3
that the quantity of coarse gold and dLmax value increases with Key characteristics for the description of gold particles.
increasing gold grade (Dominy, 1997, 2004; François-Bongarçon
and Gy, 2001; authors’ unpublished data). For example, at Gold particle Descriptor Comments
characteristic
Bendigo a good correlation was noted between increasing bulk
sample grade and more visible gold particles/particle clusters Size Coarse versus fine Determined by observation and
seen in faces (Quigley, 2006). The real situation may be more particles; size in various methods. Is defined as
complex and involve a change in the ratio between coarse and microns dLmax.
fine gold particles and/or the role of clustering (Dominy and Shape Spherical to Determined by observation and
Platten, 2007; Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008). With increasing irregular or various methods. Is defined as f
grade dLmax increases as the background gold grade (dominance massive (shape factor).
of fine gold particles) is breached. In many cases, as the quantity Distribution Disseminated Can be determined by
of coarse gold increases so clustering becomes more prevalent versus clustered observation and various methods.
thus dLmax becomes dLclus. If clustered, defined as dLclus.
Should also consider gross
As noted previously, a common feature of many narrow gold location of particles such as
veins is the presence of low-grade background mineralisation. A related to stylolites, vein margins,
heterogeneity study at Bendigo (Johansen and Dominy, 2005) etc.
yielded a background grade of 1.3 g/t Au with a dL value of
Abundance Rare (very Can be relatively determined by
~50 μm, which underpined a mean grade of 10 g/t Au and a dLmax low-grade) to observation. Gold grade can be
or dLclus approaching 10 000 μm. This is backed up by both abundant defined from sampling, etc.
historical and modern drilling data that suggest that low-grade (high-grade)
reefs and low-grade sections of high-grade reefs yield a grade of
approximately 1.5 g/t Au (in the 0.5 g/t Au to 3 g/t Au range). A
theoretical model for Bendigo ore presented in Johansen and Concluding comments
Dominy (2005) suggests that there are about 70 >500 μm The Gy Equation thus accounts for gold particle size (dLmax or
particles that account for 70 per cent of the gold inventory in one dLclus), shape (f) and abundance (grade).
tonne of ore. These gold particles are the most difficult to sample The FSE is sensitive to the largest particles present in any
effectively. Poisson statistics show that there is a 70 per cent sample (represented by either dLmax or dLclus), whereas the finer
probability of not hitting any >500 μm particles, with a generally lower-grade background population particles often
probability of hitting one (25 per cent), two (four per cent) or result in a relatively small FSE. Attention must be paid to the
three (0.5 per cent) particles. basic field sampling step, as large errors can occur at this time (eg
In some cases it appears that the dL value approximates to the delimitation error, extraction error, etc). Errors are cumulative
background fine gold-grade. By default the lower grade fine-gold and will continue through the sampling process (Gy, 1982;
population will require smaller samples to be taken. In the Pitard, 1993; Dominy, 2004; 2007).

