Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69

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Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements

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Fundamental solutions in 3D elastodynamics for the BEM: A review

P.S. Dineva a, G.D. Manolis b,∗, F. Wuttke c
a
Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS), 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University (AUTH), 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
c
Institute of Applied Geoscience, Christian-Albrecht University, 24118 Kiel, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: In this work, we attempt to collect all available fundamental solutions in 3D elastodynamics that would be suitable
Elastodynamics for use in Boundary Element Method (BEM) formulations. Given that research on transient and steady state cases
Boundary elements involving the elastic, homogeneous and isotropic continuum commenced in the 1950′s, it is practically impossible
Fundamental solutions
to reference all work done since then, so we apologize a priori for any omissions on our part. When we use the
Green’s functions
term fundamental solution, what comes to mind is the elastic full space under a point load in space and time and
with the radiation condition arising because the medium has no boundaries, i.e. it extends to infinity. However,
this is far from being the end: If the full space becomes a half-space, then boundary conditions enter the picture
and now we are talking about Green’s functions. These are more desirable for BEM formulations because it now
becomes unnecessary to discretize the free surface. In general, the more particular features of the problem at
hand are included in the Green’s function, the less discretization is necessary in the BEM formulation. What we
aim for in this review is to present and briefly discuss the basic fundamental solutions and more specialized
Green’s functions in a 3D elastic continuum, in either the frequency or the time domain, for the following type of
materials: (1) Isotropic and homogeneous; (2) isotropic and inhomogeneous; (3) anisotropic and homogeneous;
(4) anisotropic and inhomogeneous. We also look at poroelastic materials with all above possible combinations.
We note at this point that the continuously inhomogeneous (e.g., functionally graded) material is understood as
one having its material parameters as functions of position. There is, of course, the category of layered media,
considered here as discretely inhomogeneous materials. One final note of caution has to do with the numerical
implementation of these solutions: Some are very difficult to program, despite the fact that they come in closed
form, because they may involve integrals, or there may be turning points in the solution where the form available
depends on the frequency, or because of round-off errors in computing special functions. In closing, there is a
trade-off between easy to implement fundamental solutions that require substantial spatial discretization effort
and advanced ones based on Green’s functions that are difficult to implement but require minimal discretization
effort. This points out the relevance of speeding up BEM computations, a subject that is treated in the Appendix.

1. Introduction sources. In turn, fundamental solutions serve as kernels in integral equa-

Fundamental solutions in 3D elastodynamics are particular solutions
of differential operators for a point force in space and time in the form
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹0 𝑓̂𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ), applied in an unbounded domain. The
force has magnitude F0 , while unit vector 𝑓̂ defines the direction of that
force and the two Dirac delta functions 𝛿 attest to the localized and
impulsive nature of the source. Fundamental solutions provide the re-
sponse (displacement, traction, etc.) at an observation point x and at
running time t due to disturbance acting at the source point x0 with
emission time t0 . A fundamental solution may also be regarded as a dy-
namic influence function, since an arbitrary excitation in space and/or
time may be reconstituted from linear superposition of a number of point
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gdm@civil.auth.gr (G.D. Manolis).
tion formulations and are redefined for a source (where the load is ap-
plied) and receiver (where the response is measured) configuration. The
key role played by the fundamental solution in computational elastody-
namics is to reduce a boundary-value problem (BVP) formulated by the
governing partial differential equation together with boundary and ini-
tial conditions into a system of integral equations through the use of re-
ciprocal theorems. It is for this reason that the recovery of fundamental
solutions in analytical form, or at least in an easy to calculate numer-
ical form, is so important. For BVP involving elliptic differential equa-
tions, a Fredholm integral equation is obtained, while BVP described
by hyperbolic differential equations give rise to Volterra integral equa-
tions. The mesh-reducing computational methodology that transforms a
governing differential equation with its boundary and initial conditions
into an integral equation and subsequently into a boundary integral
equation (BIE) that involves both known and unknown fields defined
on the boundary only, is the well-known boundary element method

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enganabound.2019.04.003
Received 13 December 2018; Received in revised form 30 January 2019; Accepted 1 April 2019
0955-7997/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
(BEM). The method, as applied to elastodynamics, along with its advan-
tages/disadvantages has been presented over the years in many books
and monographs, see for instance [30,31,208,95,33,166,189,216].
