Plant Biology

(HL)
By Qussai Zuriegat
Contents

9.1 Transport in the Xylem of Plants

9.2 Transport in the Phloem of Plants

9.3 Growth in Plants

9.4 Reproduction in Plants

9.1 Transport in the Xylem of Plants
The official IB guide for Transport in the Xylem of Plants
Outline the process of transpiration

● Transpiration
○ Loss of water vapour from the
stems and leaves of plants
○ Water vapour evaporates from the
leaves via stomata
○ New water absorbed from soil via
roots

● STOMATA: Pores on underside of the

leaf
Explain how the properties of water and the structure of the xylem
vessels are essential for transpiration

● Opening and closing of stomata

○ Guard cells
○ Dehydrated mesophyll cells
release plant hormone
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
○ Triggers efflux of K from
guard cells → lose turgor
○ Loss of turgor makes pore
close, guard cells become
flaccis and block opening
Explain how the properties of water and the structure of the xylem
vessels are essential for transpiration

● Cohesion
○ Force of attraction between two
particles of the same substance
○ Helps for molecules to be dragged
up xylem
● Adhesion
○ Force of attraction between two
particles of different substance
○ Xylem wall polar = can form
intermolecular bonds with water
 Explain how the properties of water and the structure of the
xylem vessels are essential for transpiration
● Xylem
○ Composed of dead cells
○ Movement of water is passive
process
○ Occurs in one direction
○ Pores (called pits) enable water
to be transferred
○ Walls have cellulose and lignin
Explain how the uptake of mineral ions by roots causes absorption of
water by osmosis
Plants take up water and mineral
ions from the soil via their roots
and thus need a maximal surface
area to optimise this uptake. Some
plants have a fibrous, highly
branching root system which
increases the surface area
available for absorption. Other
plants have a main tap root with
lateral branches, which can
penetrate the soil to access
deeper reservoirs of water.
● Apoplast : Movement of water through cell walls

● Symplast : Movement of water through ( cytoplasm )

 Draw the structure of the primary xylem vessels in sections of stems
based on microscope images

● Vessel elements ● Xylem wall

should be drawn should contain
as a continuous gaps (pits)
tube
● Lignin can be
● Remnants of presented by
fused end wall either a spiral
can be (coiled) or
represented as annular (rings)
incidents arrangement
Explain how plants in deserts and in saline soils are adapted for water
conservation

Desert plants (xerophytes) and plants

that grow in high salinity (halophytes)
possess various adaptations for water
conservation. Xerophytes will have
high rates of transpiration due to the
high temperatures and low humidity of
desert environments. Halophytes will
lose water as the high intake of salt
from the surrounding soils will draw
water from plant tissue via osmosis.
Model water transport in the xylem using simple apparatus

The movement of water up the

length of the xylem can be
modelled using a number of
simple apparatus. These include
capillary tubing, filter or blotting
paper and porous pots.
Outline the use of a potometer in measuring transpiration rates
9.2 Transport in the Phloem of Plants
The official IB guide for Transport in the Phloem of Plants
Design an experiment to test hypotheses about the effect of different
variables on Transpiration

● Temperature
○ Predicted to cause an increase in rate of transpiration
● Humidity
○ Predicted to cause a decrease in rate of transpiration
● Light Intensity
○ Predicted to cause an increase in rate of transpiration
● Wind Exposure
○ Predicted to cause increase in rate of transpiration
Outline how plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks

Translocation is the movement of organic

compounds (e.g. sugars, amino acids) from
sources to sinks. The source is where the
organic compounds are synthesised – this is
the photosynthetic tissues (leaves). The sink is
where the compounds are delivered to for
use or storage – this includes roots, fruits and
seeds.
Explain how the structure of a phloem sieve tube relates to its function

● Sieve element cells

○ Long and narrow cells
○ Connected by sieve plates
○ No nuclei
○ Reduced number of organelles
● Companion cells
○ Provide metabolic support for
sieve element cells
○ Possess an infolding plasma
membrane
○ Many mitochondria
○ POWER
Identify the xylem in microscope images of the root
Identify the phloem in microscope images of the root
Explain how active transport is used to load organic compounds in
phloem sieve tubes
Organic compounds produced at the source are
actively loaded into phloem sieve tubes by companion
cells.