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 97

S C DOMINY, Y XIE and I M PLATTEN
The above observations confirm the challenge of applying the
Gy Equation to narrow vein gold systems, and reinforce the need
for full material characterisation.
Theoretical approaches rarely emphasise the need for
verification in the context of actual mineralogy and tests for
consistency of results in practice. When Gy Sampling Theory is
applied in the context of gold sampling, it should be tempered
with a good understanding of local geological and gold particle
size variability to maintain reality.
METALLURGICAL ISSUES
Overview
Gold ores are commonly classified as either free-milling or
refractory. Typically, free-milling ores are defined as those where
over 80 per cent of gold can be recovered by conventional
cyanide leaching. Refractory ores are those that give a low
recovery from conventional cyanide leaching.
Gold mineralogy has a significant impact on gold metallurgy.
Key mineralogical factors affecting gold recovery are particle
size, deportment, liberation parameters and silver content of
gold minerals. In addition, the proportion of very fine or
submicroscopic (<1 μm) gold is important. Submicroscopic gold
refers to gold contained in the structure of other minerals in a
minor or trace quantity.
Gold particle size issues during metallurgical processes relate
to liberated gold after grinding. In general terms, gold ores are
milled to P80 between 100 μm and 300 μm. As such the true
in situ particle size does not control metallurgical recovery per
se, though it has a marked influence given that coarser gold
particles will require more effective grinding to reduce particle
size. For coarse-gold particle dominated mineralisation, the focus
should be on liberation and the early removal of coarse particles
from the mill circuit by gravity concentration or ‘gold traps’
(McLean et al, 2007). Finer gold particles will require more
grinding to liberate prior to flotation or cyanide extraction.
Metallurgical tests, like assays, are undertaken on samples of
mineralised rock. These can be from in situ material, cores and
chippings. They can be single samples or composites of several
individual samples. Samples will be split into subsamples to
apply different tests. Samples and subsamples need to be
representative of the range of output from the mine and mill feed.
The factors and protocols required to produce good assays, are
also applicable to samples for metallurgical testing.
Gold particle size and cyanide-based extraction
Liberated gold particles are the key to effective extraction by
cyanide. The material to be leached is ground to a size that
optimises gold recovery and comminution costs, typically
between P80 -150 μm to P80 -45 μm (Marsden and House, 2006).
In a few cases, whole ore is being ground to P80 -20 μm to 25 μm
for optimal processing, either by oxidative pretreatment and/or
leaching. Agitation leaching is rarely applied to material at sizes
coarser than approximately 150 μm because it becomes more
difficult to keep coarse solids in suspension, and abrasion rates
increase.
In some refractory (fine gold) systems, ultra-fine milling has
been used to produce a P80 -7 μm to 10 μm product prior to
agitation leaching and/or oxidation pretreatment.
Some narrow vein systems have attributes that do not lend
themselves to high recovery through the direct cyanidation route
(Laplante and Gray, 2005). Coarse gold and gold associated with
complex sulfide minerals tend to complicate the cyanidation
process. The presence of coarse gold particles increases the
residence time required to achieve high recoveries by
cyanidation. Complex metallurgy can result in coatings on gold
particle surfaces that render them impervious to cyanide. Fine
98 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
gold locked into the sulfide crystal lattice (eg submicroscopic
gold) or attached to a sulfide particle will generally report to the
tails stream. The above issues will be exacerbated where the
grind product is coarse.
Gold particle size and flotation-based extraction
Like other methods, particle size is an important parameter in
flotation and size limits exist at which minerals will not float.
The high particle-density of gold and its malleable and ductile
properties that favour platy particles compound this effect.
During grinding gold particles can be impregnated with
non-floatable particles (eg quartz) that will inhibit flotation
(Dunne, 2005). In addition, some gold particles can be rendered
passive by steel grinding media.
Dunne (2005) notes that the maximum size limits for gold
particles to float are between 5 μm and 200 μm. Fine gold
particles down to 3 μm have been floated in laboratory
experiments (Allison and Dunne, 1985), whereas coarse particles
to 300 μm and 700 μm have been floated. Flotation of 590 μm
particles using industrial scale unit float cells has been achieved.
Gold particle size and gravity recovery
Gravity extraction of gold provides a convenient and
environmentally friendly process option in many cases. Deposits
dominated by coarse gold particles can yield gravity recoveries
of above 70 per cent. At Bendigo (Australia) for example,
recoveries of above 75 per cent were achieved from very coarse
gold (>60 per cent above 1000 μm in size) dominated ores
(McLean et al, 2007).
The key controlling parameters for gravity recovery are:
particle size, degree of liberation, mineral density differential,
particle shape, composition and hydrophobicity. The parameter
gravity recoverable gold (‘GRG’) is determined in the laboratory
to measure the potential for gravity recovery in an ore sample
(Laplante, 1996; Subasinghe, 2007).
Recent innovations in extreme gravity recovery have led to the
development of devices that routinely recover liberated fine-gold
(<100 μm) without the use of chemical methods (Van Kleek,
2000; Laplante and Gray, 2005). Centrifugal-type concentration
systems have been at the forefront of this development,
potentially recovering 80 per cent or more based on a
predominant gold distribution of 50 μm and above. Very fine
gold (<5 μm) is poorly recovered by both gravity, unless locked
in recovered sulfides. A modern approach to gravity recovery is
to concentrate gold as both liberated gold and gold-bearing
sulfides such as arsenopyrite. The gold in the mixed concentrate
can be extracted using an intensive leach reactor (Gray and
Hughes, 2007).
The efficiency of collection of gold by gravity concentrators is
controlled by the settling ratios of the mineral components of the
system in question and it has been shown that the shape of the
particles has a marked effect on settling velocities. Liberated
particles of gold become progressively flattened with grinding,
yielding flakes which can be difficult to recover by gravity
processes.
The key issues resulting from flaky particles are: floating due
to hydrophobic nature; particle orientation that leads to
hydrodynamic effects (‘particle surfing’) which can prevent
particle settling (Knipe and Chryssoulis, 2005); and particle
geometry that controls settling velocity. Laplante et al (1995)
undertook experimental tests and showed that spherical tungsten
particles of 25 μm could be recovered effectively, whereas larger
flaky gold particles were lost.
This effect will be enhanced considerably when the in situ
gold particles are very coarse. The thickness of a gold particle
has been shown to be the single most important factor in
determining behaviour in a gravity separation operation.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference
 GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS IN NARROW VEIN DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND METALLURGY