The notion of a fundamental solution gradually became clearer from
the latter part of the 19th century and moving into the early part of
the 20th century. The early form was a convolution of distributions for
the solution of linear partial differential equations with constant coef-
ficients. The transient, point force solution of the elastodynamic equa-
tions for a homogeneous, isotropic and unbounded medium was derived
by Stokes [307], followed by important results by Betti [32], Rayleigh
[275], Love [195], Lamb [185], Lamb [186], Jaswon [153], Kupradze
[184], Cruse and Rizzo [82] and Brebbia [48]. The availability of fun-
damental solutions is a key requirement not only for the BEM, but also
for the method of fundamental solutions (MFS), see Golberg and Chen
[125] and Fairweather et al. [112], as well as for the more recent local
boundary integral equation meshless method (LBIE), see [303].
In the direct BEM where tractions are related to displacements, a
basic step is to use the simplest Green’s function, i.e., the one for the
full space, which is classified as the fundamental solution of the govern-
ing equation. The result is a representation integral linking the stress
and kinematic fields in terms of their boundary values. This is obtained
before discretization of any kind is introduced. The drawback when the
fundamental solution is used is that half the boundary data are unknown
in the representation integral. Discretization of all problem surfaces is
now needed to obtain these unknowns in terms of the prescribed quan-
tities that form the BVP. This is done by using boundary (or actually
surface in 3D) elements. Once the unknown boundary data is computed
in terms of the known boundary data, the representation integral formu-
lation can be restructured to provide values for the desired field quan-
tities in the interior regions. If more problem-specific Green’s functions
are used, less unknown boundary data will appear in the representation
integral, fewer elements would be needed for the surface discretization
process, and accuracy would increase while CPU time and memory re-
quirements would drop. Carrying such reasoning to its end, one would
need no discretization at all if exact, problem-specific Green’s function
could be found. No unknown boundary data would appear in the rep-
resentation integral, and it would provide the desired field everywhere
in the domain under consideration. The ‘free space’ Green’s functions
which give the kinematic and stress fields for point disturbances in the
continuum, are well-known and appear as closed-form, fundamental so-
lutions that are easy to compute for a broad class of problems. The more
specialized Green’s functions, which give such fields in the presence of
bounding surfaces and other problem-specific features, are known for
relatively few simple geometries and boundary conditions. Indeed, this
is the main reason why the conventional BEM is based on the simplest
fundamental functions, despite considerable computational effort in
using it for large-scale problems.
Green’s functions for a half-space play an important role in the solu-
tion of linear, ordinary and partial differential equations in science and
engineering. If a BEM formulation is based on the half-space Green’s
functions, then a smaller set of boundary data appears in conjunction
with the surface representations since there is no need to discretize
the horizontal free surface. This in turn requires fewer boundary el-
ements for the discretization process, increases accuracy and reduces
overall CPU execution time and memory requirements. Unfortunately,
half-space Green’s functions for a given differential operator are known
for relatively few simple cases, see [166]. This is the reason for the
prevalence of BIE formulations based on the fundamental solutions for
point forces in the full space. We note here that the mathematical
definition of a ‘fundamental solution’ is the solution of a differential
equation with a singular Dirac’s function at the right-hand side, while
the term ‘Green’s function’ is understood as a fundamental solution,
which in addition satisfies boundary conditions. A Green’s function, if
it exists, is unique, while a fundamental solution is not, and is analo-
gous to the homogeneous (versus particular) solution of a differential
equation.
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Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
The methods for deriving fundamental solutions which are based on
the Fourier, Laplace, Radon, and Hankel integral transforms, all reduce
the differential equation to a simpler form involving less independent
variables. In elastodynamics, half-space Green’s functions originate
from solution of the Mindlin [224] and the Boussinesq [45] problems.
In the Mindlin problem, forces are applied in the interior of the
half-space, while in the Boussinesq problem, forces are applied along
the free surface of the semi-infinite solid. Analytical derivations of
Green’s functions for either homogeneous or discrete inhomogeneous
half-spaces are based on the following methods: Generalized ray
method (Vavryiuk and Yomogida (1995)), generalized ray method
in combination with Cagniard-De Hoop method Ceranoglu and Pao
[59]; Vasudevan and Mal [330], integral transform techniques [245],
the thin-layer method (TLM) for layered media [163–165,24], the
propagator matrix approach [201,296], the stiffness matrix approach
[162] and the modal summation method (MSM) based on superposition
of the natural modes of wave propagation in the frequency domain
[178,58,266,311,133,327,253,254]. The MSM is based on the solution
of an eigenvalue problem for the stratified medium at hand in the
absence of damping. Usually, only the real (i.e. propagating) modes are
included in the solution. The disadvantage of this method is that the near
field response is dominated by evanescent (i.e. decaying) modes. While
in principle evanescent modes can be included in the modal summation,
their determination with search techniques is fraught with difficulties.
