Overview of Communication Systems

1.
OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

A communication system is made up of devices that employ one of two communication methods
(wireless or wired), different types of equipment (portable radios, mobile radios, base/fixed station
radios, and repeaters), and various accessories (examples include speaker microphones, battery
eliminators, and carrying cases) and/or enhancements (encryption, digital communications, security
measures, and interoperability/networking) to meet the user needs.
1.1 Technologies
For practical purposes, a communication system can be considered to be “wired” or “wireless” (e.g.,
conventional telephone, radio communications, etc.). A wired system is technically known as a hard-
line system and can be thought of as a localized, private telephone system that uses wires to operate
over a limited area. A wireless system uses radio frequencies to “connect” users and is capable of
operating over a much larger geographical area than a hard-line (wired) system. Since the
communication equipment available to maritime mobile service today does not include optical
transmission methods, only radio frequency (RF) equipment will be considered here.
The major advantages of RF communication systems over hard-line communication systems are their
ability to provide communications over large distances, through some obstacles (depending on the
frequency), and to an almost unlimited number of users. The range of the signal is defined to be the
distance between the transmitter and the receiver at which the amplitude of the signal received by the
receiver is less than the amplitude of the background noise. For example, a person can experience this
noise using low-cost “walkie-talkies.” When the separation between the two walkie-talkies is great
enough, the voice signal is lost and all that is heard is the background noise (sometimes called static).
The range of the signal in a communication system may also be affected by interference from
atmospheric disturbances, such as electrical storms, and high-power RF sources (such as radar
equipment and broadcast equipment). Also, RF signals do not pass through water. Radio transmission
quality also begins to deteriorate as the edge of the coverage area is approached.
Dr. Alim, A. F. et al. (2002). NIJ Guide 104-00, Volume 1. Washington: U.S. Department of Justice 1
Shared communication systems such as radios, the Internet, and telephone conference calls are
subject to saturation by users (the maximum capacity whereby adding users will deteriorate and
degrade the amount and quality of information able to be transferred over the system), a problem that
compounds exponentially as the number of users increases. Communication system efficiency
requires that the users follow published communication system guidelines regarding proper system
discipline in order to ensure maximum efficiency of communication traffic.
1.1.1 Radio Frequency
Wireless systems (radios) transmit data and voice information using a specific radio frequency (RF) to
other radios tuned to the same frequency. Common radio messages are transmitted over the RF band
between 0.05 MHz and 900 MHz. Most public safety communications radios (portable, mobile, base
station, and repeaters) transmit frequencies between 30 MHz and 900 MHz which are dedicated to
public service use. Cell phones and systems, such as global positioning receivers, call boxes,
electronic signs, irrigation systems, and mobile command units, that transmit information from remote
locations, transmit in the microwave band between 1 GHz and 20 GHz. An example of RF technology
that transmits only data is the SD–125 RF Link Module, manufactured by Maxon, shown in figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1. SD-125 RF link module, Maxon.
1.1.1.1 Conventional Radio System
In conventional RF systems, each user group is assigned a discrete radio channel (or frequency) that is
independent of other user group channels (or frequencies). The users within the group transmit and
receive only on that channel, on a first come first serve basis. Transmissions may occur with or without
the assistance of a repeater (see sec. 1.2.4). Communications without a repeater are considered to be
simplex communications (transmit and receive on the same frequency) and are typically used when
only a small coverage area is required.
Conventional radio systems provide communication between users within a given geographic coverage
area. A major advantage of a conventional radio system is that users equipped with radios from
different manufacturers can communicate with one another provided they are programmed to the same
frequency, which includes the appropriate CTCSS or DCS programming. (CTCSS and DCS are
techniques commonly employed to aid in the rejection of interference from other radio systems).
Disadvantages to conventional radio systems include user accessibility delays when a channel is being
utilized by other users, and security concerns because of the ease of “eavesdropping” on potentially
sensitive communications by the public or media equipped with scanner radios. Modulation and
encryption system compatibility must also be addressed in planning for interoperable communications.
Figures 1–2 and 1–3 illustrate a mobile and a portable conventional radio, respectively. The mobile
radio is a Kenwood Compact Synthesized FM Mobile Radio, TK-862H, and the portable radio is a Relm
GPH21.
Figure 1-2. TK-862H, compact synthesized FM mobile radio, Kenwood.
Figure 1-3. GPH21, portable radio, Relm.
1.1.1.2 Trunked Radio Systems
Trunked radio systems typically allocate 20 or more talk groups (logical channels) to a particular radio
frequency channel. A radio system’s computer assigns a user and the user group to a frequency when
the push-to-talk (PTT) button is pressed. A user is an officer or member assigned to the precinct or fire
company, and a user group is a police precinct or fire company. This results in a single conversation
occurring over several channels, eliminating the need for the users to manually change frequencies,
thus maximizing the system efficiency. In addition, the channel capacity increases because other users
can use the time between transmissions for their communications without the need to wait for a “clear
channel.” Because the computer selects the channel and monitors the repeater before transmitting, the
trunked radio system is more technically complex than the conventional system. Since it appears to be
simpler and faster to use, it may be considered more efficient. Another apparent advantage to a
trunked system is the increased difficulty in eavesdropping on conversations that may switch channels
with every transmission. However, scanners that can follow talk groups on a trunked radio system are
widely available to the general public, whereby digital spread spectrum radios may provide user
security from such methods of eavesdropping.
The disadvantages of the trunked system are those common to all RF radio systems (i.e., atmospheric
interference, unreliability in certain environments, such as underground and confined spaces, and
unable to be used in explosive environments, etc.). Additional disadvantages of the trunked system
include the increased complexity of the infrastructure with regards to an increased number of antenna
and repeater sites (especially in the case of 800 MHz systems), dependence on the computer system
and software that controls the trunked system, and reliance on the equipment of one manufacturer for
guaranteed operation. Examples of trunked radios are shown in figures 1–4 and 1–5. Figure 1–4 is a
Yaesu/Vertex-Standard GX 4800UT UHF mobile radio, and figure 1–5 is a portable system, the
Yaesu/Vertex-Standard HX482UT conventional and trunked system.
Figure 1-4. GX 4800UT UHF trunked system mobile radio, Yaesu/Vertex-Standard.
Figure 1-5. HX482UT, conventional and trunked system, Yaesu/Vertex-Standard.
1.1.2 Hard-Line Technology
Hard-line communication systems operate by transmitting voice and data through a cable that connects
to a telephone-like apparatus. The major advantage of a hard-line system is the ability to communicate
from underground, confined spaces, shielded enclosures, collapsed structure void spaces, and similar
locations (such as explosive environments) where RF systems are unreliable or unable to be used. An
additional advantage of hard-line communication systems is that they are totally secure. Outside
eavesdropping is not possible because the transmissions are contained within the wired system. The
disadvantages of a hard-line system are the distance and mobility constraints imposed by the cable, the
time required to set the system up at an incident site, and the limited number of users that can be
supported by a system at a given location.
1.2 Types of Equipment

The RF communication equipment considered in this guide includes portable radios, mobile radios,
base/fixed station radios, repeaters, and base station/repeaters. Each type of equipment will be
discussed in the following sections.
1.2.1 Portable Radios
Portable radios are small, lightweight, handheld, wireless communication units that contain both a
transmitter and a receiver, a self-contained microphone and speaker, an attached power supply
(typically a rechargeable battery), and antenna. Portable transceivers (such as a walkie-talkie) have
relatively low-powered transmitters (1 W to 5 W), need to have their batteries periodically recharged or
replaced, and may be combined in a wireless radio communication system with other portable, mobile,
and base station radios. There are also very low-powered transceivers, available with power outputs of
0.1 W, which are generally linked to portable repeaters for extended range and interoperability with
higher-powered radio systems.
1.2.2 Mobile Radios
Mobile radios are larger than portable radios and are designed to be mounted in a fixed location inside
a vehicle (police cruiser, fire truck, etc.). Like the portable radios, mobile radios contain both a
transmitter and a receiver and may contain an internal speaker. However, mobile radios connect to the
vehicle’s power supply, which enables them to have a higher transmitter output power (typically 5 W to
50 W) and an external antenna. The microphone is usually handheld, and the speaker may be
externally located to the radio. Because of the higher transmitter power and external antenna, the
effective communication range is greater than that of a portable radio, especially if a repeater is not
used. The receivers in mobile radios are generally more sensitive than the receivers found in portable
radios, as physical space for components in mobile radios is not as critical as in portable radios.
Personnel who do not need to communicate with others when away from the vehicle typically use
mobile radios. As with portable radios, mobile radios may be combined into a radio communication
system with other portable, mobile, and base station radios.
1.2.3 Base/Fixed Station Radios
A base (or fixed) station radio also contains a transmitter and a receiver. The radio is powered by an
external electrical system (typically 110 V ac) and is connected to an antenna located tens to hundreds
of feet away, typically on top of a building or on a tower. Because the base station radio uses an
external electrical system (i.e., commercial power mains), compared with portable and mobile radios,
they have the most powerful transmitters (5 W to hundreds of watts) and the most sensitive receivers.
Microphones can either be handheld or desktop models, and the speaker can either be external or
internal to the radio.
1.2.4 Repeaters
A repeater is a specialized radio that contains both a receiver and a transmitter. Repeaters are used to
increase the effective communications coverage area for portable, mobile, or base station radios that
otherwise might not be able to communicate with one another. The repeater’s receiver is tuned to the
frequency used by a portable, mobile, or base station transmitter for incoming signals, and the
repeater’s transmitter is tuned to the frequency used by a portable, mobile, or base station receiver.
The incoming signal is rebroadcast back to the radio network on a different frequency, usually with
higher power and from a better location (tall buildings, mountaintops, and/or towers). Figure 1–6 shows
a Vertex VXR-5000 repeater.
Figure 1-6. VXR-5000 repeater, Vertex.
1.2.5 Base Station/Repeaters
Several manufacturers offer base station/repeater radios. These radios cannot operate as both a base
station and a repeater simultaneously, but when installed for use, they are configured to operate as
either a base station or as a repeater.
1.3 Accessories
Most accessories are for portable radios and are designed to allow for maximum user flexibility. There
are optional trunking accessory boards available for many conventional radio systems, and optional
encryption modules available for some radios to allow for secure communications.
1.3.1 Accessories for Portable Radios
Additional accessories for portable radios include optional batteries for extended operating time,
speaker-microphones, carrying cases, battery eliminators, and vehicular adapters. Multiple carrying
case options are available: those that allow for optional batteries; those that have specialized
operations mounting requirements, such as the strap-on chest case for instances when a radio cannot
be worn on or near the waist; or those that are water resistant for operations that may occur in
extremely wet environments.
Several optional speaker-microphones attach to portable radios through the remote

speaker/microphone jack. These include boom microphones (attenuates background noise and works
best when the user's voice is not obstructed), ear microphones (worn in the ear and transmits ear canal
vibrations into microphone signals), bone microphones (worn on the top of the head or behind the ear
and transmits vibration signals), and throat microphones (worn on the throat and transmits vibration
signals). Voice operated switch (VOX) activated accessories have the same function as the PTT button
but allow hands-free use of the radio. Alternately, full duplex operation of radios (able to transmit and
receive on different frequencies simultaneously) provides hands-free and simultaneous, bi-directional
communications.
Battery eliminators are specialized accessories that are attached to the radio in place of the battery.
They allow portable radios to operate from a power source such as the electrical system of the vehicle
rather than the radio’s own battery, thus extending the useable life of the radio’s battery before it needs
to be recharged. Battery eliminators are most often used with portable radios that have no external
power (e.g., 12 V dc) jack. Battery eliminators can be obtained from radio manufacturers or specialized
third party aftermarket vendors.
Vehicular adapters are also specialized adapters for portable radios that allow portable radios to
operate as a mobile radio. When the portable radio is placed into a vehicular adapter, the radio
operates off the electrical system of the vehicle, is connected to an antenna mounted on the vehicle,
and in some instances, is connected to an amplifier in order to increase the output power of the
transmitter (for example, 5 W to 50 W for increased range). While the portable radio is in the vehicular
adapter, the radio’s battery is recharged.
1.3.2 Accessories for Mobile Radios and Base Station/Repeater Radios
There are fewer accessories available for mobile and base station radios. They are generally chosen
when the radio is initially purchased because they are often dependent upon installation requirements
and restrictions.
Accessories for mobile and base station radios typically include these devices: transmitter power
amplifiers, specialized modules that allow the radio to be connected to computers or other data
terminals, remote mounting systems to minimize theft, external speakers that can be mounted for
operator convenience, and specialized microphones that may allow for the user to change channels or
transmitter output power.
1.4 Enhancements
Enhancements are those items or applications available to the customer for modification of the
communication system for a specific purpose. Enhancements discussed in this section include the
following items: encryption, digital communications, security measures, and interoperability/networking.
1.4.1 Encryption
Both conventional and trunked RF radios may allow for the encryption of sensitive communications for
security purposes if the system is equipped with the appropriate encryption electronics. Some radios
may require the installation of an optional encryption module for secure communications. Voice and
data transmissions may be encrypted by simple inversion, rolling code, or by digital encryption.
Protection from scanner monitoring and even more sophisticated monitoring devices can also be
accomplished with spread spectrum radios operating in the ISM bands; however, because of the low
power utilized in the ISM bands, reliable communications may not be possible.
1.4.2 Digital Communications
Digital communications is a technique whereby voice (sound waves) and data information present in
the radio signals is converted into binary code represented using electronic or electromagnetic signals.
The binary code is then converted by mathematical algorithms that need to be decoded by
mathematical algorithms in the receiving radio in order for the user to understand the information. It
offers users enhanced signaling and control options, more consistent audio quality, greater radio
spectrum efficiency, and a broader range of encryption capabilities. Communications between users is
less likely to be interrupted in terms of signals being dropped. At the edges of a coverage area, digital
technology improves the signal integrity to maximize communications.
To help understand digital communications technology, it is important to understand analog