GOLD PARTICLE MODELS 2005, 2006; Dominy and Petersen, 2005; Dominy et al, 2006).
The operation is based on an Indicated Mineral Resource of
A major part of characterisation is to determine the in situ gold 535 000 t (18 g/t Au) and an Inferred Mineral Resource of
particle sizing relationships within an orebody. Studies have 1.5 Mt (17 g/t Au) for a total of 1.1 Moz gold (Crew, 2007).
shown that in many gold deposits, different grade-particle The principal orebody is the Main Vein structure, which varies
scenarios can exist in different or similar domains. For example, in width from 0.05 m to 1.6 m (mean 0.7 m) and contains
there may be substantial differences between oxides versus significant gold grades (up to 5000 g/t Au over 0.8 m). Gold
primary ores. Thus for each mine or vein system a theoretical particle size ranges from a few μm up to 8 mm, with coarse
gold particle model (‘GPM’) can be defined. A series of GPM visible gold being common in the very high-grade (>30 g/t Au)
case studies follow. sections of the vein.
Crushing and screening tests were undertaken on Nalunaq ore
Gwynfynydd gold mine, Wales, United Kingdom to investigate gold particle sizing, the results of which are shown
on Table 5 (Dominy and Petersen, 2005). The mean percentage
This example is taken from the former high-grade Gwynfynydd
of coarse gold (proportion of >105 μm) for the four samples was
gold mine in North Wales. Mineralisation is primarily associated
56 per cent. As expected, the proportion of coarse gold
with the footwall of a 3 m to 5 m wide mother vein. The quartz
(>105 μm) broadly increases with grade. Notably the very coarse
vein contains sphalerite, galena, pyrite and chalcopyrite, with
fraction (>825 μm) percentage does not change significantly with
minor carbonates. Gold is generally coarse-grained (up to 3 mm),
grade.
though highly variable, and locally associated with light brown
coloured sphalerite. Within the veins over 65 per cent of the gold
reported to the >300 μm fraction and >80 per cent to the TABLE 5
>150 μm fraction. Less than ten per cent generally reported to the Results of tests to determine the gold particle size distribution in
<50 μm fraction. samples from the Nalunaq gold mine. Figures should be
Gold was extracted by a small gravity plant, yielding a considered minimum values as some gold particle size reduction
will have occurred during processing.
94 per cent to 98 per cent recovery (Dominy and Phelps, 2002).
During operation, a detailed study was undertaken to investigate Sample number #LR-5205 #NAL-RCO #LR-5525 #NG23A
the controls on gold mineralisation and the nature of the gold
Sample head grade 111 70 45 18
particle sizing and distribution (Dominy, Phelps and Camm,
(g/t Au)
1996; Platten and Dominy, 2003; Dominy and Platten, 2007).
Work included underground geological mapping, mineralogy/ Fraction size (μm) %Au %Au %Au %Au
microscopy, processing of numerous 50 kg to 100 kg and tens of >850 3 1 2 2
tonnes sample lots, and observation of extracted gold particles. >425 - 850 15 6 6 7
A number of different gold particle-grade scenarios were
>250 - 425 22 17 6 21
identified ranging from very high-grade coarse gold to low-grade
fine gold. Most importantly, particles were seen to cluster in all >105 - 250 17 24 14 13
ore types (Platten and Dominy, 2003; Dominy and Platten, <105 43 54 72 57
2007). Table 4 shows the characteristics of the five different
% coarse gold 57% 46% 28% 43%
GPMs at Gwynfynydd. The low-grade clustered scenario (>105 μm)
provided the highest K value (130 000 g/cm1.5), indicating that it
has a high sampling difficultly.
From a metallurgical perspective, gold recovery was found to Gold particle clustering is observed at Nalunaq and often
be lower in the fine gold dominated areas (background grade; occurs with particles >250 μm in size. Isolated coarse gold grains
are widespread. Unlike many nuggety deposits, Nalunaq is
1 g/t Au to 4 g/t Au), reducing to between 80 per cent and
fortunate to be high grade, relatively consistent throughout
85 per cent. Lower efficiency was related to the relatively higher
sections of the Target Block.
level of fine <50 μm gold particles in these areas and the inability
of the plant to recover them. Local small clusters were observed In some restricted (0.01 m3 to 0.03 m3) extreme high-grade
within the background gold mineralisation (Figure 6). zones, the volume of rock may contain up to 20 per cent or more
gold. This would yield a very large effective particle diameter of
upwards of 5 cm (Table 6). However, these gold-rich zones are
Nalunaq gold mine, Southern Greenland relatively rare and highly spatially restricted.
The Nalunaq mine yields approximately 80 000 oz gold per The highest sampling difficulty (K value) ore was related to
annum from an underground narrow vein operation (Snowden, the clustered run-of-mine material with a greater relative particle