This problem is avoided when use the semi-analytical TLM, which over
the years has proven to be a powerful and robust technique. The TLM
expresses the displacement field as a combination of a finite element
expansion in the direction of layering with an analytical description in
the remaining directions. In essence, the TLM is a discrete version of the
normal mode methods familiar to geophysicists, but differs in that the
normal modes associated with generalized shear waves are obtained
directly from the solution of two algebraic eigenvalue problems involv-
ing narrowly banded matrices, and not by means of search techniques.
Thus, modal superposition now involves both the propagating as
well as the evanescent modes, which in turn allows for an accurate
computation of the displacement field for both the far and near (close to
the source) fields. Within the various classes of the TLM we mention an
effective algorithm developed by Park and Kausel [255,256] to find re-
sponse functions for the layered half-space directly in the time domain,
while time domain solutions in the MSM are realized by exact Fourier
inversion.
Mindlin’s problem was analyzed by Pan [250], where he discusses
the limiting case of the source point (where the force is applied) ap-
proaching the free surface from inside. The Green’s function for the
Mindlin problem is derived by Walker [337] using the Fourier-integral
representation. The solution of the Boussinesq problem for transversely
isotropic and axially symmetric cases was considered by the following
researchers: Rajapakse and Wang [269], Sneddon [305], Sales and Gray
[286]. More specifically, Wang et al. [344] obtained displacements and
stresses in an inhomogeneous transversely isotropic semi-infinite do-
main subject to a vertical load. Numerical solutions for the anisotropic
Boussinesq problem by the BEM and by other numerical methods can
be found in Every [109], Pan and Yuan [249] and Tonon et al. [324].
As previously mentioned, the majority of BEM formulations are
based on conventional fundamental solutions. However, for multi-
layered, 3D geological regions this formulation runs into serious
problems that have to do with the solution of large, fully-populated,
non-symmetric matrix equations. The matrix elements are formed from
spatial integrals of these fundamental solutions and are time consuming
to compute, especially if the layers are thin. As an alternative, the half-
space Green’s function, see [185,85,111,157,10], can be used so that
the presence of the free surface is analytically incorporated into the for-
mulation. However, for the most cases, Lamb’s solution is not available
in closed algebraic form, but rather in the form of infinite (frequency-
dependent) integrals which would have to be evaluated numerically.
Guan et al. [129] derived a 2D transient Green’s function due to a
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
suddenly applied line load in an isotropic and homogeneous half-space.
Utilising the solution in the frequency and wave-number domains given
by Kobayashi [179,180], the time-domain solution is recovered in two
steps, the first being inversion of the Laplace transforms following
the procedure of Eason [102]. Then, the inverse Fourier transform is
carried out explicitly with respect to the wave number. Banerjee and
Mamoon [21] derived the half-space solution for the periodic point
force using a technique developed by Mindlin [224] for the correspond-
ing 3D static problem. A BIE formulation using Lamb’s solution for the
elastic half-space, free from principal-value integrals, was proposed
in Rizzo et al. [276]. In a follow-up study [126], half-space problems
were considered by BEM formulations using both full and half space
Green’s functions. In general, BEMs defined on the basis of half-space
elastodynamic Green’s functions (if these can be found) for anisotropic,
inhomogeneous or poroelastic continua are computationally more
demanding because they result in complex mathematical formulations
that are difficult to evaluate numerically.
To reiterate, for the two BEM options based on the fundamental so-
lution or Green’s function, the following conclusions can be drawn: (a)
The conventional BEM based on the 3D fundamental solution consumes
much CPU time and memory for large multilayered regions with com-
plex geometry and thus becomes non-effective; (b) The BEM based on
more sophisticated Green’s functions shows increased solution accuracy
and reduces CPU time and memory requirements, but their availability
is limited; (c) The existence of very complex Green’s functions may ren-
der the BEM solution impossible to compute, so the best compromise
comes when the Green’s function (if it exists) decreases both the com-
putational effort and the execution requirements; (d) There is a need for
development of hybrid methods combining the best features of existing
BEM with those from other categories of numerical approaches such as
the finite element method (FEM).
The aim of this review article is to present and discuss available
3D fundamental solutions and Green’s functions for both frequency
and time domain elastodynamics and for the following categories of
materials:
• Elastic isotropic materials; homogeneous and inhomogeneous.