communications technology. Analog communications is the transmission of information using a
continuously variable electromagnetic signal. The information usually transmitted by analog systems is
from sound, such as that contained in conversation and music. Prior to transmission of the sound
information, it must be converted into an electrical form (as is done with a microphone). For several
technical reasons, the electrical information is typically transformed into higher frequencies by
modulating a continuous wave radio signal. Examples of this type of transformation and modulation are
the FM and AM signals on your radio. Analog communications is the basis for most current cell phones
and communication systems. Perhaps the best and simplest example of analog radio communications
is the Citizens Band (CB) radio service.
1.4.3 Security Measures
Communications security is becoming increasingly important. Presently, the general public can
purchase any one of several different radio receivers that will allow them to monitor virtually any and all
public safety communications. As a result, secure communications may be difficult to achieve unless
measures are incorporated into the planning of a communication system.
Security measures that can be incorporated into a communication system include, but are not limited
to, digital encryption of radio signals, voice inversion, digitizing of voice and data as in a digital system,
and use of digital cellular or PCS telephone circuits. Security may also be improved by the use of
spread spectrum techniques. No single security measure is appropriate for every situation, nor is it
necessarily true that all security technologies will work with, or are appropriate for, all communication
systems. Encryption systems may require extensive planning and coordination to ensure compatibility
and interoperability. It is best to consult with the radio manufacturer’s sales and technical personnel for
the most reliable and accurate information regarding current encryption technologies and their uses.
1.4.4 Interoperability and Networking
Interoperability is the process of connecting different groups using different radio systems and
communication technologies (telephones, radios, cellular communications, and satellite
communications) so that they can communicate directly with one another without having to go through
multiple dispatchers or relay personnel. In the context of communications, interoperability describes
the situation where different communication systems that are otherwise incompatible with one another
work together without relying on the addition of considerably more manpower. An example of
interoperability would be where a police radio system can
“directly” exchange information (voice or data) with the National Guard radio system or the FEMA radio
system; or a municipality’s public works department using a Motorola Type I Trunked System can
“directly” exchange information (voice or data) with the adjacent jurisdiction’s fire department which
uses a Com-Net Ericsson EDACS Trunked System. Some trunked radio systems may allow for
interoperability between different talk groups and may allow the connection of third party dispatch
systems. Integration with other communication systems may also be permitted. These systems may
include private automatic branch exchange (PABX) systems, data networks, cordless extensions, and
paging systems. Examples of data networks that a radio system may be interoperable with are
automatic vehicle location and Geographic Positioning Satellite systems. Another example is a
telephone interconnect system where telephone calls are patched through the radio system.
Simply stated, a communications interconnect system allows telephones, cell phones, radios on
different frequencies, proprietary formats, trunked talk groups, and conventional radio networks to
communicate with each other using interface modules. The interconnect system can allow for several
two-way and conference calls to occur simultaneously. There is no need for a dispatcher to connect
one system to another system as the cross-connection operations are unmanned. This can result in a
much greater interoperability between equipment and organizations. Figure 1–7 is the JPS TRP-1000
Transportable Radio Interconnect System, and Figure 1−8 shows the Communications Applied
Technology (C-AT) ICRI battery powered, man-carry radio interconnect “switch.”
Figure 1-7. TRP-1000 transportable radio interconnect system, JPS.
Figure 1-8. ICIR man-carry radio interconnect switch, C-AT.
2. INTRODUCTION TO MARITIME TELECOMMUNICATIONS
When the wireless (radiotelegraph) was invented, the Navy saw a possible use for it. It could be used
for communications from shore stations to ships along the coast. In 1899, the first official naval radio
message was sent from ship to shore. It only traveled a distance of 20 miles but that was a start. The
next advance was in 1916 when the Navy first used radiotelephone between ships. Three years later
the first airborne radio was used to communicate with a ground station. In the early years,
communications was not the best because of poor tuning techniques. Receivers often did not pick up
the signal. This problem was almost eliminated in 1931 when the first superheterodyne receivers were
installed in the fleet. In 1944, another important event took place. The first successful radio
teletypewriter transmissions between ships were completed. The first successful use of radiophoto
(facsimile) occurred in 1945 with the transmission of the surrender document signing that ended World
War II. Naval communications has grown tremendously in size and complexity since then.
The fleets of the modern Navy travel faster and are spread over greater areas of ocean than any
seagoing force of the past. Commanders and their subordinates throughout the Navy use the facilities
of naval communications as a primary method of communicating.
Naval communications relies on top performance from all of its assigned personnel. Reliable, secure,
and timely transmission and receipt of information, based on wartime requirements, is the ultimate goal.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS refers to communications over a distance and includes any transmission,

emission, or reception of signs, signals, writings, images, or sounds. Intelligence produced by visual
means, oral means, wire, radio, or other electromagnetic systems are also included. Electrical, visual,
and sound telecommunications are all used in the Navy. In this chapter we will talk only about electrical
types of telecommunications.
2.1 Transmission Methods

The types of transmission methods are radio and wire. Radio uses electromagnetic waves to transmit
and receive intelligence. The waves are not guided by a physical path between sender and receiver.
Wire uses conductors to carry these waves. Radio is the most important method the Navy has of
communicating between widely separated forces. The transmission methods we will be discussing are
radiotelegraph, radiotelephone, teletypewriter, and facsimile.
2.1.1 Radiotelegraph
Radiotelegraph transmissions are referred to as continuous wave (CW) telegraphy. CW is a manual or

automatic system of transmitting signals using a wave of radio-frequency (rf) energy. The radio
operator separates a continuously transmitted wave into dots and dashes based on the Morse code.
This is accomplished by opening and closing a telegraphic hand key.
Radiotelegraphy was the first means of radio communications that had military and commercial
importance. Radiotelegraph still is used as a means of communication to, from, and among widely
separated units of the Navy.
Relative slow speed of transmission and the requirement for experienced operators are the major
disadvantages of radiotelegraph. The main advantage is reliability. A thinking person at both sending
and receiving stations provides a capability of being understood not present in automated systems.
2.1.2 Radiotelephone
Radiotelephone is one of the most useful military communications methods. Because of its directness,
convenience, and ease of operation, radiotelephone is used by ships, aircraft, and shore stations. It has
many applications and is used for ship-to-shore, shore-to-ship, ship-to-ship, air-to-ship, ship-to-air, air-
to-ground, and ground-to-air communications. Modern means of operation make it possible to
NAVEDTRA 14189. (1998). NEETS - Module 17. US: Naval Education And Training Center. 10
communicate around the world by radiotelephone. One of the most important uses of radiotelephone is
short-range tactical communications. This method permits tactical commanders to communicate
directly with other ships. Little delay results while a message is prepared for transmission, and
acknowledgments can be returned instantly. Radiotelephone equipment for tactical use usually is
operated on frequencies that are high enough to have line-of-sight characteristics; that is, the waves do
not follow the curvature of the earth. As you know, these characteristics limit the usual range of
radiotelephone from 20 to 25 miles. This is important because it reduces the chances of the enemy
intercepting the message. Radiotelephone procedures can be learned easily by persons with no other
training in communications.
Radiotelephone has some disadvantages. You may find transmissions unreadable because of static,
enemy interference, or high local noise level caused by shouts, gunfire, and bomb or shell bursts. Wave
propagation characteristics of radiotelephone frequencies sometimes are unpredictable, and tactical
transmissions may be heard from great distances. Most radiotelephone messages are in plain
language, and if information is to be kept from the enemy, users must keep their messages short, stick
to the proper procedures, and be careful of what they say.
2.1.3 Teletypewriter
Teletypewriter (TTY) signals may be transmitted by either landline (wire), cable, or radio. The landline
TTY is used both by the military services and by commercial communication companies. The Navy
uses radio teletypewriter (RTTY) mainly for high-speed automatic communications across ocean areas.
The TTY unit is equipped with a keyboard similar to a typewriter. When the operator presses a key, a
sequence of signals is transmitted. At receiving stations, the signals are fed into terminal equipment
that translates the sequences of signals into letters, figures, and symbols and types the messages
automatically.
The RTTY mode of transmission and reception is rapidly becoming more efficient and reliable for
communications between ships and from ship-to-shore. Ships copy what is known as "fleet broadcast"
messages on RTTY. The speed at which message traffic is transmitted on RTTY circuits depends on
the equipment in use. Normal speed of operation is 100 words per minute, but it may be faster or
slower. You may find high-speed equipment, capable of printing a line or even a page at a time, in
some communications centres. The use of RTTY has brought about a considerable savings in
manpower.
2.1.4 Facsimile
Facsimile (fax) is the process used to transmit photographs, charts, and other graphic information
electronically. The image to be transmitted is scanned by a photoelectric cell. Electrical changes in the
cell output, corresponding to the light and dark areas being scanned, are transmitted to the receiver. At
the receiver, the signal operates a recorder that reproduces the picture. The fax signals may be
transmitted either by landline or radio.
Facsimile transmissions suffer distortion from all of the common sources of interference experienced
with ordinary radiotelegraph and radio teletypewriter. Certain characteristics of TIF transmission make it
less susceptible to complete loss of intelligence. For example, picture quality will be downgraded by
any noise bursts, since facsimile recording is a continuous recording of signals coming from a receiver.
However, because the machine scans material at the rate of about 100 lines per inch, each line is only
1/100th of an inch high. So you can see, if a noise burst interferes with the signal, it will distort a line
only 1/100th of an inch high, leaving the image still readable. Under similar circumstances on a
conventional RTTY circuit, such distortion could cause a portion of the page copy to be unreadable.
Facsimile transmission is not intended to be a replacement for teletypewriter and other general
methods of transmission. It is an important communications supplement and provides a means of
handling certain types of graphic and pictorial intelligence by swift communications methods. It is widely
used by the Navy weather information services and ship and station weather centres to obtain the latest
weather maps. Chances are the photo you saw in the newspaper was transmitted by facsimile.
2.2 Communications System

Until recently, radio communications brought to mind either telegraphy (CW), voice (AM), or possibly
radio teletypewriter (RTTY) communications. Today, radio communications has become a highly
sophisticated field of electronics. Even small Navy ships have the capability to "come up" on the
commonly used ship-to-ship, ship-to-air, and ship-to-shore communications circuits. These circuit
operations are accomplished through the use of compatible and flexible communications systems.
A communications system (as you will see later in this chapter) consists of two or more equipment sets
(sets will be explained a little later). Communications systems follow the system subdivision shown in
figure 2-1. Systems are arranged and interconnected to perform a circuit operation that cannot be
performed by any single piece of equipment. Navy communications systems vary from the simple to the
very complex, depending upon the circuit operations involved. Because a Navy ship must use every
inch of available space, the communications equipment may be spread over several portions of the
ship, for instance, receivers in one location, transmitters in another, and terminal equipment in another.
The equipment must be installed in such a manner that it is flexible and can be used interchangeably
with other installed communications equipment. Consequently, large numbers of sets which make up
the shipboard communications system are installed and are capable of operating separately and
simultaneously. Flexibility is provided through a complex arrangement of interconnections. These allow
the physically separated equipment to be selectively switched (patched) by you into different circuit
configurations.
Figure 2-1. System subdivision.
As naval electronics has grown in capability and complexity, an orderly plan of equipment designations
has been adopted. The largest designator, system, describes equipment that work together for a
specific function. For example, the radar system of a ship includes every item of electronics equipment
used in or with a radar on board that ship. The smallest designator, part, describes one single piece,
such as a bolt or a resistor.
2.2.1 System
A SYSTEM is a combination of sets, units, assemblies, subassemblies, and parts joined together to
perform a specific operational function or several functions. Examples are communications systems,
radar systems, or navigation systems. You will find the majority of troubleshooting done in the Navy is
system oriented. Figure 2-2 is a pictorial view of a typical communications system containing the
components necessary for transmission and reception of voice, telegraphy, and teletypewriter signals.
Figure 2-3 is a block diagram of the same communications system with the arrows showing the
direction of signal flow.
Figure 2-2. Communications system pictorial view.
Figure 2-3. Communications system block diagram.
2.2.2 Set
A SET consists of a unit or units and the assemblies, subassemblies, and parts connected or
associated together to perform a specific function. A good example of this is a radio receiving set or a
radio transmitting set.
Figure 2-4 is a block diagram of a radio transmitting set. It consists of a radio-frequency amplifier unit
(1), a radio transmitter unit (2), a power supply unit (3), and an antenna coupler group.
Figure 2-4. Radio transmitting set.
2.2.3 Group
A GROUP is a collection of units, assemblies, subassemblies, and parts. It is a subdivision of a set or

system, but it is not capable of performing a complete operational function. The coupler requires power
and signals from the radiofrequency amplifier unit for operation. An example is the antenna coupler
group in figure 2-4.
2.2.4 Unit
A UNIT is an assembly or any combination of parts, subassemblies, and assemblies mounted together.
A unit is normally capable of independent operation in a variety of situations. An example of a unit
might be a power supply.
2.2.5 Assembly
An ASSEMBLY is a number of parts or subassemblies, or any combination thereof, joined together to

perform a specific function. Figure 2-5 shows a unit (2) with its six assemblies. The assembly (A6)
contains six subassemblies.
Figure 2-5. Unit and assembly.
2.2.6 Subassembly
A SUBASSEMBLY consists of two or more parts that form a portion of an assembly or a unit. It is
replaceable as a whole, but some of its parts are individually replaceable. The distinction between an
assembly and a subassembly is not always exact; an assembly in one application may be a
subassembly in another when it forms a portion of an assembly. Figure 2-6 shows a printed circuit
board subassembly and some of the parts which may be mounted on it.
Figure 2-6. Typical subassembly.
2.2.7 Part
A PART is one component or two or more components joined together. A part is not normally subject to
disassembly without destruction. Resistors, capacitors, and transistors are examples of parts.
2.3 Maritime Frequency Band Use

Rapid growth in the quantity and complexity of communications equipment and increased worldwide
international requirements for radio frequencies have placed large demands upon the radio-frequency
spectrum. These demands include military and civilian applications such as communications, location
and ranging, identification, standard time and frequency transmission, and industrial, medical, and other
scientific uses.
Table 2-1 shows the radio-frequency spectrum broken down into nine bands used by the military.
Propagation of radio waves varies widely at different frequencies. Frequencies and equipment are
chosen to meet the communications application desired. We will discuss the radio-frequency spectrum
in the following paragraphs.
Table 2-1. Radio-Frequency Spectrum.