TABLE 4
Gold particle scenarios at the Gwynfynydd gold mine.
Scenario Comment on gold particle sizing Grade dLmax or dLclus K value Indicative
(g/t Au) value (μm) (g/cm1.5) in situ sample
mass
Very high-grade coarse gold Large gold particles, often locally forming a more 625 10 000 3000 165 kg
continuous 3D network of gold particles (20 oz/t)
ROM coarse gold Individual isolated particles, or clusters of 20 - 50 16 3700 26 000 1.4 t
particles
ROM coarse clustered gold Clusters of 50 - 150 250 μm to 1000 μm particles 16 3000 19 000 1.1 t
Low-grade ‘background’ fine Individual isolated particles, or more dispersed 3 500 7000 380 kg
gold clusters
Low-grade ‘background’ Clusters of 150 - 1000 250 μm to 700 μm particles 3 3500 130 000 7.1 t
clustered fine gold

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 99

S C DOMINY, Y XIE and I M PLATTEN

TABLE 6
Gold particle scenarios at the Nalunaq gold mine.

Scenario Comment on gold particle sizing Grade dLmax or dLclus K value Indicative
(g/t Au) value (μm) (g/cm1.5) in situ sample
mass
Extreme high-grade coarse Very strong clusters of large gold particles, almost 130 000 50 000 160 10 kg
gold forming a more continuous 3D network of gold
particles (10 - 20% gold)
High-grade coarse gold ore Individual isolated particles or clusters of 20 - 50 60 300 5000 280 kg
particles up to 850 μm in size
ROM coarse gold Individual isolated particles 18 850 2500 140 kg
ROM coarse clustered gold Clusters of 20 - 50 particles to 850 μm particles 18 3000 16 800 1t
Low-grade ‘background’ fine Individual isolated particles, or more dispersed 8 250 1000 55 kg
gold clusters

size (Table 6). A background level of more dispersed gold
particles was always present, though clustering proved to be
important.
The mean gold recovery in Nalunaq ore has been 97 per cent,
with 66 per cent attributed to gravity, 25 per cent to cyanide
leaching and six per cent to flotation. In some areas of the mine,
there has been a reduction in the quantity of coarse gold with less
gravity recovery (57 per cent) and more flotation recovery
(14 per cent).
Crystal Hill mine, Tarnagulla, Victoria, Australia
The Tarnagulla goldfield is located in the Central Victorian
goldfields. During 1995 to 2000, Reef Mining NL mined and
milled approximately 58 000 tonnes at a head grade of 30 g/t Au
from the Nick O’Time ore shoot (McCarthy and Faulkner, 2008).
The ore shoot is a vertical pipe like body extending from 70 m
below the surface. High grades are hosted in laminated veins that
range up to 1.5 m in width around a central core of low grade
quartz which ranges up to 7 m in width.
Gold generally occurs in association with pyrite, arsenopyrite,
galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite, with minor tetrahedrite.
Isolated gold specks occur in the laminated quartz, with
relatively abundant visible gold. Gold, pyrite and arsenopyrite
also occur in stylolitic sutures developed around the massive
quartz core of the shoot.
Gold particles are relatively disseminated and up to 7000 μm
in size. Local clustering occurs of visible gold particles, up to
5 mm, with rare masses of gold on the centimetre scale observed.
Previous studies provided a broad particle size distribution
within run-of-mine ore (Table 7).
TABLE 7
Gold distribution by size fraction for 30 g/t Au run-of-mine ore at