• Elastic anisotropic materials; homogeneous and inhomogeneous.
• Poroelastic isotropic materials; homogeneous and inhomogeneous.
• Poroelastic anisotropic materials; homogeneous and inhomoge-
neous.
Briefly, the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 considers fre-
quency and time dependent fundamental solutions and Green’s func-
tions in 3D elastodynamics for isotropic, homogeneous and inhomoge-
neous media, both with constant and variable phase velocities, while
Section 3 discusses the same subject but for anisotropic materials.
Sections 4 and 5 focus on the available fundamental solutions/Green’s
functions in 3D poroelastodynamics in the framework of Biot’s model
for homogeneous and inhomogeneous, fully saturated isotropic and
anisotropic poroelastic materials, respectively. Finally, a set of conclu-
sions is given in Section 6, while the Appendix gives some information
on fast BEM formulations for large size problems.
2. Elastodynamic fundamental solutions / Green’s functions for
3D isotropic continua
2.1. Homogeneous materials
This is the most basic case for wave propagation in infinite / semi-
infinite continua, and has been extensively studied since the pioneering
work by Stokes [307], Rayleigh [275], Love [195] and Lamb [185,186].
The fundamental solutions for a homogeneous, isotropic and linearly
elastic solid, both in the frequency and the time domains, are classical
results of elastodynamic theory. The transient point-force solution of
the elastodynamic equation for homogeneous isotropic media was re-
covered by Stokes [307]. This well-known solution for an unbounded
49
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
medium, plays a key role in elastodynamics. Numerical results gener-
ated from the Stokes formula can be found in Love [195], Morse and
Feshbach [228], Maruyama [219] and Achenbach [3].
Some of the first 3D BEM formulations based on these fundamental
solutions, in both time and frequency domains, are as follows:
• Time domain BEM: Karabalis and Beskos [172,20,235,230,141,
277,13,217], and also by Panagiotopoulos and Manolis [252], who
used velocity fundamental solutions. It is known that too small a
time step may cause instability in the numerical scheme, whilst too
large a time step may give rise to strong numerical damping in the
results. According to Frangi [114], one of the main causes of instabil-
ities, is due to the displacements and tractions interpolations, which
are not capable of properly simulating wave front propagation and
do not satisfy the causality condition for the real fields. The follow-
ing approaches have been proposed to improve the stability of the
time-domain BEM: (i) Modified numerical time marching procedures
such as ‘linear 𝜃 method’ [13] and the constant velocity prediction
method [217]; (ii) A ‘new fundamental solution method’ which em-
ploys a modified time dependent fundamental solution proposed by
Coda and Venturini [76]. Another technique is to introduce a new
BIE formulation based on the velocity reciprocal theorem to reduce
instability in the standard BEM formulations, as proposed by Pana-
giotopoulos and Manolis [252]; (iii) The third one is called the ‘con-
volution quadrature method’ that will be discussed separately below.
• Transformed domain BEM: [82,30,31,208,177], Mossesian and
Dravinski [229,95,33,203,204].
• Boundary Element - Convolution Quadrature Method (BE-CQM):
[288–290]. This technique can be applied to problems where time-
domain fundamental solutions are not available. It is based on the
following steps: (i) use of fundamental solutions in the Laplace trans-
formed domain; (ii) numerical approximation of the Riemann time
convolution integrals, presented in the time-domain BEM equations,
by a quadrature formula [199,200] based on the fundamental solu-
tion in the Laplace domain; (iii) a linear multistep method, which
provides direct solution in the time domain.
A fully analytic, 2.5D fundamental solution for the steady-state re-
sponse of a homogeneous 3D space subjected to a spatially sinusoidal,
harmonic line load can be found in Tadeu and Kausel [314], where the
final expressions are validated against the known equations for a 3D
point load.
A special case considered here is forced vibrations in a homogeneous
elastic half-space. This problem goes back to the early 20th century,
when Lamb [185] and later Mindlin [223] investigated a half-space sub-
jected to concentrated vertical and horizontal loads at the surface or in
the interior. The use of complex contour integration yielded the wave
motions generated at the surface of the elastic half-space. Subsequently,
a comprehensive study in this area is the work of Miller and Pursey
[225], where Lamb’s method is adapted to furnish definite integral rep-
resentations of the kinematic field at an arbitrary point in an isotropic
half-space due to stresses prescribed at the surface.