Frequency Description Wavelength Applications Propagation
30 GHZ - 300 extremely high 1 cm - 1 mm Experimental Attenuation due to
GHZ frequency (EHF) stage rain, snow and fog
3 GHZ - 30 GHZ superhigh 10 cm - 1 cm Radar, satellite Attenuation due to
frequency (SHF) communication rain, snow and fog
300 MHZ - 3 GHZ ultrahigh 1 m - 10 cm TV, radar, satellite Shadowing by
frequency (UHF) communication mountains and
buildings
30 MHZ - 300 very high 10 m - 1 m TV, FM, mobile Diffraction
MHZ frequency (VHF) communication
3 MHZ - 30 MHZ high frequency 100 m - 10 m AM, amateur Large
(HF) radio, mobile perturbation,
communication reflection in
ionosphere
Frequency Description Wavelength Applications Propagation
300 KHZ - 3 MHZ medium frequency 1000 m - 100 m AM audio Ground-wave,
(MF) broadcasting sky-wave
propagation.
Fading
30 KHZ - 300 KHZ low frequency (LF) 10 km - 1 km Radio navigation Ground
propagation,
stable
3 KHZ - 30 KHZ very low 100 km - 10 km Navigation Ground
frequency (VLF) propagation,
stable
300 HZ - 3 KHZ voice frequency 1000 km - 100 km Telephone
30 HZ - 300 HZ extremely low > 1000 km Underwater Wave tube
frequency (ELF) communication between earth
surface and the
ionosphere
2.3.1 Extremely Low-Frequency Communications
The purpose of the extremely low-frequency (ELF) communications system is to send short "phonetic
letter spelled out" (PLSO) messages from operating authorities to submarines operating at normal
mission speeds and depths. Elf has the ability to penetrate ocean depths to several hundred feet with
little signal loss. This ability allows submarines to be operated well below the immediate surface and
enhances submarine survivability by making detection more difficult.
This is a one-way communications system from the operating authority to submarines at sea. The large
size of ELF transmitters and antennas makes ELF transmission from submarines impractical.
2.3.2 Very-Low-Frequency Communications
Very-low-frequency (VLF) transmissions provide a highly reliable path for communications in area
affected by atmospheric disturbance as well as over and under all oceans and seas of the world. At
present, practically all Navy VLF transmitters are used for fleet communications or navigation. The VLF
transmission is normally considered a broadcast, that is, one-way transmission, no reply required. The
VLF transmitter normally transmits single-channel RTTY.
Vlf is currently used for communications to large numbers of satellites and as a backup to shortwave
communications blacked out by nuclear activity also for crucial communications during hostilities.
Secondary applications of the VLF range include worldwide transmission of standard frequency and
time signals. Standard frequency and time signals with high accuracy over long distances have become
increasingly important in many fields of science. It is essential for tracking space vehicles, worldwide
clock synchronization and oscillator calibration, international comparisons of atomic frequency
standards, radio navigational aids, astronomy, national standardizing laboratories, and communications
systems.
A VLF broadcast of standard time and frequency signals has more than adequate precision for the
operation of synchronous cryptographic devices, decoding devices, and single-sideband transmissions.
2.3.3 Low-Frequency Communications
The low-frequency (LF) band occupies only a very small part of the radio-frequency spectrum. This
small band of frequencies has been used for communications since the advent of radio.
Low-frequency transmitting installations are characterized by their large physical size and by their high
construction and maintenance costs. Another disadvantage is low-frequency signal reception being
seriously hampered by atmospheric noise, particularly at low geographical latitudes. Over the years,
propagation factors peculiar to the low-frequency band have resulted in their continued use for radio
communications. Low-frequency waves are not so seriously affected during periods of ionospheric
disturbance when communications at the high frequencies are disrupted. Because of this, the Navy has
a particular interest in the application of low frequencies at northern latitudes.
The Navy's requirement to provide the best possible communications to the fleet requires operation on
all frequency bands. Constant research is being done to improve existing capabilities and to use new
systems and developments as they become operationally reliable.
In the past, the fleet broadcast system provided ships at sea with low-frequency communications via
CW telegraph transmissions. As technology advanced, the system was converted to single-channel
radio teletypewriter transmission. Today If communications is used to provide eight channels of
frequency-division multiplex RTTY traffic on each transmission of the fleet multichannel broadcast
system.
2.3.4 Medium-Frequency Communications
The MEDIUM-FREQUENCY (mf) band of the radio-frequency spectrum includes the international
distress frequencies (500 kilohertz and approximately 484 kilohertz). Some ships have mf equipment. If
desired the distress frequencies may be monitored. When this is done the transmitter usually is kept in
the standby position. Ashore, the mf receiver and transmitter equipment configuration is usually
affiliated with search and rescue organizations, which are generally located near the coast.
Only the upper and lower ends of the mf band have naval use because of the commercial broadcast
band (AM) extending from 535 to 1,605 kilohertz. Frequencies in the lower portion of the mf band (300
to 500 kilohertz) are used primarily for ground-wave transmission for moderately long distances over
water and for moderate to short distances over land. Transmission in the upper mf band is generally
limited to short-haul communications (400 miles or less).
2.3.5 High-Frequency Communications
The use of HIGH FREQUENCIES for radio communications began around World War I when only a
few communications systems were operated on frequencies near 3 megahertz. Those day the systems
were intended for very short-range communications of a few miles seems so curious. The general belief
at the time was that frequencies above 1.5 megahertz were useless for communications purposes.
One of the prominent features of high-frequency, long-distance communications is the variable nature
of the propagation medium. Successful transmission of HF signals over a long distance is dependent
upon refraction of radio waves by layers of the ionosphere. The height and density of these layers is
formed mainly by ultraviolet radiation from the sun. They vary significantly with the time of day, season
of the year, and the eleven-year cycle of sunspot activity. Because of these variations, you must
generally use more than a single frequency, sometimes up to four or five, to maintain communications
on a circuit.
In spite of the difficulties we encounter with HF propagation, the economic and technical advantages of
using high frequencies have led to rapid expansion of the use of the HF band. Because the number of
users has increased, the HF spectrum is approaching saturation.
The HF band is shared by many domestic and foreign users, and only portions scattered throughout the
band are allocated to the military services. Like other agencies, Maritime Mobile Service requirements
have grown; the capacity of the maritime assigned portion of the HF spectrum has become severely
taxed. The use of single-sideband equipment and the application of independent sideband techniques
have increased the capacity, but not enough to catch up with the demand. Some predict that satellite
communications will eventually relieve congestion in the HF band and that, for some types of service, it
will replace HF for long-distance communications. Even with new technology the HF spectrum most
likely will continue to be in high demand for some time.
Maritime communications within the HF band can be grouped into four general types of services: point-
to-point, ship-to-shore, ground-to-air, and fleet broadcast. All but the fleet broadcast are normally
operated with two-way communications. Some of these services involve ships and aircraft that present
special problems because of their physical characteristics and mobility. Generally, the less than
optimum HF performance of this shipboard equipment is at least partially offset by powerful transmitters
and sensitive receiving systems at the shore terminals.
POINT-TO-POINT. Point-to-point systems are established to communicate over long-distance trunks or

links between fixed terminals. A trunk is normally a message circuit between two points that are both
switching centers or individual message distribution points. A link is a transmitter-receiver system
connecting two locations.
Generally, enough real estate is acquired at the terminals to permit the use of large, high-gain antennas
aimed at opposite terminals of each link. This increases the effective radiated power and the sensitivity
of the receiving system; it also reduces susceptibility of a circuit to interference.
With the path length and direction fixed, other propagation factors are simplified and highly reliable
communications can be achieved.
SHIP-TO-SHORE. This application of the HF band is more difficult than point-to-point since the ship is
moving and constantly changing its position. In ship-to-shore the path length and direction are variable.
Aboard ship, limited space and other restrictions prohibit installation of large, efficient HF antennas.
Because of the mobility of ships, shipboard antennas are designed to be as nearly omnidirectional as
possible.
Our problems are not as severe at the shore terminal where we have sufficient space for efficient
omnidirectional antennas or arrays designed for coverage of large areas of the earth. At shore stations,
rotatable, high-gain antennas or fixed, point-to-point antennas are used. For example, a rhombic
antenna ashore may work well for long-haul, ship-to-shore communications when the ship is within
range of the antenna.
Several frequencies are usually assigned for each circuit. Therefore, a frequency can be selected that
best matches the propagation path conditions between the shore terminal and the ship.
GROUND-TO-AIR. The use of HF radio for ground-to-air communications is similar to ship-to-shore.

The only exception is an aircraft moves more rapidly than a ship. All major circuit improvements must
be made at the ground station. For example, higher powered transmitters, lower noise receivers, and
more efficient antennas must be used on the ground.
FLEET BROADCASTS. As the name implies, this service involves broadcast area coverage from
shore-based transmitters to ships at sea. Messages to be sent to ships are delivered by various means
to the proper broadcast station. They are then broadcast for shipboard reception. To overcome
propagation problems, radio operator send the messages on several frequencies at once. This is
known as frequency-diversity transmission. This type of transmission allows the ship to choose the best
frequency for reception. Space-diversity with physically separated receive antennas also helps to
overcome this problem.
2.3.6 Very-High-Frequency and Above Communications
Frequencies above 30 megahertz are not normally refracted by the atmosphere and ground-wave
range is minimal. This normally limits our use of this frequency spectrum to line of sight. The exception
to this is increased range through the use of tropospheric scatter techniques. Some communications
using VHF and above frequencies use a technique called forward propagation by tropospheric scatter
(fpts). This method will be discussed in more detail later.
Certain atmospheric and ionospheric conditions can also cause the normal line-of-sight range to be
extended. Frequencies at the lower end of this band are capable of overcoming the shielding effects of
hills and structures to some degree; but as the frequency is increased, the problem becomes more
pronounced. Reception is notably free from atmospheric and man-made static. (The very-high-
frequency (VHF) and ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) bands are known as line-of-sight transmission bands.)
Because this is line-of-sight communications, the transmitting antenna is in a direct line with the
receiving antenna and not over the horizon. The line-of-sight characteristic makes the VHF band ideal
for amphibious operations (beach landing from sea craft) and the UHF well suited for tactical voice
transmissions (maneuvering of ships traveling together). The superhigh-frequency (SHF) band is used
for radar and satellite communications, whereas the extremely high-frequency (EHF) band is used only
in the experimental stage.
Table 2-2. Frequency Bands of Microwaves.

Band Frequency Range (GHz) Applications
L 1–2 military telemetry, GPS, mobile phones (GSM), amateur
radio
S 2–4 weather radar, surface ship radar, and some
communications satellites
C 4–8 long-distance radio telecommunications
X 8 – 12 satellite communications, radar, terrestrial broadband, space
communications, amateur radio
Ku 12 – 18 satellite communications
K 18 – 26.5 radar, satellite communications, astronomical observations
Ka 26.5 – 40 satellite communications
Q 30 – 50 satellite communications, terrestrial microwave
communications, radio astronomy, automotive radar
U 40 – 60 experimental
V 50 – 75 WLAN, 802.11 ad/WiGig, millimeter wave radar research
and other kinds of scientific research
E 60 – 90 UHF transmissions (Television broadcasts, microwave
ovens, microwave devices/communications, radio
astronomy, mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee,
GPS and two-way radios such as Land Mobile, FRS and
GMRS radios, amateur radio)
W 75 – 110 satellite communications, millimeter-wave radar research,
military radar targeting and tracking applications, and some
non-military applications
F 90 – 140 SHF transmissions: Radio astronomy, microwave
devices/communications, wireless LAN, most modern
radars, communications satellites, satellite television
broadcasting, DBS, amateur radio
D 110 – 170 EHF transmissions: Radio astronomy, high-frequency
microwave radio relay, microwave remote sensing, amateur
radio, directed-energy weapon, millimeter wave scanner
2.4 Modes of Operation
Communications links have numerous modes of operation. In our discussion, a mode of operation is
identified as a link or path between two or more points that is capable of providing one or more
channels for the transmission of intelligence. Let's take a look at the five most common modes of
operation.
SIMPLEX. The simplex mode uses a single channel or frequency to exchange information between two
or more terminals. Communications is in one direction only.
HALF DUPLEX. Half-duplex is a type of communication in which data can flow back and forth between
two devices, but not simultaneously. Each device in a half-duplex system can send and receive data,
but only one device can transmit at a time. The half-duplex mode has one-way flow of information
between terminals. Technical arrangements often permit transmission in either direction, but not
simultaneously. This term must be qualified to show s/o (send only), r/o (receive only), or s/r (send or
receive).
An example of a half-duplex device is a CB (citizens band) radio. The CB protocol, which is used by
truckers, police officers, and other mobile personnel, allows users to communicate back and forth on a
specific radio frequency. However, since the CB protocol only supports half-duplex communication,
only person can speak at a time. This is why people communicating over two-way radios often say
"over" at the end of each statement. It is a simple way of telling the recipient he or she can respond if
necessary.
SEMIDUPLEX. The semiduplex uses an arrangement of equipment where one terminal is simplex
configured and the other uses two channels or frequencies in full duplex. A clarifying example is a ship
in a simplex mode terminated full duplex with a shore station. The ship may send or receive but not do
both at the same time.
FULL DUPLEX. The full-duplex mode is a method of operation in which telecommunications between
stations takes place simultaneously in both directions using two separate frequencies. In other words, a
ship may send and receive different messages at the same time. The term "full duplex" is synonymous
with "duplex."
BROADCAST. Broadcast is the type of operation in which one station transmits information on one or
more channels directed to more than one station and/or unit. The broadcast system has no provision
for receipt or reply; however, special arrangements may require the receiving station to reply or receipt
for the message at a later time by other means. Broadcasts are the primary means of delivering
messages to the fleet. Since radio operator’s copying broadcasts are not required to receipt for
messages received, they can maintain radio silence while still receiving essential messages.
Message traffic is normally sent to the fleet by three methods: broadcast, intercept, and receipt. The
first two are "do not answer" methods; the third, as its name implies, requires a receipt from the
addressee for each message. Broadcast and intercept methods allow the fleet to preserve radio
silence, which is a great advantage from the standpoint of security. By the intercept method, a shore
radio station transmits messages to another shore station that repeats them back. Ships intercept and
copy all of this message traffic.
Broadcast is preferable to intercept chiefly because it is faster. It is the method by which nearly all fleet
traffic is handled. It uses radiotelegraph, radiotelephone, radio teletypewriter, and facsimile.
There is some similarity between civilian and naval broadcasts. Just as commercial stations in the
broadcast band transmit programs to radio receivers in the homes in their communities, Navy
communications stations broadcast messages to fleet units in their particular geographic areas. The
resemblance between Navy and commercial stations ceases there. Information broadcast by naval
communications stations is contained in chronologically numbered messages addressed to the ships.
The messages are copied by the fleet units, which check the serial numbers to ensure they have a
complete file. This checks and balances system ensures the ship has not missed any of the broadcast
message traffic.
Fleet broadcasts follow regular schedules. Messages are placed on the schedules in order of
precedence. If a message of higher precedence is given to a transmitter station while a lower
precedence message is being transmitted, the latter message may be interrupted to transmit the
message of higher precedence. All ships copy all messages appearing on the broadcast schedule they
are guarding.
Messages are normally transmitted on several frequencies to make sure they are received. This gives
the receiving station the choice of frequency selection when considering time of day and atmospheric
conditions for best reception.
2.5 Modulation Technology
For a signal to contain information, some feature of the signal must be varied in accordance with the
information to be transmitted. Early radio communications conveyed information by the presence, or
absence, of the signal. This method was soon surpassed by amplitude modulation of the radio wave by
an audio signal. The amplitude modulation process provides a means of transmitting voice
communications, and its development led to the rapid establishment of the radio broadcasting industry.
Angle modulation is another method of transmitting information widely used in high-frequency

communication systems. An angle-modulated signal is described by the equation
�(�) = �� (2�� + �� )
The amplitude remains constant, and the angle �� is varied in response to the modulating signal. Both
phase and frequency modulation can be used. One function of the receiver is to recover (demodulate)
the original from the modulated signal. Today digital modulation techniques are being more frequently
employed, particularly in satellite and telephone communication systems. Digital modulation implies
that a parameter of the signal is varied in response to a digital signal. Amplitude, phase, or frequency
modulation can be varied in response to a digital signal. That is, digital modulation is an extension of
one or more of the conventional amplitude or angle modulation methods.
There are a number of reasons for producing modulated waves, including:
• Frequency translation. The modulation process provides a vehicle to perform the necessary
frequency translation required for distribution of information. An in-put signal may be translated
•
to its assigned frequency band for transmission or radiation.
Signal processing. It is often easier to amplify or process a signal in one frequency range as
•
opposed to another.
Antenna efficiency. Generally speaking, for an antenna to be efficient, it must be large
compared with the signal wavelength. Frequency translation provided by modulation allows
antenna gain and beamwidth to become part of the system de-sign considerations. The use of
•
higher frequencies permits antenna structures of reasonable size and cost.
Bandwidth modification. The modulation process permits the bandwidth of the input signal to be
increased or decreased as required by the application. Band-width reduction permits more
efficient use of the spectrum, at the cost of signal fidelity. Increased bandwidth, on the other
•
hand, provides increased immunity to transmission channel disturbances.
Signal multiplexing. In a given transmission system, it may be necessary or desirable to
combine several different signals into one baseband waveform for distribution. Modulation
provides the vehicle for such multiplexing. Various modulation schemes allow separate signals
to be combined at the transmission end and separated (de-multiplexed) at the receiving end.
Multiplexing may be accomplished by using, among other systems, frequency-domain
multiplexing (FDM) or time-domain multiplexing (TDM).
Modulation of a signal does not come without the possible introduction of undesirable attributes.
Bandwidth restriction or the addition of noise or other disturbances are the two primary problems faced
by the transmission system designer.
Jerry, C. W. (2000). The Communications Facility Design Handbook. Florida: CRC Press LLC. 23
2.5.1 Sine Wave Characteristics
The basic alternating waveform for all complex waveforms is the sine wave. Therefore, an
understanding of sine wave characteristics and how they can be acted upon is essential for you to
understand modulation. A modulating signal can be expressed mathematically by the formula:
�(�) = �� sin(2�� + ∅� ) (2.1)