Tarnagulla.
Gold particle size Mass percentage Fraction grade
(μm) (% Au) (g/t Au)
>425 46 14
300 - 425 11 3
100 - 300 22 7 for ROM ore (Table 9). This yields a K value of 660 g/cm1.5
53 - 100 11 3 based on an ore grade of 10 g/t Au, which indicates a small
<53 10 3
Gold extraction during mine operation was dominated by
gravity methods and yielded a recovery of close to 80 per cent.
Cyanide leaching methods accounted for almost 20 per cent
recovery, giving a total life-of-mine gold recovery of 99 per cent.
Local areas of very coarse gold-dominated mineralisation
yielded a gravity recovery of 97 per cent, with 90 per cent of
gold particles >100 μm in size, and 20 per cent >850 μm in size.
The run-of-mine clustered ore showed the highest K value at
Tarnagulla (Table 8). Mining consistently yielded grades of
>15 g/t Au, with a mean of 30 g/t Au. Similar to Nalunaq, whilst
considered a ‘nuggety’ deposit, the coarse gold was relatively
disseminated, often as clusters, through the laminated veins.
Cononish gold project, Scotland, United Kingdom
The Cononish mine comprises a narrow quartz-vein system, the
Cononish Vein, which has been trenched, diamond drilled and
developed underground along one horizon (Snowden, 2008).
The vein is a steep <6 m wide quartz vein emplaced in
metasediments. It completely postdates metamorphism and the
associated foliations. The Cononish Vein and other associated
quartz veins trend subparallel to the nearby, NE-SW trending,
Tyndrum Fault.
Cononish has a ‘diluted’ Measured Mineral Resource of
53 000 t (17.9 g/t Au), an Indicated Mineral Resource of
63 000 t (10.1 g/t Au) and an Inferred Mineral Resource of
285 000 t (11.2 g/t Au) at a 3.5 g/t Au cut-off for a total of
155 000 oz gold (Scotgold, 2008; Snowden, 2008).
Pyrite is the main sulfide phase within the Cononish Vein. It
occurs disseminated as very fine grains in grey quartz, but in
white quartz forms macroscopic aggregates. In polished section
it is seen as euhedral grains, but has also been commonly
subjected to shattering or brecciation. This fracturing may be
related to the development of pyritic shears and the deformation
associated with formation of the breccias with grey quartz
matrix. There is more than one episode of pyrite deposition. This
deposit, unlike the other examples, has abundant silver, with
silver grades four times gold grades.
A hand specimen and polished thin-section mineralogical
study recorded the presence of over 250 gold particles ranging in
size from <10 μm to 550 μm (Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008;
Snowden, 2008). Gold particles ranging in size from <10 μm to
550 μm were seen, plus rarer >1000 μm particles. Some ten per
cent of particles were >100 μm in size. Based on the observed
particle sizes, an estimated a dLmax value of 250 μm was defined
sampling difficulty.
Metallurgical testing on Cononish material showed that gold
could be recovered by various methods including gravity,
flotation and cyanide leaching. The highest recoveries were
obtained from the cyanide leach tests (93 per cent to 96 per cent),
with generally good recoveries also from the flotation tests
(89 per cent to 94 per cent). GRG values ranged from 34 per cent
to 66 per cent, reflecting the variable presence of coarser gold.