Obviously, the elastodynamic Green’s function for the half-space
is fundamental to the application of the BEM to situations involving
semi-infinite media. Various derivations of the elastic displacement due
to a surface / subsurface, transient or time-harmonic point force can be
found in the literature, see [185,157,21]. The expressions for the dis-
placements along the free surface of the half-space are in terms of semi-
infinite integrals, see [3,226]. These integrals cannot be evaluated an-
alytically, and their numerical solution is difficult and time-consuming
due to the oscillating behavior of the integrands and the singularities
in the Green’s function. One of the most important contributions in
the analytical derivation of the Green’s function for transient wave
propagation in elastic isotropic half-space is due to Pekeris [260,261].
With the aid of the Laplace and Hankel integral transforms, the im-
plementation of the Helmholtz decomposition theorem, and the use
of Cagniard-De Hoop contour integration shortcut, Pekeris [262] and
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
later on Achenbach [3], derived an analytical solution for the transient
equations of motion in an axisymmetric half-space due to surface and
buried impulse loading. In particular, the computed displacements at
the free surface show the arrival time of different waves including P, SV
and Rayleigh waves. Chao [67] derived a closed form solution for radial
and tangential displacements at the surface of a half-space due to a sur-
face horizontal point force varying in time as a Heaviside step function.
Jin and Liu [154] used the joint Hankel-Laplace integral transforms,
in conjunction with the Cagniard-De Hoop method, to determine the
exact analytical solution for the horizontal displacement at the center
of a circular surface patch on the half-space under an impulsive, uni-
formly distributed load. Pekeris [260] presented for a half-space with
a Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 = 0.25, an explicit solution for a vertical load. Next,
Chao [67] extended Pekeris’ solution to horizontal loads. Also, Mooney
[227] proposed expressions for a half-space with an arbitrary Poisson’s
ratio, excited by a vertical load. A more general half-space Green’s
function was also proposed by Johnson [157]. In sum, a complete
set of expressions for the half-space solution can be found in Kausel
[167].
Few numerical results based on the BEM within the half-space
Green’s function as the kernel function are available in the time domain.
Firstly, Triantafyllidis [325] presented an approach based on Johnson’s
[157] solution. Next, for 3D time-domain problems, Ceranoglu and Pao
[59] presented a Green’s function based on the generalized ray theory,
using the Cagniard-De Hoop method to solve the double transform.
Vasudevan and Mal [330] presented the transient solution due to an
embedded dislocation, while Romero and Galvın [280] proposed a
numerical scheme based on a BEM-FEM hybrid approach in the time
domain to study soil-structure-interaction (SSI) problems. In their
work, the soil domain is modelled by the BEM, with the radiation
condition implicitly satisfied by virtue of the use of the half-space
Green’s function of Johnson [157], which takes into account wave
attenuation in the soil. Then, the FEM is used to represent the structure.
Green’s functions for elastic waves generated by a volume source in
a homogeneous isotropic half-space are derived in Zabolotskaya et al.
[364]. The context is sources at shallow burial depths, for which surface
(Rayleigh) and bulk (longitudinal P and transverse S) waves can be
generated with comparable magnitudes. Two approaches are followed.
First, the Green’s function is expanded with respect to eigenmodes that
correspond to Rayleigh waves. While bulk waves are thus ignored,
this approximation is valid on the surface far from the source, where
Rayleigh waves are dominant. The second approach employs an angular
spectrum that accounts for the bulk waves and yields a solution that
may be separated into two parts, one associated with bulk waves and
the other with Rayleigh waves. The latter part turns out to be identical
to the Green’s function obtained following the first approach. Finally,
the Green’s function obtained via angular spectrum decomposition is
analyzed numerically in the time domain for different burial depths
and distances from the receiver, and for material parameters relevant
to seismo-acoustic detection of land mines and other buried objects.
A method using potentials is presented in [244] for the derivation
of the dynamic response of an elastic half-space to a time-harmonic,
finite buried source. The development includes a set of transformed
stress-potential and displacement-potential relations, which are useful
in a variety of wave propagation problems. Some results for an embed-
ded source with uniform distributions are also included. Additionally,
in the frequency domain, the Green’s function for a homogeneous elas-
tic half-space is numerically programmed [21] and applied in dynamic
soil-structure interaction problems (Guzina and Pak [131]). Since it is
expressed in terms of Fourier-Bessel integral forms involving oscillatory
integrals over infinite intervals, with no closed-form expressions avail-
able, its numerical evaluation is complex and time-consuming. Singu-
larity and regularization issues for the half-space Green’s function have
been presented in Rizzo et al. [276]. In Yuan and Pan [363] there is a
discussion that the Banerjee and Mamoon [21] solution for the elastody-
namic half-space problem is incorrect, the reason being that Mindlin’s
50
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
superposition method of image sources used for the elastostatic problem
cannot be simply extended to the elastodynamics.