�ℎ��
�(�) = �� ℎ� ��
�� = �� ℎ� ��
�� = �ℎ� �� ℎ� �� ℎ��
� = ��
�� = �ℎ�� ℎ��
2.5.1.1 Amplitude
A sine wave is used to represent values of electrical current or voltage. The greater its height, the
greater the value it represents. As you have studied, a sine wave alternately rises above and then falls
below the reference line. That part above the line represents a positive value and is referred to as a
positive alternation. That part of the cycle below the line has a negative value and is referred to as a
negative alternation. The maximum value, above or below the reference line, is called the peak
amplitude. The value at any given point along the reference line is called the instantaneous amplitude.
2.5.1.2 Phase
Phase or phase angle indicates how much of a cycle has been completed at any given instant. This
merely describes the angle that exists between the starting point of the vector and its position at that
instant. The number of degrees of vector rotation and the number of degrees of the resultant sine wave
that have been completed will be the same. For example, at time position 2 of figure 2-7, the vector has
rotated to 60 degrees and 60 degrees of the resultant sine wave has been completed. Therefore, both
are said to have an instantaneous phase angle of 60 degrees.
Figure 2-7. Generation of sine-wave voltage.
2.5.1.3 Frequency
The rate at which the vector rotates determines the frequency of the sine wave that is generated; that
is, the faster the vector rotates, the more cycles completed in a given time period. The basic time period
used is 1 second. If a vector completes one revolution per 1 second, the resultant sine wave has a
frequency 1 cycle per second (1 hertz). If the rate of rotation is increased to 1,000 revolutions per
second, the frequency of the sine wave generated will be 1,000 cycles per second (1 kilohertz).
2.5.1.4 Period
Another term that is important in the discussion of a sine wave is its duration, or PERIOD. The period of
a cycle is the elapsed time from the beginning of a cycle to its completion. If the vector shown in figure
2-7 were to make 1 revolution per second, each cycle of the resultant sine wave would have a period of
1 second. If it were rotating at a speed of 1,000 revolutions per second, each revolution would require
1/1,000 of a second and the period of the resultant sine wave would be 1/1,000 of a second. This
illustrates that the period is related to the frequency. As the number of cycles completed in 1 second
increases, the period of each cycle will decrease proportionally. This relationship is shown in the
following formulas:
1 1
�= �� = (2.2)
� �
�ℎ��
� = �� ℎ��
� = ��
2.5.1.5 Wavelength
The wavelength of a sine wave is determined by its physical length. During the period a wave is being
generated, its leading edge is moving away from the source at 300,000,000 meters per second. The
physical length of the sine wave is determined by the amount of time it takes to complete one full cycle.
This wavelength is an important factor in determining the size of equipments used to generate and
transmit radio frequencies.
To help you understand the magnitude of the distance a wavefront (the initial part of a wave) travels
during 1 cycle, we will compute the wavelengths (l;) of several frequencies. Consider a vector that
rotates at 1 revolution per second. The resultant sine wave is transmitted into space by an antenna. As
the vector moves from its 0-degree starting position, the wavefront begins to travel away from the
antenna. When the vector reaches the 360-degree position, and the sine wave is completed, the sine
wave is stretched out over 300,000,000 meters. The reason the sine wave is stretched over such a
great distance is that the wavefront has been moving away from the antenna at 300,000,000 meters
per second. This is shown in the following example:
� = �� (�) × �� (�) (2.3)

= 300,000,000 �� −1 × 1 ��
= 300,000,000 �
If a vector were rotating at 1,000 revolutions per second, its period would be 0.001 second. By applying
the formula for wavelength, you would find that the wavelength is 300,000 meters:
� = �� (�) × �� (�)

= 300,000,000 �� −1 × 0.001 ��
= 300,000 �
Since we normally know the frequency of a sine wave instead of its period, the wavelength is easier to
find using the frequency:
�� (�)
�= (2.4)
�� (�)
Thus, for a sine wave with a frequency of 1,000,000 hertz (1 megahertz), the wavelength would be 300
meters, as shown below:
�� (�)

�=
�� (�)
300,000,000 �� −1
=
1,000,000 ��
= 300 �
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength of a sine wave. This important relationship
between frequency and wavelength is illustrated in table 2-3.
Table 2-3. Radio frequency versus wavelength.

FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
METRIC U.S.
300,000 MHz .001 m .04 in
EHF-
30,000 MHz .01 m .39 in
SHF-
3,000 MHz .1 m 3.94 in
UHF--
300 MHz 1m 39.37 in
VHF---
30 MHz 10 m 10.93 yd
HF----
3 MHz 100 m 109.4 yd
MF----
300 kHz 1 km .62 mi
LF----
30 kHz 10 km 6.2 mi
VLF-----
3 kHz 100 km 62 mi
2.5.2 Amplitude Modulated Systems
Amplitude modulation (AM) is the process of varying the amplitude of the carrier radio wave in
proportion to the modulating signal. The information being conveyed by the transmitted radio signal,
normally CW coded signals or voice, is directly related to changes in amplitude of the RF signal.
Amplitude modulation includes continuous wave (CW) modulation, tone (pulse) modulation, double-
sideband (DSB) modulation and single sideband (SSD) modulation.
2.5.2.1 Continuous Wave Modulation
The "on-off" KEYING of a continuous wave (CW) carrier frequency was the principal method of
modulating a carrier in the early days of electrical communications. The intervals of time when a carrier
either was present or absent conveyed the desired intelligence. This is still used in modern
communications. When applied to a continuously oscillating radio-frequency source, on-off keying is
referred to as CW signaling. This type of communication is sometimes referred to as an interrupted
continuous wave (icw).
The use of a CW transmitter can be very simple. All that is required for the transmitter to work properly
is a device to generate the oscillations, a method of keying the oscillations on and off, and an antenna
to radiate the energy. Continuous wave was the first type of modulation used. It is still extensively used
for long-range communications. When Marconi and others were attempting the transfer of intelligence
between two points, without reliance on a conducting path, they employed the use of a practical coding
system known as Morse code. You probably know that Morse code is a system of on-off keying
developed for telegraph that is capable of passing intelligence over wire at an acceptable rate. Morse
code consists only of periods of signal and no-signal.
Figure 2-8 is the International Morse code used with telegraphy and CW modulation. Each character in
the code is made up of a series of elements referred to as DOTS or DASHES. These are short (dot)
and long (dash) bursts of signal separated by intervals of no signal. The dot is the basic time element of
the code. The dash has three times the duration of a dot interval. The waveforms for both are shown in
figure 2-9. The elements within each character are separated by intervals of no signal with a time
duration of one dot. The characters are separated by a no-signal interval equal in duration to one dash.
Each interval during which signal is present is called the MARKING interval, and the period of no signal
is called the SPACING interval. Figure 2-10 shows the relationships between the rf carrier view (A), the
on-off keying waveform view (B), and the resultant carrier wave view (C).
Figure 2-8. International Morse code.
Figure 2-9. Dot and dash in radiotelegraph code.
Figure 2-10A. Essential elements of ON-OFF keying.
Figure 2-10B. Essential elements of ON-OFF keying.
Figure 2-10C. Essential elements of ON-OFF keying.
Keying a transmitter causes an rf signal to be radiated only when the key contacts are closed. When
the key contacts are open, the transmitter does not radiate energy. Keying is accomplished in either the
oscillator or amplifier stage of a transmitter. A number of different keying systems are used in Navy
transmitters.
In most Navy transmitters, the hand telegraph key is at a low-voltage potential with respect to ground. A
keying bar is usually grounded to protect the operator. Generally, a keying relay, with its contacts in the
center-tap lead of the filament transformer, is used to key the equipment. Because one or more stages
use the same filament transformer, these stages are also keyed. A class C final amplifier, when
operated with fixed bias, is usually not keyed. This is because no output occurs when no excitation is
applied in class C operation. Keying the final amplifier along with the other stages is not necessary in
this case.
2.5.2.2 Conventional Amplitude Modulation
The telegraph and radiotelegraph improved man's ability to communicate by allowing speedy passage
of information between two distant points. However, it failed to satisfy one of man's other
communications needs; that is, the ability to hear and be heard, by voice, at a great distance. In an
effort to improve on the telegraph, Alexander Graham Bell developed the principles on which modern
communications are built. He developed the modulation of an electric current by complex waveforms,
the demodulation of the resulting wave, and recovery of the original waveform.
An amplitude-modulated signal can be produced by using the instantaneous amplitude of the

information signal (the baseband or modulating signal) to vary the peak amplitude of a higher-
frequency signal. Figure 2-11(a) shows a baseband signal consisting of a 1-kHz sine wave, which can
be combined with the 10-kHz carrier signal shown in Figure 2-11(b) to produce the amplitude-
modulated signal of Figure 2-11(c). If the peaks of the individual waveforms of the modulated signal are
joined, an envelope results that resembles the original modulating signal. It repeats at the modulating
frequency, and the shape of each “half” (positive or negative) is the same as that of the modulating
signal.
Figure 2-11. Amplitude modulation.
Ferril, A. L. (2002). RF systems, components, and circuits handbook 2nd ed. Norwood: Artech House.
Blake, R. (2001). Wireless communication technology. Albany: Delmar. 29
AM is created by using the instantaneous modulating signal voltage to vary the amplitude of the
modulated signal. The carrier is almost always a sine wave. The modulating signal can be a sine wave,
but is more often an arbitrary waveform, such as an audio signal. However, an analysis of sine-wave
modulation is very useful, since Fourier analysis often allows complex signals to be expressed as a
series of sinusoids. We can express the relationship by means of an equation:
�(�) = (�� + �(�)) sin 2�� (2.5)

�ℎ��
�(�) = ��
�� = ��
�(�) = ��
�� = ��
� = ��
if
�(�) = �� sin 2��

�ℎ��
�� = ��
�� = ��
then.
�(�) = (�� + �� sin 2�� ) sin 2�� (2.6)
Figure 2-12 shows the waveform and the frequency spectrum for conventional AM as used for standard
AM radio. The modulating signal in the figure is a single sine wave with 100% modulation. The RF
frequency is constant, and the amplitude is made proportional to the amplitude of the information being
sent.
Figure 2-12. Waveform and frequency spectrum for a conventional AM signal with single sine wave
modulation and 100% modulation.
The ratio between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and the carrier is defined as the modulation
index, m. Mathematically,
��
�= (2.7)
��
Substituting m into Equation (2.6) gives:
�(�) = �� (1 + � sin 2�� ) sin 2�� (2.8)
The modulation index (m) is a number between 0 and 1. This ratio often is expressed as a percentage
modulation varying between 0%and 100%. This is an example of analogue communication in which
signals are continuously variable rather than being digital or on-off in nature.
The relative power in the sidebands and the carrier depends on the percentage of modulation. If we
had 100% modulation, the voltage of each sideband for single sine wave modulation would be one-half
the voltage of the carrier. The power in each sideband therefore would be one-fourth the carrier power,
and the total side-band power would be one-half the carrier power. The maximum power in the side-
bands is thus only one-third the total power transmitted. Since it is only the sideband power that carries
information, this is very poor efficiency compared to FM and some other modulation methods.
Figure 2-13 shows conventional amplitude modulation with 50% modulation (M = 0.5). Again, the
modulating signal is a single sine wave. The sideband voltage amplitude for each sideband is one-
fourth the amplitude of the carrier. The side-band power for each sideband is one-sixteenth the power
of the carrier, and the total sideband power is one-eighth the carrier power.
If we had only 10% modulation, the voltage of each sideband for single sine wave modulation would be
only one-twentieth the voltage of the carrier, and the power in each sideband would be only one-four
hundredth the power in the carrier. The efficiency in this case would be very low.
The required bandwidth for conventional AM is typically twice the highest modulating frequency that we
wish to pass. For example, with telephone and many voice communication radio systems, it usually is
adequate to pass only a 3-kHz (300 to 3,300 Hz) bandwidth. The two sidebands on each side of the
carrier thus would have a maximum width of 3 kHz and the total bandwidth would be 6.6 kHz.
Figure 2-13. Waveform and frequency spectrum for a conventional AM signal with single sine wave
modulation input and 50% modulation.
2.5.2.3 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation
Although both the carrier and the modulating signal may be sine waves, the modulated AM waveform is
not a sine wave. This can be seen from a simple examination of the waveform of Figure 2-11(c). If an
AM signal is not a sine wave, then what is it? We already have a mathematical expression, given by
Equation (2.8). Expanding it and using a trigonometric identity will prove useful. Expanding gives:
�(�) = �� sin 2�� + �� sin 2�� sin 2��
The first term is just the carrier. The second can be expanded using the trigonometric identity to give:
�� (2.9)