100 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference

 GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS IN NARROW VEIN DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND METALLURGY

TABLE 8
Gold particle scenarios at the Tarnagulla Crystal Hill gold mine.

Scenario Comment on gold particle sizing Grade dLmax or dLclus K value Indicative
(g/t Au) value (μm) (g/cm1.5) in situ sample
mass
High-grade coarse gold ore Individual isolated particles or clusters of 20 - 40 120 3500 4 000 180 kg
particles to 1000 μm in size
ROM coarse gold Individual isolated particles 30 1000 2000 110 kg
ROM coarse clustered gold Clusters of up to 50 particles to 1000 μm particles 30 4000 19 000 850 kg
Low-grade ‘background’ fine Individual isolated particles, or more dispersed 8 1000 9000 400 kg
gold clusters

TABLE 9
Gold particle scenarios at the Cononish gold project.

Scenario Comment on gold particle sizing Grade dLmax or dLclus K value Indicative
(g/t Au) value (μm) (g/cm1.5) in situ sample
mass
Single particle, high-grade Larger gold particles 1500 μm 60 1500 1600 100 kg
Single particle, ROM grade Individual isolated particles 10 250 660 40 kg
Single particle, low-grade Individual isolated particles or more dispersed 3 75 360 20 kg
clusters
Clustered particles, ROM Clusters of 50 - 100 100 - 250 μm particles 10 500 1900 115 kg
grade
Clustered particles, Clusters of 50 - 100 50 - 100 μm particles 3 300 2900 180 kg
‘background’ low-grade