Materials can pass into the sieve tube via

interconnecting plasmodesmata (symplastic loading).

Alternatively, materials can be pumped across the

intervening cell wall by membrane proteins
(apoplastic).

Apoplast : Movement of water through cell walls

Symplast : Movement of water through ( cytoplasm )

Know how aphid stylets can be used to collect samples of phloem sap
Measuring Phloem Transport

Aphids can be used to collect sap at various sites along a plant's length and thus provide a
measure of phloem transport rates

•A plant is grown within a lab with the leaves sealed within a glass chamber containing
radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide

•The leaves will convert the CO2 into radioactively-labelled sugars (via photosynthesis), which
are transported by the phloem

•Aphids are positioned along the plant’s length and encouraged to feed on the phloem sap

•Once feeding has commenced, the aphid stylet is severed and sap continues to flow from the
plant at the selected positions

•The sap is then analyzed for the presence of radioactively-labelled sugars

•The rate of phloem transport (translocation rate) can be calculated based on the time taken for
the radioisotope to be detected at different positions along the plant’s length
 Xylem vs Phloem – EXTRA

● Xylem ● Phloem
○ Moves materials ○ Moves materials
via transpiration via translocation
○ Transports from ○ Transport food
roots to aerial and nutrients to
parts storage organs
○ Inner portion and ○ Outer portion and
composed of composed of
vessel elements sieve tube
and tracheids elements and
○ Composed of companion cells
dead tissue at ○ Vessels
matury composed of
living tissue
9.3 Growth in Plants
The official IB guide for Growth in Plants
Outline how undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow
indeterminate growth
Meristems are tissues in a plant
consisting of undifferentiated cells
capable of indeterminate growth.

They are analogous to totipotent stem

cells in animals, except that they have
specific regions of growth and
development.

Meristematic tissue can allow plants to

regrow structures or even form
entirely new plants (vegetative
propagation).
Explain how mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells
needed for extension of the stem and development of the leaves
The apical meristems give rise to primary growth (lengthening) and occurs at the tips of
the roots and shoots.
Growth at these regions is due to a combination of cell enlargement and repeated cell
division (mitosis and cytokinesis). Differentiation of the dividing meristem gives rise to a
variety of stem tissues and structures – including leaves and flowers.
In the stem, growth occurs in sections called nodes – with the remaining meristem tissue forming an
inactive axillary bud. These axillary (lateral) buds have the potential to form new branching shoots,
complete with leaves and flowers.
Describe how plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex
The growth of the stem and the formation of new nodes is controlled by
plant hormones released from the shoot apex.

One of the main groups of plant hormones involved in shoot and root
growth are auxins (e.g. indole-3-acetic acid / IAA)
Outline how auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of
auxin in plant tissue
Auxins are a group of hormones produced by the tip of
a shoot or root (i.e. apical meristems) that regulate plant
growth.

Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients

within tissues – changing the distribution of auxin
within the plant.

These pumps can control the direction of plant growth

by determining which regions of plant tissue have high
auxin levels.

Auxin efflux pumps can change position within the

membrane (due to fluidity) and be activated by various
factors
 Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control
of plant growth
Auxin is a plant hormone
and influences cell growth
rates by changing the
pattern of gene expression
with a plant’s cells.

Auxin’s mechanism of action

is different in shoots and
roots as different gene
pathways are activated in
each tissue.
Distinguish between phototropism and gravitropism and outline how
plant shoots respond to the environment by tropism
Tropisms describe the growth or turning
movement of an plant in response to a
directional external stimulus.