�(�) = �� sin 2�� + cos 2�(�� − �� )� − cos 2�(�� + �� )�
2 2
We now have, in addition to the original carrier, two other sinusoidal waves, one above the carrier
frequency and one below. When the complete signal is sketched in the frequency domain as in Figure
2-14, we see the carrier and two additional frequencies, one to each side. These are called, logically
enough, side frequencies. The separation of each side frequency from the carrier is equal to the
modulating frequency; and the relative amplitude of the side frequency, compared with the carrier, is
proportional to m, becoming half the carrier voltage for m = 1. In a real situation there is generally more
than one set of side frequencies, because there is more than one modulating frequency. Each
modulating frequency produces two side frequencies. Those above the carrier can be grouped into a
band of frequencies called the upper sideband. There is also a lower sideband, which looks like a
mirror image of the upper, reflected in the carrier.
Figure 2-14. AM in the frequency domain.
From now on we will generally use the term sideband, rather than side frequency, even for the case of
single-tone modulation, because it is more general and more commonly used in practice.
Mathematically, we have:
�� = �� + �� (2.10)
�� = �� − �� (2.11)
�� = ��
��
= (2.12)
2
�ℎ��
�� = ��
�� = ��
�� = �� ℎ� ��
�� = �� ℎ� ��
Figure 2-15 shows the case of double-sideband (DSB) suppressed carrier modulation for a single sine
wave modulation signal. The frequency spectrum thus shows only a lower sideband and an upper
sideband but no carrier line.
Figure 2-15. Waveform and frequency spectrum for a DSB suppressed carrier modulation (AM) signal
with single sine wave modulation.
The DSB signal usually is produced by a modulator known as a balanced modulator, which rejects the
carrier frequency component. The operation of this circuit is as follows. Assume that the carrier input
signal is sinusoidal and appears at the local oscillator (LO) input of the modulator as Ec sin 2πfct and
that the modulating input signal to the modulator is Em sin 2πfmt. The modulator performs a
multiplication of the input signals, and the output is given by equation 2.9:
We see that the modulator has generated the sum and difference frequencies. It should be pointed out
that that is the same circuit or device that could be used for a mixer. The balanced mixer has as one of
its inputs an LO signal and as the other signal a signal that we want to frequency convert. The mixer
generates sum and difference frequencies as indicated by (2.9). A filter is used to select which of the
two output frequencies we want to pass. If the output selected is the sum frequency, we say that the
system is a upper sideband. If the output selected is the difference frequency, we say that the system
is a lower sideband.
2.5.2.4 Single-Sideband Modulation
One of the more important types of analog modulation used for communications is single-sideband
(SSB) modulation. Since single-sideband is a variant of AM, an SSB signal does have an enve-lope
and must be used with linear amplifiers. The envelope is different from that for a full-carrier AM signal,
however. Figure 2-16 shows a signal with two modulation frequencies, called a two-tone test signal.
Note that the envelope is caused by the algebraic addition of the two sideband components. Its fre-
quency is that of the difference between the two modulating signal frequen-cies, in this case 2 kHz.
This type of amplitude modulation is much more efficient than standard AM because it is not necessary
to transmit the full carrier. It also uses only half the frequency bandwidth.
Figure 2-16. Two-tone modulation.
Figure 2-17 shows the spectra for two types of SSB modulation. For simplicity, a single sine wave
modulating signal is assumed. Figure 7.6(a) shows an SSB reduced carrier. In this case, sufficient
carrier is transmitted to permit the receiver to have a carrier reference on which to lock. The receiver
then generates the necessary carrier signal for demodulation of the SSB signals.
Figure 2-17. SSB modulation: (a) SSB reduced carrier frequency spectrum and (b) SSB suppressed
carrier frequency spectrum.
Figure 2-17(b) shows the second type of SSB modulation, SSB suppressed carrier. In this case, there
is essentially no carrier signal for the receiver to lock on. In some cases, SSB modulation can be
produced with a balanced modulator and a bandpass filter. The balanced modulator eliminates the
carrier; the filter must eliminate nearly all the signals on one side of the carrier. In some cases, that is
done easily. In other cases, adequate filtering is difficult to realize. That is especially true for the case of
low baseband frequencies that are very close to the carrier. An alternative approach for SSB
modulation is use of a phase cancellation method.
2.5.2.5 Tone (Pulse) Modulation (Amplitude-Shift Keying)
When complex signals such as pulses or rectangular waves modulate a carrier, a broad spectrum of
sidebands are produced. According to Fourier theory, complex signals such as square waves,
triangular waves, sawtooth waves, and distorted sine waves are simply made up of a fundamental sine
wave and numerous harmonic signals at different amplitudes. Assume that a carrier is amplitude-
modulated by a square wave which is made up of a fundamental sine wave and all odd harmonics. A
modulating square wave will produce sidebands at frequencies based upon the fundamental sine wave
as well as at the third, fifth, seventh, etc., harmonics, resulting in a frequency-domain plot like that
shown in Fig. 2-18. As can be seen, pulses generate extremely wide-bandwidth signals. In order for a
square wave to be transmitted and faithfully received without distortion or degradation, all the most
significant sidebands must be passed by the antennas and the trans-mitting and receiving circuits.
Figure 2-18. Frequency spectrum of an AM signal modulated by a square wave.
Figure 2-19 shows the AM wave resulting when a square wave modulates a sine wave carrier. In Fig.
2-19(a), the percentage of modulation is 50; in Fig. 2-19(b), it is 100. In this case, when the square
wave goes negative, it drives the carrier amplitude to zero. Amplitude modulation by square waves or
rectangular binary pulses is referred to as amplitude-shift keying (ASK). ASK is used in some types of
data communication when binary information is to be transmitted.
Figure 2-19. Amplitude modulation of a sine wave carrier by a pulse or rectangular wave is called
amplitude-shift keying. (a) Fifty percent modulation. (b) One hundred percent modulation.
As indicated earlier, the distortion of an analog signal by overmodulation also generates harmonics. For
example, the spectrum produced by a 500-Hz sine wave modulating a carrier of 1 MHz is shown in Fig.
2-20(a). The total bandwidth of the signal is 1 kHz. However, if the modulating signal is distorted, the
second, third, fourth, and higher harmonics are generated. These harmonics also modulate the carrier,
producing many more sidebands, as illustrated in Fig. 2-20(b). Assume that the distortion is such that
the harmonic amplitudes beyond the fourth harmonic are insignificant (usually less than 1 percent);
then the total bandwidth of the resulting signal is about 4 kHz instead of the 1-kHz bandwidth that
would result without overmodulation and distortion. The harmonics can overlap into adjacent channels,
where other signals may be present and interfere with them. Such harmonic sideband interference is
sometimes called splatter because of the way it sounds at the receiver. Overmodulation and splatter
are easily eliminated simply by reducing the level of the modulating signal by using gain control or in
some cases by using amplitude-limiting or compression circuits.
Figure 2-20. The effect of overmodulation and distortion on AM signal bandwidth. (a) Sine wave of 500
Hz modulating a 1-MHz carrier. (b) Distorted 500-Hz sine wave with significant second, third, and fourth
harmonics.
Straightforward amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is rare in digital communication unless we count Morse
code, but quadrature AM (QAM) is very common. It is a combination of amplitude and phase
modulation. It increases the number of bits per symbol to achieve high data rates with narrowband
channel.
For a given system, there is a finite number of allowable amplitude-phase combinations. Figure 2-21(a)
is a constellation diagram that shows the possibilities for a hypothetical system with sixteen
amplitude/phase combinations. Thus each transmitted symbol represents four bits. This diagram is
similar to the previous figure except that the vectors are not drawn. Each dot represents a possible
amplitude/phase combination or state. With a noiseless channel, the number of combinations could be
increased indefinitely, but a practical limit is reached when the difference between adjacent states
becomes too small to be detected reliably in the presence of noise and distortion. If a QAM signal is
applied to the oscilloscope, the noise can be seen as a blurring of the points in the constellation, as
shown in Figure 2-21(b).
Figure 2-21. Quadrature AM.
In fixed terrestrial microwave systems QAM is used with quite a large number of states—up to 1024 in
some cases. This requires a very high signal-to-noise ratio however, and portable and mobile systems
are much more limited.
QAM is more efficient in terms of bandwidth than either FSK or QPSK, but it is also more susceptible to
noise. Another disadvantage compared to FSK is that QAM signals, like analogue AM signals, vary in
amplitude. This means that transmitter amplifiers must be linear.
2.5.2.6 Amplitude Modulated Bandwidth
Signal bandwidth is one of the most important characteristics of any modulation scheme. In general, a
narrow bandwidth is desirable. In any situation where spectrum space is limited, a narrow bandwidth
allows more signals to be transmitted simultaneously than does a wider bandwidth. It also allows a
narrower bandwidth to be used in the receiver. The receiver must have a wide enough bandwidth to
pass the complete signal, including all the sidebands, or distortion will result. Since thermal noise is
evenly distributed over the frequency domain, a narrower receiver bandwidth include less noise and
this increases the signal-to-noise ratio, unless there are other factors.
The bandwidth calculation is very easy for AM. The signal extends from the lower side frequency, which
is the difference between the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency, to the upper side
frequency, at the sum of the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency. The difference between
these is simply twice the modulation frequency. If there is more than one modulating frequency, the
bandwidth is twice the highest modulating frequency. Mathematically, the relationship is:
� = 2�� (2.13)
�ℎ��
� = ��ℎ �� ℎ��
�� = �ℎ� ℎ��ℎ�� ℎ��
2.5.3 Frequency Modulated Systems
Frequency modulation (FM) is probably the most commonly used analogue modulation technique,
seeing application in everything from broadcasting to cordless phones. Phase modulation (PM) is rarely
used in analogue systems but is very common in digital communication. Obviously, frequency and
phase are very closely related, so it makes sense to discuss the two schemes together. In fact, they are
often grouped under the heading of angle modulation.
In our discussion of amplitude modulation, we found that the amplitude of the modulated signal varied
in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. In FM it is the frequency, and
in PM the phase of the modulated signal that varies with the amplitude of the modulating signal. This is
important to remember: in all types of modulation it is the amplitude, not the frequency, of the baseband
signal that does the modulating.
The amplitude and power of an angle-modulation signal do not change with modulation. Thus, an FM
signal has no envelope. This is actually an advantage; an FM receiver does not have to respond to
amplitude variations, and this lets it ignore noise to some extent. Similarly, FM equipment can use
nonlinear amplifiers throughout, since amplitude linearity is not important.
With standard FM, the waveform amplitude is constant, and the RF frequency is made proportional to
the amplitude of the information being sent. This type of modulation is used for voice for television,
broadcast FM radio, and many other types of communication systems. The frequency spectrum for FM
is more complex than that for AM. In the case of a simple single sine wave modulation signal, the FM
voltage is given by
�(�) = �� sin�2�� + �� sin(2�� )� (2.14)

�ℎ��
�� = ��
The maximum amount by which the transmitted frequency shifts in one direction from the carrier
frequency is defined as the deviation. The total frequency swing is thus twice the deviation. A frequency
modulation index, mƒ, is also defined:
Δ�
�� = (2.15)
��
�ℎ��
Δ� = �� ℎ��
The FM modulation index varies with the modulating frequency, unlike the case for AM. This choice of a
definition for mf causes the modulation index to be equal to the peak phase deviation in radians, which
is inversely proportional to the modulating frequency. The modulation index for phase modulation is
also defined as the peak phase deviation.
Note that we have the case of a sine of a sine. This requires Bessel functions of the first kind for
solution. An expansion of (2.14) using Bessel functions is shown as (2.16).
�(�) = �� {�0 �� 2��

+ �1 �� [sin 2�(�� + �� )� − sin 2�(�� − �� )�]
+ �2 �� [sin 2�(�� + 2�� )� − sin 2�(�� − 2�� )�]
+ �3 �� [sin 2�(�� + 3�� )� − sin 2�(�� − 3�� )�] … } (2.16)
It can be seen that the output consists of a carrier and an apparently infinite number of pairs of
sidelobes, each preceded by a J coefficient. These are Bessel functions of the first kind and of the
order denoted by the subscript, with the argument mf. The spacing between spectral lines is the
modulation frequency. Thus, if the modulation frequency is 3 kHz, the spacing between spectrum lines
is 3 kHz. Fortunately, only a limited number of spectral lines are large enough in amplitude to be
important. It is important to note that the carrier term is not always the largest; in fact, it can be zero
amplitude.
Table 2-4 shows Bessel functions of the first kind as a function of the modulation index, mf. The
number of lines on either side of the carrier that are significant is shown by this plot as well as the
magnitude and sign (phase) of the components.
Table 2-4. Bessel functions of the first kind.