Other BEM elastodynamic formulations are presented in Gonsalves
et al. [126] based on the Stokes’ (full-space) and Lamb’s (half-space)
fundamental tensors (Green’s functions), for radiation and scattering of
time-harmonic elastic waves by bodies embedded in or laying on the
surface of a 3D homogeneous and isotropic half-space. Numerical re-
sults are presented for a rigid circular footing, a rigid hemi-spherical
foundation and a fully embedded spherical cavity. Finally, Tadeu et al.
[315] presented an analytical solution for the 3D, steady state Green’s
function for a homogeneous and isotropic half-space subjected to a spa-
tially sinusoidal, harmonic line load. The final expressions are validated
by comparing the results with those obtained with BEM solutions, for
which the free surface of the ground is discretized with boundary el-
ements. A recent generalization of Lamb’s problem where both source
and receiver points fall in the interior of the domain in question is pre-
sented in Feng and Zhang [113], where the solution for a Poisson’s ra-
tio of 0.25 is given in terms of elementary algebraic expressions and
elliptic integrals. The authors validate their solution by comparing their
closed-form results with the numerical results of Johnson [157].
2.2. Discrete inhomogeneous materials
In this section, we look at Green’s functions for a vertically stratified
half-space in the form of a stack of homogeneous, isotropic elastic lay-
ers with horizontal plane boundaries stretching to infinity. During the
1950′s, Thomson and Haskell first proposed a transfer-matrix method
for constructing wave fields in a layered, isotropic half-space with pla-
nar boundaries due to incident SH waves (anti-plane strain case) and
plane P-SV waves (plane strain case) emanating from the base of the
layer structure, see [320,136–138]. Since then, various methods have
been developed based on the Thomson-Haskell formalism to study wave
propagation in layered media. Many of these were specifically tailored
to resolve the issues of numerical overflow and loss of precision that can
occur at high frequencies when the original Thomson-Haskell method
is applied [287]. Among these methods we mention the propagator-
matrix approach described by Knopoff [178] and Schwab [287] with
later improvements by Abo-Zena [1], Buchen and Ben-Hador [49] and
Guzina and Pak [131]; the stiffness matrix formulation of Kausel and
Roësset [162]; the reflection-transmission matrix developed by Kennett
[173]; the wavenumber-integration approach developed by Apsel [10],
Apsel and Luco [11,12], Luco and Apsel [201] and Hisada [144,145];
the thin layer method developed by Lysmer and Waas [205] and im-
proved upon by Kausel [160,161,165] and Kausel and Peek (1982);
the discrete wavenumber method by Bouchon [43]; the plane wave
decomposition technique by Bai et al. [17].
For the most part, these methods are based on the integral transform
approach. If a linear viscoelastic half-space with only horizontal inter-
faces is considered, the computations are simplified significantly when
a formulation in the horizontal wavenumber domain is adopted. It turns
out that an analytical Green’s function can be found, and once the solu-
tion has been formulated in the wavenumber domain, a transformation
back into Cartesian spatial coordinates is readily achieved by an inverse
Fourier transformation. The transient 3D problem formulated in cylin-
drical coordinates can be solved by means of a Fourier transformation
from the time domain to the frequency domain, followed by a Fourier
series expansion in the circumferential direction and a Hankel transfor-
mation in the radial direction. The kernels of the Hankel transform (with
respect to the wave number) integrals correspond to complete solutions
of the equations of motion in the frequency-wavenumber domain. They
may be obtained as the solution to a set of linear algebraic equations,
together with the boundary conditions at the free surface, the continuity
conditions at each layer interface and the Sommerfeld radiation condi-
tion in the underlying half-space. The system of equations grows linearly
with the number of layers, but various matrix decompositions may be
used to take advantage of the block diagonal form of the system.
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
The first such matrix decomposition technique was presented by
Thomson [320], who reformulated the problem in terms of the so-called
layer matrices, which transfer the wave fields from interface to interface.
The Thomson-Haskel method and its modifications are used to simu-
late seismic wave propagation in both isotropic and anisotropic media.