Phototropism is a growth movement in response

to a unidirectional light source.

Geotropism (or gravitropism) is a growth

movement in response to gravitational forces.

hydrotropism (responding to a water gradient)

and
thigmotropism (responding to a tactile stimulus).
Outline the micropropagation of plants using tissue from the shoot
apex, nutrient agar gels, and growth hormones

Micropropagation is a technique used to produce large numbers of identical plants

(clones) from a selected stock plant.

Plants can reproduce asexually from meristems because they are undifferentiated cells
capable of indeterminate growth.
When a plant cutting is used to reproduce asexually in the native environment it is called
vegetative propagation.
When plant tissues are cultured in the laboratory (in vitro) in order to reproduce asexually it is
called micropropagation
Outline the use of micropropagation

● Micropropagation is used to rapidly produce large numbers of cloned

plants under controlled conditions:
○ Rapid Bulking
○ Virus-Free Strains
○ Propagation of Rare Species
9.4 Reproduction in Plants
The official IB guide for Reproduction in Plants
 Distinguish between pollination, fertilisation, and seed dispersal

● Pollination
○ Transfer of pollen grains from
an anther to a stigma
● Fertilisation
○ Fusion of a male gamete
nuclei with a female gamete
nuclei to form a zygote
● Seed Dispersal
○ Fertilisation of gametes
results in the formation of a
seed, which moves away from
the parental plant
Outline how most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with
pollinators in sexual reproduction

Cross-pollination involves transferring pollen grains from one plant to the ovule
of a different plant. Pollen can be transferred by wind or water, but is commonly
transferred by animals (called pollinators)
Know that flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot
apex

Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiospermophytes (flowering

plants) and develop from the shoot apex. Changes in gene expression
trigger the enlargement of the shoot apical meristem. This tissue then
differentiates to form the different flower structures – sepals, petals, stamen
and pistil.
The activation of genes responsible for flowering is influenced by abiotic
factors – typically linked to the seasons. Flowering plants will typically come
into bloom when a suitable pollinator is most abundant. The most common
trigger for a change in gene expression is day/night length
(photoperiodism).
Know that the switch to flowering is a response to the length of light
and dark periods in many plants

● Phytochromes
○ Leaf pigments used by the plant to detect periods of light and darkness
Explain how flowering is induced in short day plants
Draw the internal structure of a seed

A typical seed will possess the

following features:
- Testa: An outer seed coat that
protects the embryonic plant
- Micropyle: A small pore in the
outer covering of the seed, that
allows for the passage of water
- Cotyledon: Contains the food
stores for the seed and forms the
embryonic leaves
- Plumule: The embryonic shoot
(also called the epicotyl)
- Radicle: The embryonic root
Draw the structure of an animal-pollinated flower

Flowers are the reproductive

organs of angiospermophytes
(flowering plants) and contain
male and female structures.
Most flowers possess both
male and female structures
(monoecious), but some may
only possess one structure
(dioecious)
Outline the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed
● Oxygen ● Fire
○ Aerobic respiration (the seed requires ○ Exposure to intense heat
large amounts of ATP in order to develop) ● Freezing
● Water ○ Exposure to intense cold
○ To metabolically activate the seed ● Digestion
● Temperature ○ Some seeds require prior animal digestion to
○ Seeds require certain temperature erode the seed
conditions in order to sprout ● Washing
● pH ○ Some seeds may be covered with inhibitors
○ Seeds require a suitable soil pH in order ● Scarification
to sprout ○ Seed coat is weakened from physical damage
Outline the germination stages

The first step in the germination process is the metabolic activation of a dormant seed.
Germination begins with the absorption of water, which causes gibberellin to be produced
Gibberellin triggers the synthesis of amylase, which breaks down starch into maltose. Maltose is
either hydrolysed (to glucose) for energy, or polymerised (to cellulose) for cell wall formation. This
energy and cellular building blocks is used to promote cell division and the growth of a nascent
shoot
THANK U