Order
x
(n)
J0 J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9
0.00 1.00
0.25 0.98 0.12
0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03
1.0 0.77 0.44 0.03
1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.01
2.0 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03
2.5 −0.05 0.50 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.02
3.0 −0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01
4.0 −0.40 −0.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02
5.0 −0.18 −0.33 0.05 0.36 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.05 0.02
6.0 0.15 −0.28 −0.24 0.11 0.36 0.36 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.02
7.0 0.30 0.00 −0.30 −0.17 0.16 0.35 0.34 0.23 0.13 0.06
8.0 0.17 0.23 −0.11 −0.29 −0.10 0.19 0.34 0.32 0.22 0.13
9.0 −0.09 0.24 0.14 −0.18 −0.27 −0.06 0.20 0.33 0.30 0.21
For an example of the use of Table 2-4, assume a narrowband FM system such as used for many
types of voice communication. The maximum deviation is assumed to be 5 kHz, and the modulation
frequency is assumed to be 1 kHz. The FM modulation index is the deviation divided by the modulation
frequency, so the modulation index for this example is 5.0. From Table 2-4, we see that there are six
spectrum lines with significant amplitudes on either side of the carrier. Because each line is spaced by
the modulation frequency of 1 kHz, the required bandwidth to pass all spectrum lines shown is 12 kHz.
Some of the terms in Table 2-4 are negative and some are positive. A negative sign indicates a change
of phase by 180 degrees. That is the case for the carrier and the first sidebands for the example in the
preceding paragraph. The rule of thumb known as Carson’s rule states that the approximate bandwidth
required to pass an FM signal is twice the sum of the deviation and the highest modulating frequency.
Using the previous example and Carson’s rule, the required bandwidth to pass this FM wave is 2 x (5 +
1) = 12 kHz, the same answer that we obtained using the Bessel plot.
Figure 2-22 shows plots of the FM frequency spectrum for modulation index values of 0.5, 2.5, and 5.0
with amplitudes determined by Table 2-4. The modulation frequency is assumed constant at 1 kHz for
those plots.
Figure 2-22. Example frequency spectra for FM: (a) spectrum for a modulation index of 0.5; (b)
spectrum for a modulation index of 2.5; and (c) spectrum for a modulation index of 5.0.
Wideband frequency modulation is used for FM broadcast and television. Maximum permissible
deviation is 75 kHz for FM broadcast. The permissible deviation for the sound accompanying television
transmissions is 25 kHz in the United States and 50 kHz in Europe. The modulation frequency range for
FM broadcast is 30 Hz to 15 kHz. Thus, the maximum modulation index ranges from 5 to 2,500 in
entertainment broadcasting.
Narrowband FM with modulation bandwidths of 3 kHz or less is used by the so-called FM mobile
communication services, which include police, ambulance, taxi cabs, fire departments, radio-controlled
appliance repair services, ground-to-air communication services, and short-range ship-to-shore
services. The higher audio frequencies (above 3 kHz) are attenuated as they are in most long-distance
telephone systems, but the resulting speech quality is still perfectly adequate. Maximum deviations of 5
to 10 kHz are permitted, and channel spacing is not much greater than for AM broadcasting (of the
order of 15 to 30 kHz).
Preemphasis and deemphasis are used with all FM transmissions. Noise has a greater effect on the
higher modulating frequencies than on the lower ones. If the higher audio frequency signals are
artificially boosted in amplitude at the transmitter and correspondingly cut in amplitude at the receiver,
an improvement in noise immunity can be expected. This boosting in amplitude of the higher
frequencies is called preemphasis. The corresponding reduction in amplitude of the higher frequencies
at the receiver is called deemphasis.
Other FM spectra of interest are those for frequency sweep modulation (chirp modulation), as used for
radar. They have complex multiple-line spectra with frequency components spaced by the pulse
repetition frequency and a spectral width somewhat greater than two times the frequency deviation.
2.5.3.1 Frequency Modulated Bandwidth
The calculation of the bandwidth of an FM signal from Bessel functions is easy enough, since the
functions are available in a table, but it can be a bit tedious. There is an approximation, known as
Carson’s rule, that can be used to find the bandwidth of an FM signal. It is not as accurate as using
Bessel functions, but can be applied almost instantly, without using tables or even a calculator.
Here is Carson’s rule:
� = 2(Δ�(��) + ��(��) ) (2.17)
Equation (2.17) assumes that the bandwidth is proportional to the sum of the deviation and the
modulating frequency. This is not strictly true. Carson’s rule also makes the assumption that maximum
deviation occurs with the maximum modulating frequency. Sometimes this leads to errors in practical
situations, where often the highest baseband frequencies have much less amplitude than lower
frequencies, and therefore do not produce as much deviation.
2.5.3.2 Narrowband and Wideband FM
We mentioned earlier that there are no theoretical limits to the modulation index or the frequency
deviation of an FM signal. The limits are practical and result from a compromise between signal-to-
noise ratio and bandwidth. In general, larger values of deviation result in an increased signal-to-noise
ratio, while also resulting in greater bandwidth. The former is desirable, but the latter is not, especially
in regions of the spectrum where frequency space is in short supply. It is also necessary to have some
agreement about deviation, since receivers must be designed for a particular signal bandwidth.
For these reasons, the bandwidth of FM transmissions is generally limited by government regulations
that specify the maximum frequency deviation and the maximum modulating frequency, since both of
these affect bandwidth. In general, relatively narrow bandwidth (on the order of 10 to 30 kHz) is used
for voice communication, with wider bandwidths for such services as FM broadcasting (about 200 kHz)
and satellite television (36 MHz for one system).
2.5.3.3 FM and Noise
The original reason for developing FM was to give improved performance in the presence of noise, and
that is still one of its main advantages over AM. This improved noise performance can actually result in
a better signal-to-noise ratio at the output of a receiver than is found at its input.
One way to approach the problem of FM and noise is to think of the noise voltage as a phasor having
random amplitude and phase angle. The noise adds to the signal, causing random variations in both
the amplitude and phase angle of the signal as seen by the receiver. Figure 2-23 shows this vector
addition.
Figure 2-23. Effect of noise on an FM signal.
The amplitude component of noise is easily dealt with in a well-designed FM system. Since FM signals
do not depend on an envelope for detection, the receiver can employ limiting to remove any amplitude
variations from the signal. That is, it can use amplifiers whose output amplitude is the same for a wide
variety of input signal levels. The effect of this on the amplitude of a noisy signal is shown in Figure 2-
24. As long as the signal amplitude is considerably larger than the noise to begin with, the amplitude
component of the noise will not be a problem.
It is not possible for the receiver to ignore phase shifts, however. A PM receiver obviously must
respond to phase changes, but so will an FM receiver because, as we have seen, phase shifts and
frequency shifts always occur together. Therefore, phase shifts due to noise are associated with
frequency shifts that will be interpreted by the receiver as part of the modulation.
Figure 2-24. Limiting.
The phase shift due to noise can be reduced by making the signal volt-age, relative to the noise
voltage, as large as possible. This requires increased transmission power, a better receiver noise
figure, or both. Perhaps less obvious is the fact that the relative importance of phase shifts due to noise
can be reduced by having the phase shifts in the signal as large as possible. This is accomplished by
keeping the value of mƒ high, since mƒ represents the peak phase shift in radians. It would seem that
the ratio of signal voltage to noise voltage at the output would be proportional to mƒ, and this is
approximately true under strong-signal conditions.
2.5.3.4 Frequency-Shift Keying
Probably the simplest digital modulation scheme in current use is frequency-shift keying (FSK). In its
simplest form two frequencies are transmit-ted, one corresponding to binary one, the other to zero. In
digital communication systems, a one is often denoted by the term mark, and a zero is called a space.
This is another holdover from telegraphy in which Morse code messages were often recorded as marks
on a paper tape. FSK is a robust scheme; that is, like analogue FM, it tends to be reliable in the
presence of noise. Its disadvantage is: since each symbol has only two possible states, it is not very
efficient in terms of bandwidth. It tends to be used for low-data-rate applications, such as pagers, and
for transmitting bursts of data over systems that are mainly analogue.
Figure 2-25. Frequency Shift Keying.
FSK is also used extensively in high-frequency radio systems for radio-teletype transmission. High-
frequency radio channels tend to be very noisy, and phase shifts induced into the signal by travel
through the ionosphere make the use of any scheme requiring accurate phase information impracti-cal.
Data rates for HF communication are very low (on the order of 100 b/s) and frequency shifts between
mark and space vary from 170 Hz to 850 Hz
Usually HF FSK is actually transmitted and received using SSBSC AM equipment. Two different audio
tones, one for mark and one for space, with the required frequency difference are chosen. These are
applied one at a time to the microphone input of the transmitter. This results in the transmission of RF
frequencies that differ by the same amount as the audio frequencies. At the receiver two audio tones
differing by the required frequency shift will be produced. Figure 2-26 shows the spectrum of a typical
HF FSK transmission, as well as a typical pair of audio tones used to modulate the transmitter.
Figure 2-26. Spectrum of HF FSK transmission.
A variant of FSK is AFSK (audio frequency-shift keying), in which two different audio frequencies,
corresponding to mark and space, are used to modulate a carrier by any of the analogue methods
discussed in Chapter 2. AFSK is often combined with FM modulation for the audio tones. Figure 2-27
shows how this can work using a VHF amateur radio link as an example. There is an extensive
amateur packet-radio network, using AFSK transmission with a frequency shift of 1 kHz between mark
and space, operating at a data rate of 1200 bits per second.
Figure 2-27. AFSK using FM equipment.
It is possible to build an FSK system with more than two different frequencies in order to increase the
number of bits per symbol, but it is usually more efficient to move to a system using phase shifts, or a
combination of amplitude and phase shifts, when this is required.
2.5.4 Phase Modulated Systems
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation that represents information as variations in the
instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Modification in phase according to low frequency will give phase
modulation. Unlike its more popular counterpart, frequency modulation (FM), PM is not widely used for
radio transmissions. This is because it tends to require more complex receiving hardware and there can
be ambiguity problems in determining whether, for example, the signal has changed phase by +180° or
-180°. PM is used, however, in digital communication for phase shift keying.
Figure 2-28. Phase modulated signal.
PM changes the phase angle of the complex envelope in direct proportion to the message signal.
Suppose that the signal to be sent (called the modulating or message signal) is m(t) and the carrier
onto which the signal is to be modulated is
�(�) = �� sin(2�� + �� ) (2.18)
Annotated:
carrier(time) = (carrier amplitude)*sin(carrier frequency*time + phase shift)
This makes the modulated signal
�(�) = �� sin(2�� + �� (�)) (2.19)

�(�) = �� sin�2�� + �� cos(2�� )�
�ℎ��
�� = ��
This shows how m(t) modulates the phase - the greater m(t) is at a point in time, the greater the phase
shift of the modulated signal at that point. It can also be viewed as a change of the frequency of the
carrier signal, and phase modulation can thus be considered a special case of FM in which the carrier
frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation.
The mathematics of the spectral behavior reveals that there are two regions of particular interest:
• For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation (AM) and exhibits its
unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and poor efficiency.
• For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is approximately
� = 2(Δ� + 1)�� (2.20)

�ℎ��
�� = ��
Δ� = �� ℎ��
As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies
around its unmodulated level. It relates to the variations in the phase of the carrier signal:
�� = Δ� (2.21)
Δ�
=
��
= ��
The end result of phase modulation is frequency modulation, but the method of achieving it and the
definition of the modulation index is different. In FM, the frequency deviation is proportional to the
modulating voltage, but in PM, the frequency deviation is proportional to both the modulating voltage
and frequency.
2.5.4.1 Phase Shift Keying
Phase shift keying can be achieved simply by defining a relative phase shift from the carrier, usually
equidistant for each required state. Therefore a two level phase modulated system, such as Binary
Phase Shift Keying, has two relative phase shifts from the carrier, + or - 90o. Typically this technique
will lead to an improved BER performance compared to MSK. The resulting signal will, however,
probably not be constant amplitude and not be very spectrally efficient due to the rapid phase
discontinuities. Some additional filtering will be required to limit the spectral occupancy. Phase
modulation requires coherent generation and as such if an IQ modulation technique is employed this
filtering can be performed at baseband.
Figure 2-29. Binary phase shift keying.
Measuring phase requires a reference phase, which would be hard to maintain accurately. Usually, the
phase of each symbol is compared with that of the previous symbol, rather than with a constant
reference. This type of PSK is more completely described as delta phase-shift keying (DPSK). Most
DPSK modems use a four-phase system called quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK or DQPSK). In
QPSK, each symbol represents two bits and the bit rate is twice the baud rate. This is called a dibit
system. Such a system can carry twice as much data in the same bandwidth as can a single-bit system
like FSK, provided the signal-to-noise ratio is high enough.
Figure 2-30 is a vector diagram that represents a typical DQPSK system. Phase shifts are given with
respect to the phase of the previous symbol. Each of the four possible phase shifts (including no shift at
all) is associated with a two-bit sequence, as shown in Table 2-5.
Table 2-5. DQPSK Coding.

Phase Shift (degrees) Symbol
0 00
+90 01
−90 1
180 1
Figure 2-30. Delta quadrature phase-shift keying.
The system shown in Figure 2-30 and Table 2-5 requires a 180 degree transition for the symbol 11.
The transmitted signal has to go to zero amplitude momentarily as it makes this transition. Accurate
transmission of this signal therefore requires a linear amplifier, unlike the case for FSK. In fact, the
amplifier should be linear all the way down to zero output. This is quite possible, of course, but linear
amplifiers are markedly less efficient than nonlinear amplifiers. The need for linearity can be reduced,
though not eliminated, by changing to a system called π/4 DQPSK. Here the allowable transitions from
the previous phase angle are ±45° and ±135°. Neither of these requires the signal amplitude to g o
through zero, relaxing the linearity requirements somewhat. A typical π/4 DQPSK system has the state
table shown in Table 2-6, and a vector diagram showing the possible transition can be found in Figure
2-31.
Table 2-6. π/4 DQPSK Coding.

Phase Shift (degrees) Symbol
45 0
135 0
−45 1
−135 1
Figure 2-31. π/4 DQPSK.
3. PROPAGATION
Propagation means "movement through a medium." This is most easily illustrated by light rays. When a
light is turned on in a darkened room, light rays travel from the light bulb throughout the room. When a
flashlight is turned on, light rays also radiate from its bulb, but are focused into a narrow beam. You can
use these examples to picture how radio waves propagate. Like the light in the room, radio waves may
spread out in all directions. They can also be focused (concentrated) like the flashlight, depending upon
the need. Radio waves are a form of radiant energy, similar to light and heat. Although they can neither
be seen nor felt, their presence can be detected through the use of sensitive measuring devices. The
speed at which both forms of waves travel is the same; they both travel at the speed of light.
You may wonder why you can see light but not radio waves, which consist of the same form of energy
as light. The reason is that you can only "see" what your eyes can detect. Your eyes can detect radiant
energy only within a fixed range of frequencies. Since the frequencies of radio waves are below the
frequencies your eyes can detect, you cannot see radio waves.
3.1 Wave Propagation