The highest sampling difficulty with a K value of 2900 g/cm1.5
was at 3 g/t Au based on low-grade clustered ore (Table 9). In
reality, it is likely that the occurrences of the coarsest gold
particles will be as discrete clusters (possibly over centimetres or
tens of centimetres) and cause higher local grades. Gold particles
are intimately associated with galena and pyrite and related to a
late stage shear.
Summary
Table 10 shows a summary of the gold particle characteristics of
the previous case studies, together with selected examples. The
GPM provides a useful basis to describe the nature of gold
particles in a deposit. Additional information can be presented in
the form of Table 11.
CONCLUSIONS
The size/shape, deportment, distribution and abundance of gold
particles affect both the sampling/evaluation and metallurgical
characteristics of narrow vein deposits. Gold particles can range
from individual disseminated grains, through to greater than
2000 μm in size. At each end of the coarse-gold to fine-gold
spectrum, the samplability of a deposit ranges from relatively
simple for fine-grained disseminated particles, to extremely
difficult for coarse nuggety mineralisation. The proportion of
coarse gold has a direct impact on the effectiveness of sampling,
where more coarse gold will require bigger samples and more
specialised protocols.
In some gold deposits, there is evidence to show that the fine-
and coarse-gold particles are part of separate paragenetic stages.
In general, the fine gold particles are likely to be relatively
disseminated through the orebody and responsible for a
‘background’ grade of potentially between 0.5 g/t Au and 3 g/t
Au. The coarse particles may be more clustered and related to
higher grade zones. General observations by the authors on
numerous mesothermal/lode-gold vein-type deposits suggest that
this background fine-gold versus coarse gold is relatively
common. Coarse gold may represent in excess of ten per cent of
the total gold inventory.
Gold particle clustering is of major significance and often
leads to an enhanced coarse gold problem. This can be due to the
presence of gold particle clusters that give the effect of individual
coarse-gold particles and lead to extreme gold grades and high
in situ variability. These clusters, which may be distributed on
the centimetre-scale or greater, give rise to high-grade variability
in field samples. Clusters are readily recognised in coarse gold
deposits; however, they also occur in fine gold deposits where
they produce an apparent coarse gold style.
The Gy Equation is the only sampling theory commonly
applied in the mining context to control the FSE. It has been
traditionally used to optimise sampling protocols for broken
rock, but it can be used to indicate the in situ sample mass. A
problem of applying the Gy Equation is the definition and
determination of the liberation diameter. In the case of gold, this
diameter represents the 95 per cent passing (dLmax) value for the
gold particles. If gold particle clustering is observed, then the
agglomerated clustered-particle liberation diameter (dLclus) needs
to be defined.
The FSE is sensitive to the largest ‘nuggets’ present in any
sample, whereas the finer generally lower-grade background
population particles often result in a relatively small FSE.
Gold particle distribution and abundance within the
mineralisation have a great effect on gold recovery. This will be
related to both the abundance and size of the in situ gold
particles. Different domains within a mineralised body are likely
to have different gold particle size properties and will need to be
characterised early on in a project to optimise recovery. This
characterisation ties in with resource evaluation needs
(eg sampling) and should be part of wider geometallurgical
studies. The authors suggest holistic studies leading to the
definition of gold particle models for each mine or vein system
to aid evaluation and metallurgical needs (Dominy, Platten and
Xie, 2008; Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008).

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 101

 S C DOMINY, Y XIE and I M PLATTEN
102
TABLE 10
Summary of gold particle characteristics for selected projects and those noted in the text.

Project ROM grade dLmax or dLclus Percentage Percentage gold K value Indicative Comments References
[worst sampling value (μm) gold 100 μm 1000 μm in size (g/cm1.5) in situ
case grade] in size [maximum sample
(g/t Au) particle size mass†
observed]
Bendigo, 10 [3] 10 000 90% 60% 190 000 10 t Extreme coarse gold deposit yielding very high K value. Johansen and Dominy
Australia [10 000 μm] Clustering observed of both finer and very coarse particles. (2005)
Visible gold common. High GRG of +80%.
Gwynfynydd, 15 [3] 3500 80% 35% 130 000 1.5 t Coarse gold deposit characterised by very restricted high Dominy et al (2001)
Wales [3000 μm] grade pockets grading 10s oz/t Au. Clustering very common.
Lower grade material shows small clusters yielding a high K
value. High GRG of +90%.
Sand Queen, 12 [nd]‡ 4750 83% 60% 64 000 3t High proportion of coarse and visible gold. Bimodal Potter, Sheriff and Collins
Australia [6000 μm] population of gold particles sizes, likely to indicate (2008)
high-grade versus lower grade background population. High
GRG of 60%.
Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008