The work by Benıtez and Rosakis [29] presented a general analytic ma-
trix approach for obtaining the 3D Green’s function for a multilayered
plate. The double Fourier transform and the propagator matrix tech-
nique yielded an analytic solution in the transformed domain. Both ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the matrix methods are discussed in Hel-
big and Treitel [140]. The propagator matrix approach is updated during
the years in order to define the solution free of unbounded exponential
terms.
The wavenumber-integration approach was used by Harkider
[135] and Apsel and Luco [11,12] to derive expressions for the displace-
ment fields produced by sources at any depth in a multilayered, isotropic
half-space. Pak and Guzina [245] present the 3D Green’s function for a
multilayered viscoelastic half-space, based on the original approach by
Luco and Apsel [201]. The solution here is built in three steps: (i) poten-
tial displacements theory; (ii) angular Fourier series; (iii) radial Hankel
transform.
Another approach for deriving the half-space Green’s function for
layered media is the stiffness matrix formulation of Kausel and Roësset
[162]. At first look, the stiffness matrix method (SMM) is similar to the
FEM, where: (i) the layered medium is modelled as an assembly of homo-
geneous layers and of half-space elements; (ii) the field variables within
the elements are represented by shape functions; and (iii) element stiff-
ness matrices are used to express the relation between displacements
and stresses at the element boundaries. However, the similarity between
the SMM and the FEM is superficial, because the former is an exact
method that unlike the FEM does not require any approximation. The
method is based on a transformation from the time-space domain to the
frequency-wavenumber domain. In the latter domain, exact solutions
can be obtained for the governing equations of wave propagation in a
homogeneous layer or a homogeneous half-space. These exact solutions
are then used as shape functions in the SMM. As a result, wave propaga-
tion is treated exactly and there is no need to further subdivide homoge-
neous layers into multiple layer elements, as is in the thin layer method.
An updated version of the SMM and its extension to layered cylinders
and layered spheres is presented in Kausel [166]. Another extension of
the SMM appeared recently in Kausel [168] for the case of elastic media
subjected to both 2.5D and 3D loads with arbitrary spatial distribution
that are neither planar nor axisymmetric, acting on/within viscoelastic,
horizontally layered media with either finite or infinite depth. Finally,
the SMM has the following important advantages in comparison with
other popular computational tools: (a) It is stable and unlike the orig-
inal propagator matrix method, the layers can be arbitrarily thick and
the frequencies as high as necessary to capture the temporal character-
istics of the source; (b) it is faster than the Transfer Matrix Method and
the Global Matrix Method because the matrices involved are symmetric
and contain only half as many degrees-of freedom (DOF) per layer.
The first application of the TLM formalism to the BEM appeared
in Kausel and Peek [163], followed later in publications by Prosper
and Kausel [268] and by Barbarosa et al. [23,24]. Tadeu and Antonio
[316] derived analytical Green’s functions for the steady state response
of a homogeneous three-dimensional free solid layer formation (slab)
subjected to a spatially sinusoidal harmonic line load, polarized along
the horizontal and vertical directions. The final expressions are vali-
dated by comparing them with the results obtained by using the BEM
for which both free surfaces of the slab are discretized with boundary
elements.
Another methodology for deriving half-space Green’s functions for
discrete inhomogeneous materials is the ray method. In here, ray ex-
pansions coupled with inversion to the time domain by use of the
Cagniard-de Hoop technique have been developed by Heimberger
[139], Vered et al. [333] and Wiggins and Helmberger [347], while
51
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
Hron et al. [149] have discussed asymptotic ray expansions. Vavrycuk
and Yomogida [331] showed that the elastodynamic fundamental solu-
tions for isotropic, homogeneous and unbounded media can be calcu-
lated using higher-order ray theory and can be expressed in the form of
a ray series.
All the information discussed above is summarized in Table 1, where
references on fundamental solutions / Green’s functions for 3D homo-
geneous and discrete inhomogeneous isotropic continua are collected.
2.3. Continuously inhomogeneous materials
Mathematically speaking, BVP for inhomogeneous materials are de-
scribed by partial differential equations (PDE) with variable coefficients,
for which extension of the many available analytical and numerical
methods of solution for homogeneous materials cannot be easily done. It
is known that differential operators with variable coefficients do not nec-
essarily have fundamental solutions, but at the same time, BIE based for-
mulations pre-suppose their existence. Since differential operators with
variable coefficients do not necessarily have fundamental solutions, see
e.g., [152], the BEM formulation for inhomogeneous materials with a
general material profile does not exist even for elastostatics.