There are three basic mechanisms that impact signal propagation in a communication system. They
are reflection, refraction and diffraction.
• Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon a smooth surface
with very large dimensions compared to the RF signal wavelength (λ). Or when a radio wave
impinges on either a large rough surface or any surface whose dimensions are on the order of λ
or less, causing the reflected energy to spread out (scatter) in all directions.
• Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
dense body with large dimensions compared to λ, causing secondary waves to be formed
behind the obstructing body. Diffraction is a phenomenon that accounts for RF energy travelling
from transmitter to receiver without a line-of-sight path between the two. It is often termed
shadowing because the diffracted field can reach the receiver even when shadowed by an
•
impenetrable obstruction.
Refraction occurs when the wave leaves the boundary of one medium and enters the boundary
of a different medium, the wave then changes direction.
When a wave passes through one medium and encounters a medium having different characteristics,
three things can occur to the wave: (1) Some of the energy can be reflected back into the initial
medium;(2) some of the energy can be transmitted into the second medium where it may continue at a
different velocity; or (3) some of the energy can be absorbed by the medium.
3.1.1 Reflection
Reflection waves are simply waves that are neither transmitted nor absorbed, but are reflected from the
surface of the medium they encounter. If a wave is directed against a reflecting surface, such as a
mirror, it will reflect or "bounce" from the mirror. Refer to figure 3-1. A wave directed toward the surface
of the mirror is called the incident wave. When the wave bounces off of the mirror, it becomes known as
the reflected wave. An imaginary line perpendicular to the mirror at the point at which the incident wave
strikes the mirror’s surface is called the normal, or perpendicular. The angle between the incident wave
and the normal is called the angle of incidence. The angle between the reflected wave and the normal
is called the angle of reflection.
FM 6-02.53. (2009). Tactical radio operations. Washington, DC- Headquarters Department of the Army.48
Figure 3-1. Reflection of a wave.
If the reflecting surface is smooth and polished, the angle between the incident ray and the normal will
be the same as the angle between the reflected ray and the normal. This conforms to the law of
reflection which states: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
The amount of incident wave energy reflected from a given surface depends on the nature of the
surface and the angle at which the wave strikes the surface. As the angle of incidence increases, the
amount of wave energy reflected increases. The reflected energy is the greatest when the wave is
nearly parallel to the reflecting surface. When the incident wave is perpendicular to the surface, more of
the energy is transmitted into the substance and less is reflected. At any incident angle, a mirror reflects
almost all of the wave energy, while a dull, black surface reflects very little.
Often, it is possible to communicate beyond the normal LOS distance by exploiting the reflection from a
tall building, nearby mountain, or water tower. If the top portion of a structure or hill can be seen readily
by both transmitting and receiving antennas, it may be possible to achieve practical communications by
directing both antennas toward the point of maximum reflection. If the reflecting object is very large in
terms of a wavelength, the path loss, including the reflection, can be very low.
If a structure or hill exists adjacent to an LOS path, reflected energy may either add to or subtract from
the energy arriving from the direct path. If the reflected energy arrives at the receiving antenna with the
same amplitude (strength) as the direct signal but has the opposite phase, both signals will cancel and
communication will be impossible. However, if the same condition exists but both signals arrive in
phase, they will add and double the signal strength. These two conditions represent destructive and
constructive combinations of the reflected and direct waves.
3.1.2 Refraction
When a wave passes from one medium into another medium that has a different velocity of
propagation, a change in the direction of the wave will occur. This changing of direction as the wave
enters the second medium is called refraction. As in the discussion of reflection, the wave striking the
boundary (surface) is called the incident wave, and the imaginary line perpendicular to the boundary is
called the normal. The angle between the incident wave and the normal is called the angle of
incidence. As the wave passes through the boundary, it is bent either toward or away from the normal.
The angle between the normal and the path of the wave through the second medium is the angle of
refraction.
Figure 3-2. Refraction of a wave.
To summarize what figure 3-2 shows:
a. If the wave passes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, it is bent toward the
normal, and the angle of refraction (r) is less than the angle of incidence (i).
b. If the wave passes from a more dense to a less dense medium, it is bent away from the normal,
and the angle of refraction (r1) is greater than the angle of incidence (i1).
You can more easily understand refraction by looking at figure 3-3. There is a ploughed field in the
middle of a parade ground. Think of the incident wave as a company of recruits marching four abreast
at an angle across the parade ground to the ploughed field, then crossing the ploughed field and
coming out on the other side onto the parade ground again. As the recruits march diagonally across the
parade ground and begin to cross the boundary onto the ploughed field, the front line is slowed down.
Because the recruits arrive at the boundary at different times, they will begin to slow down at different
times (number 1 slows down first and number 4 slows down last in each line). The net effect is a
bending action. When the recruits leave the ploughed field and re-enter the parade ground, the reverse
action takes place.
Figure 3-3. Analogy of refraction.
3.1.3 Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of the wave path when the waves meet an obstruction. The amount of
diffraction depends on the wavelength of the wave. Higher frequency waves are rarely diffracted in the
normal world that surrounds us. Since light waves are high frequency waves, you will rarely see light
diffracted. You can, however, observe diffraction in sound waves by listening to music. Suppose you
are outdoors listening to a band. If you step behind a solid obstruction, such as a brick wall, you will
hear mostly low notes. This is because the higher notes, having short wave lengths, undergo little or no
diffraction and pass by or over the wall without wrapping around the wall and reaching your ears. The
low notes, having longer wavelengths, wrap around the wall and reach your ears. This leads to the
general statement that lower frequency waves tend to diffract more than higher frequency waves.
Broadcast band (am band) radio waves (lower frequency waves) often travel over a mountain to the
opposite side from their source because of diffraction, while higher frequency tv and fm signals from the
same source tend to be stopped by the mountain.
3.1.4 Absorption
Many factors affect a radio wave in its path between the transmitting and receiving sites. The factor that
has the greatest adverse effect on radio waves is absorption. Absorption results in the loss of energy of
a radio wave and has a pronounced effect on both the strength of received signals and the ability to
communicate over long distances.
Ground waves suffer most of their absorption losses because of ground-induced voltage. Sky waves,
on the other hand, suffer most of their absorption losses because of conditions in the ionosphere. Note
that some absorption of sky waves may also occur at lower atmospheric levels because of the
presence of water and water vapour. However, this becomes important only at frequencies above
10,000 megahertz.
Most ionospheric absorption occurs in the lower regions of the ionosphere where ionization density is
greatest. As a radio wave passes into the ionosphere, it loses some of its energy to the free electrons
and ions. If these high-energy free electrons and ions do not collide with gas molecules of low energy,
most of the energy lost by the radio wave is reconverted into electromagnetic energy, and the wave
continues to be propagated with little change in intensity. However, if the high-energy free electrons
and ions do collide with other particles, much of this energy is lost, resulting in absorption of the energy
from the wave. Since absorption of energy depends on collision of the particles, the greater the density
of the ionized layer, the greater the probability of collisions; therefore, the greater the absorption. The
highly dense D and E layers provide the greatest absorption of radio waves.
Because the amount of absorption of the sky wave depends on the density of the ionosphere, which
varies with seasonal and daily conditions, it is impossible to express a fixed relationship between
distance and signal strength for ionospheric propagation. Under certain conditions, the absorption of
energy is so great that communicating over any distance beyond the line of sight is difficult.
3.1.5 Spreading
3.1.6 Scattering
3.1.7 Multipath fading
Multipath is simply a term used to describe the multiple paths a radio wave may follow between
transmitter and receiver. Such propagation paths include the ground wave, ionospheric refraction,
reradiation by the ionospheric layers, reflection from the Earth's surface or from more than one
ionospheric layer, etc. Figure 3-4 shows a few of the paths that a signal can travel between two sites in
a typical circuit. One path, XYZ, is the basic ground wave. Another path, XEA, refracts the wave at the
E layer and passes it on to the receiver at A. Still another path, XFZFA, results from a greater angle of
incidence and two refractions from the F layer. At point Z, the received signal is a combination of the
ground wave and the sky wave. These two signals having traveled different paths arrive at point Z at
different times. Thus, the arriving waves may or may not be in phase with each other. Radio waves that
are received in phase reinforce each other and produce a stronger signal at the receiving site.
Conversely, those that are received out of phase produce a weak or fading signal. Small alternations in
the transmission path may change the phase relationship of the two signals, causing periodic fading.
This condition occurs at point A. At this point, the double-hop F layer signal may be in or out of phase
with the signal arriving from the E layer.
Figure 3-4. Multipath transmission.
Multipath fading may be minimized by practices called space diversity and frequency diversity. In space
diversity, two or more receiving antennas are spaced some distance apart. Fading does not occur
simultaneously at both antennas; therefore, enough output is almost always available from one of the
antennas to provide a useful signal. In frequency diversity, two transmitters and two receivers are used,
each pair tuned to a different frequency, with the same information being transmitted simultaneously
over both frequencies. One of the two receivers will almost always provide a useful signal.
Fading resulting from multipath propagation is variable with frequency since each frequency arrives at
the receiving point via a different radio path. When a wide band of frequencies is transmitted
simultaneously, each frequency will vary in the amount of fading. This variation is called selective
fading. When selective fading occurs, all frequencies of the transmitted signal do not retain their original
phases and relative amplitudes. This fading causes severe distortion of the signal and limits the total
signal transmitted.
3.2 Radio Propagation
3.2.1 Ground wave
Ground wave propagation occurs in the ELF to mid-MF frequency ranges. These frequencies have very
long wavelengths and can be thought of as "going everywhere." There are different theories for the
actual propagating mechanism. The ground wave can be thought of as a surface wave which follows
the contour of the earth, with a wavefront propagating via a sky wave (or space wave) to the
ionosphere where it is finally refracted. Ground waves can also be thought of as one wave propagating
in a waveguide formed by the earth and the ionosphere.
Precise mechanisms aside, ground wave propagation is very stable (not affected by daily or seasonal
ionospheric changes) and supports virtually worldwide propagation (VLF frequencies). Unfortunately,
the low frequencies provide very limited bandwidth and require very long antennas. For example, a 30
kHz carrier has a wavelength of 10 kilometers. With one-quarter or one-tenth the wavelength usually
cited as the minimum antenna length for efficient transmission, the ratio implies an antenna that is
1,000 to 2,500 meters long. For most applications this situation would not be practical; shorter antennas
are substituted which severely limits the efficiency.
The ground wave is used for long range navigation, such as LORAN (LF) and Omega (VLF). It is also
used to communicate with submerged submarines. ELF penetrates seawater to 100 meters, VLF tolO
meters, and LF only to 1 meter.
The ground wave reaches the receiving site by traveling along the surface of the ground as shown in
figure 3-5. A ground wave can follow the contours of the Earth because of the process of diffraction.
When a surface wave meets an object and the dimensions of the object do not exceed its wavelength,
the wave tends to curve or bend around the object. The smaller the object, the more pronounced the
diffractive action will be.
Figure 3-5. Ground wave propagation.
As a ground wave passes over the ground, the wave induces a voltage in the Earth. The induced
voltage takes energy away from the ground wave, thereby weakening, or attenuating, the wave as it
moves away from the transmitting antenna. To reduce the attenuation, the amount of induced voltage
must be reduced. This is done by using vertically polarized waves that minimize the extent to which the
electric field of the wave is in contact with the Earth. When a ground wave is horizontally polarized, the
electric field of the wave is parallel with the surface of the Earth and, therefore, is constantly in contact
with it. The wave is then completely attenuated within a short distance from the transmitting site. On the
other hand, when the ground wave is vertically polarized, the electric field is vertical to the Earth and
merely dips into and out of the Earth's surface. For this reason, vertical polarization is vastly superior to
horizontal polarization for ground wave propagation.
The attenuation that a ground wave undergoes because of induced voltage also depends on the
electrical properties of the terrain over which the wave travels. The best type of surface is one that has
good electrical conductivity. The better the conductivity, the less the attenuation. Table 3-1 gives the
relative conductivity of various surfaces of the Earth.
Table 3-1. Surface conductivity.

SURFACE RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITY
Sea water Good
Flat, loamy soil Fair
Large bodies of fresh water Fair

Rocky terrain poor
Desert poor
Jungle Unusable
Another major factor in the attenuation of ground waves is frequency. Recall from earlier discussions on
wavelength that the higher the frequency of a radio wave, the shorter its wavelength will be. These high
frequencies, with their shorter wavelengths, are not normally diffracted but are absorbed by the Earth at
points relatively close to the transmitting site. You can assume, therefore, that as the frequency of a
ground wave is increased, the more rapidly the ground wave will be absorbed, or attenuated, by the
Earth. Because of this loss by attenuation, the ground wave is impractical for long-distance
transmissions at frequencies above 2 megahertz. On the other hand, when the frequency of a ground
wave is low enough to have a very long wavelength, the Earth appears to be very small, and diffraction
is sufficient for propagation well beyond the horizon. In fact, by lowering the transmitting frequency into
the very low frequency (VLF) range and using very high-powered transmitters, the surface wave can be
propagated great distances.
3.2.2 Sky wave
The sky wave, often called the ionospheric wave, is radiated in an upward direction and returned to
Earth at some distant location because of refraction from the ionosphere. This form of propagation is
relatively unaffected by the Earth's surface and can propagate signals over great distances. Usually the
high frequency (HF) band is used for sky wave propagation. The ground wave is absorbed by the
ground and is not propagated very far.
Figure 3-6. Sky wave propagation.
The ionosphere gets its name from the ionization of the thermosphere, producing free electrons. There
are three layers: D, E, and F. The D layer is practically present only in the daytime, the E layer is
sporadic and unpredictable, and the F layer is always present due to a slow recombination of free
electrons arid positive ions. These layers are not uniform in thickness and are subject to solar
disturbances. Although HF is not stable, it is very popular because it allows for long haul
communication of reasonable data rates without satellite links or laying of cables and repeaters.
The presence or absence of these layers in the ionosphere and their height above the Earth varies with
the position of the sun. At high noon, radiation in the ionosphere directly above a given point is
greatest. At night it is minimum. When the radiation is removed, many of the particles that were ionized
recombine. The time interval between these conditions finds the position and number of the ionized
layers within the ionosphere changing. Since the position of the sun varies daily, monthly, and yearly,
with respect to a specified point on Earth, the exact position and number of layers present are
extremely difficult to determine. However, the following general statements can be made:
a. The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles. Ionization in the D layer is low because it is the
lowest region of the ionosphere. This layer has the ability to refract signals of low frequencies.
High frequencies pass right through it and are attenuated. After sunset, the D layer disappears
because of the rapid recombination of ions.
b. The E layer limits are from about 55 to 90 miles. This layer is also known as the Kennelly-
Heaviside layer, because these two men were the first to propose its existence. The rate of ionic
recombination in this layer is rather rapid after sunset and the layer is almost gone by midnight.
This layer has the ability to refract signals as high as 20 megahertz. For this reason, it is
valuable for communications in ranges up to about 1500 miles.
c. The F layer exists from about 90 to 240 miles. During the daylight hours, the F layer separates
into two layers, the F1 and F2 layers. The ionization level in these layers is quite high and varies
widely during the day. At noon, this portion of the atmosphere is closest to the sun and the
degree of ionization is maximum. Since the atmosphere is rarefied at these heights,
recombination occurs slowly after sunset. Therefore, a fairly constant ionized layer is always
present. The F layers are responsible for high-frequency, long distance transmission.
3.2.2.1 Skip Distance
In figure 3-7 note the relationship between the sky wave skip distance, the skip zone, and the ground
wave coverage. The SKIP DISTANCE is the distance from the transmitter to the point where the sky
wave is first returned to Earth. The size of the skip distance depends on the frequency of the wave, the
angle of incidence, and the degree of ionization present.
Figure 3-7. Relationship between skip zone, skip distance, and ground wave.
The SKIP ZONE is a zone of silence between the point where the ground wave becomes too weak for
reception and the point where the sky wave is first returned to Earth. The size of the skip zone depends
on the extent of the ground wave coverage and the skip distance. When the ground wave coverage is
great enough or the skip distance is short enough that no zone of silence occurs, there is no skip zone.
Occasionally, the first sky wave will return to Earth within the range of the ground wave. If the sky wave
and ground wave are nearly of equal intensity, the sky wave alternately reinforces and cancels the
ground wave, causing severe fading. This is caused by the phase difference between the two waves, a
result of the longer path travelled by the sky wave.
3.2.3 Space Wave
This propagation occurs in the VHF, UHF, and SHF ranges. Space waves travel in straight paths for the
most part and are also called direct or line-of-sight (LOS) waves. The signal may be reflected off
objects such as buildings and then are called a reflected wave. Space waves become severely
attenuated in the EHF and higher range by the absorbing effects of water vapour and oxygen
molecules in the troposphere. The loss due to absorption varies logarithmically a-id it is usually
expressed as a loss in decibels per kilometre.
Below absorption frequencies the primary loss of signal strength is due to the spreading of the wave-
front. This is analogous to throwing a rock in a calm pond and watching the ripples spread. The
spreading loss varies as the inverse of the square of the distance (1/r 2) from the source. Spreading
loss occurs for ground as well as for sky waves.
Figure 3-8. Sky wave propagation.
VHF, UHF, and SHF frequencies are associated with FM radio, TV, aircraft communications,
microwaves, radars, and satellite communications. Unlike ground and sky waves, space waves are not
severely affected by the ionosphere. Instead, the pressure, temperature, and humidity of the
troposphere affect space wave propagation. The rate of change of these variables with respect to
altitude determines how much the space wave is refracted. The most severe refraction results in the
formation of a trapping layer. The trapping layer bends the waves back towards the earth (the trapping
layer is frequency sensitive, so not all the frequencies will be trapped). The trapping layer forms a duct
in which the electromagnetic wave propagates.
A duct can have a lower boundary at the surface (surface duct) or above the surface (elevated duct).
The transmitter must lie within the duct for trapping to occur; if conditions are right a signal can
propagate hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of miles. The trapping phenomenon is most prevalent
around large bodies of water where there is cold moist air at low levels and a rapid increase in
temperature and decrease in humidity with increasing altitude. Ducting can be a good or bad
phenomena depending on the application.
3.2.3.1 Terrestrial microwave
Terrestrial microwave is line-of-sight communications commonly used for long-haul voice and television
communications. Repeater spacings of 10 to 100 km are typical. Microwaves are also being used at
high SHF (22 GHz, absorption high) frequencies for short point-to-point links between buildings. The
high frequencies support high data rates and allow for smaller and cheaper antennas.
Figure 3-9. Terrestrial Microwave.
3.2.3.2 Satellite microwave
A satellite is the optimum medium for high usage international trunks, and it is competitive with
terrestrial microwave and coax for many long distance international links. The optimum frequency range
is 1 to 10 GHz. Below 1 GHz noise is a factor, both from natural noise (galactic, solar, atmospheric) and
man-made noise (such as electronic devices). Above 10 GHz, there is severe attenuation by
atmospheric absorption.
Figure 3-10. Satellite Microwave.
3.2.3.3 Radio
Radio is usually associated with broadcast communications. Typical frequencies are from 30 MHz to I
GHz and support kilobit rather than megabit (microwave) rates for digital transmission. The primary
impairment is multipath interference, where reflection from natural or man-made objects creates
multiple paths. An example of multipath interference is ghosting on TV pictures.
Figure 3-11. Radio.
3.2.4 Scattered Wave
Scattering occurs when the electromagnetic waves are reflected by a very large number of small
particles in the atmosphere or ionosphere. There are several theories as to what actually causes
scattering, but the effect is real and ionospheric scatter, meteor burst, and tropospheric scatter links
can be established. Tropospheric scattering is the most common form.
LOS ranges can be extended over the horizon through tropospheric scattering or troposcatter. It works
by the transmitting and receiving antenna pointing to a common location in the troposphere. The
transmitted signal is scattered by a scattering volume and intercepted by the receiving antenna as
shown in Figure 3-12. Ranges can extend from 70 to 700 km, and operating frequencies are from 400
MHz to 7 GHz. Transmitter elevation angles are small; typically 4 degrees or less.
Figure 3-12. Troposcatter.
When a radio wave passing through the troposphere meets a turbulence, it makes an abrupt change in
velocity. This causes a small amount of the energy to be scattered in a forward direction and returned
to Earth at distances beyond the horizon. This phenomenon is repeated as the radio wave meets other
turbulences in its path. The total received signal is an accumulation of the energy received from each of
the turbulences.
This scattering mode of propagation enables VHF and UHF signals to be transmitted far beyond the
normal line-of-sight. To better understand how these signals are transmitted over greater distances,
you must first consider the propagation characteristics of the space wave used in VHF and UHF line-of-
sight communications. When the space wave is transmitted, it undergoes very little attenuation within
the line-of-sight horizon. When it reaches the horizon, the wave is diffracted and follows the Earth's
curvature. Beyond the horizon, the rate of attenuation increases very rapidly and signals soon become
very weak and unusable.
Tropospheric scattering, on the other hand, provides a usable signal at distances beyond the point
where the diffracted space wave drops to an unusable level. This is because of the height at which
scattering takes place. The turbulence that causes the scattering can be visualized as a relay station
located above the horizon; it receives the transmitted energy and then reradiates it in a forward
direction to some point beyond the line-of-sight distance. A high gain receiving antenna aimed toward
this scattered energy can then capture it.
The magnitude of the received signal depends on the number of turbulences causing scatter in the
desired direction and the gain of the receiving antenna. The scatter area used for tropospheric scatter
is known as the scatter volume. The angle at which the receiving antenna must be aimed to capture the
scattered energy is called the scatter angle. The scatter volume and scatter angle are shown in figure
3-13.
Figure 3-13. Tropospheric scattering propagation.
The signal take-off angle (transmitting antenna's angle of radiation) determines the height of the scatter
volume and the size of the scatter angle. A low signal take-off angle produces a low scatter volume,
which in turn permits a receiving antenna that is aimed at a low angle to the scatter volume to capture
the scattered energy.
As the signal take-off angle is increased, the height of the scatter volume is increased. When this
occurs, the amount of received energy decreases. There are two reasons for this: (1) scatter angle
increases as the height of the scatter volume is increased; (2) the amount of turbulence decreases with
height. As the distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas is increased, the height of the
scatter volume must also be increased. The received signal level, therefore, decreases as circuit
distance is increased.
The tropospheric region that contributes most strongly to tropospheric scatter propagation lies near the
midpoint between the transmitting and receiving antennas and just above the radio horizon of the
antennas.
Since tropospheric scatter depends on turbulence in the atmosphere, changes in atmospheric