Nalunaq, 18 [8] 3000 50% <5 16 800 1.2 t Relatively ‘disseminated’ coarse/visible gold particles. Local Dominy and Petersen
Greenland [7000 μm] clustering and very high grade clusters. GRG of >70%. (2005)
Tarnagulla, 30 [8] 3500 80% 30 10 600 0.7 Relatively ‘disseminated’ coarse/visible gold particles. Local Dominy et al (2001)
Australia [7000 μm] clustering and very rare extreme massive gold. High GRG of
80%.
Yellowjacket, 15 [4] 1000 50% 10 7100 0.2 t Disseminated, sometimes visible gold particles, related to Dominy, Platten and Xie
Canada [3000 μm] specific associations with some clustering. Small areas of (2008)
‘sheet gold’ related to fault slickensides. GRG of 70 - 80%.
Cononish, 12 [3] 300 10% <<1 2900 50 kg Minimal visible gold (>300 μm). Considered to be a strong Dominy, Xie and Platten
Scotland [1200 μm] pseudo coarse gold effect due to clustering. Gold closely (2008)
associated with galena. GRG of about 30 - 40% (including in
sulfide concentrate).
Red October, 8 [4] 500 30% <<2 2600 140 kg Relatively fine-grained deposit, with much gold associated Dominy, Xie and Platten
Australia [2000 μm] with pyrite. Occasional visible gold. GRG of about 30%. (2008)
Bindal, Norway 5 [5] 250 40% <<1 2000 80 kg Relatively fine-grained deposit, with much gold hosted in Dominy, Platten and Xie
[1500 μm] arsenopyrite. GRG of 80% (including in sulfide concentrate). (2008)

† Estimate based on ROM grade and dLmax value calculated via the Gy Equation modified for the ‘in situ nugget effect’.
‡ nd = not determined
Narrow Vein Mining Conference
 GOLD PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS IN NARROW VEIN DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND METALLURGY

TABLE 11
Key information to define the particle size characteristic of a gold deposit. Example from the former Wattle Gully mine, Australia.

Characteristic
Gold particle size dLmax: 6000 (μm)
>100 μm: 80%; >1000 μm: 35%; >10 000 μm: <5%
Distribution As isolated particles, clusters and masses through ore shoots and local very high-grade zones (>2 oz/t Au)
Clustering observed, dLclus: 10 000 (mm)
Deportment Free gold in quartz and locally associated with margins and fractures in arsenopyrite. Also observed at vein margins,
quartz shale contacts and along stylolitic sutures.
Abundance (grade) ROM grade of 11 g/t Au, locally much higher.
K value (g/cm1.5) 82 000 [dLclus: 39 000]
Gravity recoverable gold (GRG) >85%
Indicative in situ sample size dLmax: 4.5 t [dLclus: 9.5 t]
Background grade Range between 0.5 g/t Au to 2 g/t Au dominated by <100 mm particles.
Visible gold Commonly observed up to 0.5 cm in size, as individual particles and clusters towards 1 cm in size.
Comment Very high-nugget coarse gold dominated system. Large primary sample sizes are indicated in order to be
representative. Large numbers of drill or face samples required to define grade plus use of supporting indicators
(‘proxies’). Core samples generally understate grade and may yield a mean grade of <3 g/t Au in a 10 g/t Au to 12 g/t
Au zone.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dominy, S C, 2004. Fundamental sampling error and its relationship to

Gold particle studies by the authors have benefited from the
support of numerous companies, including: Bendigo Mining
Limited, Castlemaine Goldfields Limited, Goldfields Limited,
Charters Towers Gold Mines Limited, Clogau St David’s Gold
Mines Limited, Crew Gold Corporation, Nalunaq Gold Mine
A/S, Reef Mining NL, Scotgold Resources Limited and Welsh
Gold PLC. The Dolgellau (Gwynfynydd mine) and Tarnagulla
goldfields are currently being explored by Victorian Gold
Limited; the Nalunaq mine is operated by Crew Gold
Corporation and the Cononish project operated by Scotgold
Resources Limited. The use of mineralogical facilities at the
University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB) is
acknowledged. In addition, thanks are due to Andy Ross
(Snowden Group) and The AusIMM conference reviewers, Nigel
Grigg and Steve Olsen, for their comments on the manuscript.
The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors, and
not necessarily those of Snowden, USTB or named operating
companies.
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