conditions have an effect on the strength of the received signal. Both daily and seasonal variations in
signal strength occur as a result of changes in the atmosphere. These variations are called long-term
fading.
In addition to long-term fading, the tropospheric scatter signal often is characterized by very rapid
fading because of multipath propagation. Since the turbulent condition is constantly changing, the path
lengths and individual signal levels are also changing, resulting in a rapidly changing signal. Although
the signal level of the received signal is constantly changing, the average signal level is stable;
therefore, no complete fade out occurs.
Another characteristic of a tropospheric scatter signal is its relatively low power level. Since very little of
the scattered energy is reradiated toward the receiver, the efficiency is very low and the signal level at
the final receiver point is low. Initial input power must be high to compensate for the low efficiency in the
scatter volume. This is accomplished by using high-power transmitters and high-gain antennas, which
concentrate the transmitted power into a beam, thus increasing the intensity of energy of each
turbulence in the volume. The receiver must also be very sensitive to detect the low-level signals.
Tropospheric scatter propagation is used for point-to-point communications. A correctly designed

tropospheric scatter circuit will provide highly reliable service for distances ranging from 50 miles to 500
miles. Tropospheric scatter systems may be particularly useful for communications to locations in
rugged terrain that are difficult to reach with other methods of propagation. One reason for this is that
the tropospheric scatter circuit is not affected by ionospheric and auroral disturbances.
3.3 Radio Wave Spectra
The following sections summarize the characteristics of transmission and noise effects in frequency
bands through SHF (30 GHz).
3.3.1 ELF and VLF (up to 30 kHz)
Transmission in the extremely-low frequency (ELF) and very-low frequency (VLF) range is primarily via
ground wave. The transmission in these frequency bands is intended for long distances. These
frequencies also provide the only radio communications that can penetrate the oceans substantially.
The transmission in saltwater has an attenuation that in-creases rapidly with increasing frequency, it
may be necessary to design depth-sensitive equalizers for receivers intended for this service. At long
ranges, the field strength of the signals is very stable, varying only a few decibels diurnally and
seasonally, and being minimally affected by changes in solar activity. There is more variation at shorter
ranges. Variation of the phase of the signal can be substantial during diurnal changes and especially
during solar flares and magnetic storms. For most communications designs, these phase changes are
of little importance. The noise at these low frequencies is very high and highly impulsive. This situation
has given rise to the design of many noise-limiting or noise-cancelling schemes, which find particular
use in these receivers. Transmitting antennas must be very large to produce only moderate efficiency;
however, the noise limitations permit the use of relatively short receiving antennas because receiver
noise is negligible in comparison with atmospheric noise at the earth’s surface. In the case of
submarine reception, the high attenuation of the surface fields, both signal and noise, requires that
more attention be given to receiving antenna efficiency and receiver sensitivity.
3.3.2 LF (30 to 300 kHz)
As frequency is increased to the LF band and diffraction decreases, there is greater attenuation with
distance, and range for a given power output falls off rapidly. However, this is partly offset by more
efficient transmitting antennas. LF signals are most stable within groundwave distance of the
transmitter. A wider bandwidth permits pulsed signals at 100 kHz. This allows separation of the stable
groundwave pulse from the variable skywave pulse up to 1,500 km, and up to 2,000 km for overwater
paths. The frequency for Loran C is in the LF band. This band is also useful for radio direction finding
and time dissemination.
3.3.3 MF (300 kHz to 3 MHz)
Groundwaves provide dependable service, but the range for a given power is reduced greatly. This
range varies from about 400 miles at the lower portion of the band to about 15 miles at the upper end
for a transmitted signal of 1 kilowatt. These values are influenced, however, by the power of the
transmitter, the directivity and efficiency of the antenna, and the nature of the terrain over which signals
travel. Elevating the antenna to obtain direct waves may improve the transmission. At the lower
frequencies of the band, skywaves are available both day and night. As the frequency is increased,
ionospheric absorption increases to a maximum at about 1,400 kHz. At higher frequencies the
absorption decreases, permitting increased use of skywaves. Since the ionosphere changes with the
hour, season, and sunspot cycle, the reliability of skywave signals is variable. By careful selection of
frequency, ranges of as much as 8,000 miles with 1 kilowatt of transmitted power are possible, using
multihop signals. However, the frequency selection is critical. If it is too high, the signals penetrate the
ionosphere and are lost in space. If it is too low, signals are too weak. In general, skywave reception is
equally good by day or night, but lower frequencies are needed at night. The standard broadcast band
for commercial stations (535 to 1,605 kHz) is in the MF band.
3.3.4 HF (3 to 30 MHz)
As with higher medium frequencies, the groundwave range of HF signals is limited to a few miles, but
the elevation of the antenna may increase the direct-wave distance of transmission. Also, the height of
the antenna does have an important effect upon skywave transmission because the antenna has an
Communications Receivers DSP, Software Radios, and Design, 3rd ed. 63

“image” within the conducting Earth. The distance between antenna and image is related to the height
of the antenna, and this distance is as critical as the distance between elements of an antenna system.
Maximum usable frequencies fall generally within the HF band. By day this may be 10 to 30 MHz, but
during the night it may drop to 8 to 10 MHz. The HF band is widely used for ship-to-ship and ship-to-
shore communication.
3.3.5 VHF (30 to 300 MHz)
Communication is limited primarily to the direct wave, or the direct wave plus a ground-reflected wave.
Elevating the antenna to increase the distance at which direct waves can be used results in increased
distance of reception, even though some wave interference between direct and ground-reflected waves
is present. Diffraction is much less than with lower frequencies, but it is most evident when signals
cross sharp mountain peaks or ridges. Under suitable conditions, reflections from the ionosphere are
sufficiently strong to be useful, but generally they are unavailable. There is relatively little interference
from atmospheric noise in this band. Reasonably efficient directional antennas are possible with VHF.
The VHF band is much used for communication.
3.3.6 UHF (300 MHz to 3 GHz)
Skywaves are not used in the UHF band because the ionosphere is not sufficiently dense to reflect the
waves, which pass through it into space. Groundwaves and ground-reflected waves are used, although
there is some wave interference. Diffraction is negligible, but the radio horizon extends about 15
percent beyond the visible horizon, due principally to refraction. Reception of UHF signals is virtually
free from fading and interference by atmospheric noise. Sharply directive antennas can be produced for
transmission in this band, which is widely used for ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communication.
3.3.7 SHF (3 GHz to 30 GHz)
In the SHF band, also known as the microwave or as the centimeter wave band, there are no
skywaves, transmission being entirely by direct and ground-reflected waves. Diffraction and
interference by atmospheric noise are virtually nonexistent. Highly efficient, sharply directive antennas
can be produced. Thus, transmission in this band is similar to that of UHF, but with the effects of
shorter waves being greater. Reflection by clouds, water droplets, dust particles, etc., increases,
causing greater scattering, increased wave interference, and fading. The SHF band is used for marine
navigational radar.
3.3.8 EHF (30 GHz to 300 GHz)
The effects of shorter waves are more pronounced in the EHF band, transmission being free from wave
interference, diffraction, fading, and interference by atmospheric noise. Only direct and ground-reflected
waves are available. Scattering and absorption in the atmosphere are pronounced and may produce an
upper limit to the frequency useful in radio communication.
Communications Receivers DSP, Software Radios, and Design, 3rd ed. 64

References:
e-Books:
[1]. Blake, R. (2001). Wireless communication technology. Albany: Delmar.
[2]. Communications Receivers DSP, Software Radios, and Design, 3rd ed.
[3]. Dr. Alim, A. F. et al. (2002). NIJ Guide 104-00, Volume 1. Washington: U.S. Department of Justice.
[4]. Ferril, A. L. (2002). RF systems, components, and circuits handbook, 2nd ed. Norwood: Artech
House.
[5]. FM 6-02.53. (2009). Tactical radio operations. Washington: Headquarters, Department of the Army.
[6]. Jerry, C. W. (2000). The communications facility design handbook. Florida: CRC Press LLC.
[7]. NAVEDTRA 14182. (1998). NEETS - Module 10. United State: Naval Education And Training
Center.
Center.
Center.
Books:
[1]. Laster, C. (2001) The beginner’s handbook of amateur radio, 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
[2]. Kim, J. C. Muehldorf, E. I. (1995). Naval shipboard communications systems. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
[3]. Green, D. C (2000). Radio Communication, 2nd ed. Singapore: Pearson Education Asia.
[4]. Saunders, S. R. (1999) Antennas and propagation for wireless communication systems. Chichester:
Wiley.
[5]. Schweber, W. (1999) Electronics communication system: A complete course, 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
[6]. Stanley, W. D. Jeffords, J. M. (2006). Electronic Communications: Principles and Systems. New
York: Thomson Delmar Learning.
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Overview of Communication Systems

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1.

OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1.1.1 Radio Frequency

Figure 1-1. SD-125 RF link module, Maxon.

1.1.1.1 Conventional Radio System

Figure 1-2. TK-862H, compact synthesized FM mobile radio, Kenwood.

Figure 1-3. GPH21, portable radio, Relm.

1.1.1.2 Trunked Radio Systems

Figure 1-4. GX 4800UT UHF trunked system mobile radio, Yaesu/Vertex-Standard.

Figure 1-5. HX482UT, conventional and trunked system, Yaesu/Vertex-Standard.

1.1.2 Hard-Line Technology

1.2 Types of Equipment

1.2.1 Portable Radios

1.2.2 Mobile Radios

1.2.3 Base/Fixed Station Radios

1.2.5 Base Station/Repeaters

1.3.1 Accessories for Portable Radios

Several optional speaker-microphones attach to portable radios through the remote

1.3.2 Accessories for Mobile Radios and Base Station/Repeater Radios

1.4.2 Digital Communications

To help understand digital communications technology, it is important to understand analog

1.4.3 Security Measures

1.4.4 Interoperability and Networking

Figure 1-8. ICIR man-carry radio interconnect switch, C-AT.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS refers to communications over a distance and includes any transmission,

2.1 Transmission Methods

Radiotelegraph transmissions are referred to as continuous wave (CW) telegraphy. CW is a manual or

2.2 Communications System

Figure 2-1. System subdivision.

Figure 2-2. Communications system pictorial view.

Figure 2-4. Radio transmitting set.

A GROUP is a collection of units, assemblies, subassemblies, and parts. It is a subdivision of a set or

An ASSEMBLY is a number of parts or subassemblies, or any combination thereof, joined together to

Figure 2-5. Unit and assembly.

2.3 Maritime Frequency Band Use

Table 2-1. Radio-Frequency Spectrum.

2.3.1 Extremely Low-Frequency Communications

2.3.2 Very-Low-Frequency Communications

2.3.3 Low-Frequency Communications

2.3.4 Medium-Frequency Communications

2.3.5 High-Frequency Communications

POINT-TO-POINT. Point-to-point systems are established to communicate over long-distance trunks or

GROUND-TO-AIR. The use of HF radio for ground-to-air communications is similar to ship-to-shore.

2.3.6 Very-High-Frequency and Above Communications

Table 2-2. Frequency Bands of Microwaves.

Angle modulation is another method of transmitting information widely used in high-frequency

There are a number of reasons for producing modulated waves, including:

�(�) = �� sin(2��� � + ∅� ) (2.1)

Figure 2-7. Generation of sine-wave voltage.

� = ���� �� ������ (�) × ������ (�) (2.3)

� = ���� �� ������ (�) × ������ (�)

���� �� ������ (�)

Table 2-3. Radio frequency versus wavelength.

2.5.2 Amplitude Modulated Systems

2.5.2.1 Continuous Wave Modulation

Figure 2-8. International Morse code.

Figure 2-10A. Essential elements of ON-OFF keying.

Figure 2-10B. Essential elements of ON-OFF keying.

Figure 2-10C. Essential elements of ON-OFF keying.

2.5.2.2 Conventional Amplitude Modulation

An amplitude-modulated signal can be produced by using the instantaneous amplitude of the

Figure 2-11. Amplitude modulation.

�(�) = (�� + �(�)) sin 2��� � (2.5)

�(�) = �� sin(2�� + ∅� ) (2.1)

� = �� (�) × �� (�) (2.3)

� = �� (�) × �� (�)

�� (�)

�(�) = (�� + �(�)) sin 2�� (2.5)

�(�) = �� sin 2��

�(�) = (�� + �� sin 2�� ) sin 2�� (2.6)

�(�) = �� (1 + � sin 2�� ) sin 2�� (2.8)

�(�) = �� sin 2�� + �� sin 2�� sin 2��

�� (2.9)

�(�) = �� sin�2�� + �� sin(2�� )� (2.14)

�(�) = �� {�0 �� 2��

� = 2(Δ�(��) + ��(��) ) (2.17)

�(�) = �� sin(2�� + �� ) (2.18)

�(�) = �� sin(2�� + �� (�)) (2.19)