The available methods used to obtain elastodynamic fundamental
solutions for limited cases of graded materials are as follows: (a) Solu-
tions of the original partial differential equation while taking into ac-
count the variable phase velocities; (b) solutions not required to satisfy
the original differential equations, apart from the singularity points (see
[33,221]); (c) use of available fundamental solutions for homogeneous
materials. The best example of this last concept is the dual reciprocity
– boundary element method (DR-BEM) based on the fundamental solu-
tion for homogeneous cases, whereby the resulting integral formulation
includes both surface and domain integrals; (d) Use of available fun-
damental solutions for homogeneous materials by the reduction of the
partial differential equation with variable coefficients to one with con-
stant coefficients.
A detail review for 2D wave propagation in graded elastic media
by BEM can be found in Manolis et al. [216]. In general, two groups
of results for elastodynamics of continuously inhomogeneous materials
are available in the literature. The first one concerns graded materials
with constant velocity profile, i.e. materials in which the mass density
changes with space at the same rate as the moduli, so as to maintain a
constant wave velocity. The second one presents solutions for inhomoge-
neous materials with position-dependent velocity profiles, i.e. materials
whose properties change with space at different rates. We will examine
these two groups separately.
2.3.1. Graded materials with constant wave velocities
In this case, the original partial differential equations with variable
coefficients are reduced to ones with constant coefficients. The following
procedure is usually in use: (a) First, a simple algebraic transformation
for the displacement vector (see [28]) is applied, so as to bring about a
governing PDE with constant coefficients, albeit at the cost of introduc-
ing a series of constraints on the types of material profiles; (b) careful
examination of these constraints, which reveal a rather rich range of
possible variations of the material parameters in both vertical and lat-
eral directions; (c) use of Fourier, Laplace, or Radon integral transforms
in order to obtain the fundamental solution for the differential opera-
tor with constant coefficients; (d) inverse algebraic transformation for
the displacements in order to obtain the solution defined in the original
domain.
We will first examine 2D, frequency dependent elastodynamic funda-
mental solutions based on the Radon integral transform. These were de-
rived in Rangelov et al. [270] for the following isotropic and anisotropic
material profiles, with the material gradient vector at an arbitrary direc-
tion and for Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 = 0.25: (i) Quadratic type; (ii) exponential
type; (iii) trigonometric type as sin 2 (a1 x1 + a2 x2 ), sinh 2 (a1 x1 + a2 x2 ),
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69

Table 1
Fundamental solutions, Green’s functions and early results for 3D homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous, elastic isotropic materials.

Fundamental solutions Green’s functions for the homogeneous half-space Green’s function for the layered half-space

Time domain Stokes [307] Pekeris [260]

Love [195] Pekeris [262]
Morse and Feshbach [228] Pekeris [261]
Maruyama [219] Chao [67]
Achenbach [3] Jin and Liu [154]
Karabalis and Beskos [172] Mooney [227]
Nakagawa and Kitahara [235] Johnson [157]
Banerjee et al. [20] Ceranoglu and Pao [59]
Mossessian & Dravinski [230] Vasudevan and Mal [330]
Hirose [141] Triantafyllidis [325]
Rizos & Karabalis [277] Zabolotskaya et al. [364]
Araujo et al. [13] Kausel [167]
Marrero and Dominguez [217] Romero and Galvın [280]
Kausel [166]
Panagiotopoulos and Manolis [252]
Transformed Cruse and Rizzo [82] Rayleigh [275] Haskell [136]
domains Beskos [30] Lamb [185] Thomson [320]
Beskos [31] Lamb [186] Harkrider [135]
Manolis and Beskos [208] Mindlin [223] Knopoff [178]
Kitahara et al. [177] Johnson [157] Schwab [287]
Mossessian and Dravinski [229] Miklowitz [226] Lysmer and Waas [205]
Silva et al. [302] Pak [244] Kausel [160]
Dominguez [95] Banerjee and Mamoon [21] Kennet [173]
Beskos [33] Gonsalves et al. [126] Abo-Zena [1]
Luzon et al. [204] Tadeu and Antonio (2001) Apsel [10]
Luzon et al. [203] Yuan and Pan [363] Bouchon [43]
Tadeu and Kausel [314] Kausel and Roësset [162]
Kausel [166] Kausel [161]
Kausel and Peek [163]
Apsel and Luco [11]
Apsel and Luco [12]
Luco and Apsel [201]
Benıtez and Rosakis [29]
Hisada [144]
Kausel [165]
Hisada [145]
Buchen and BenHador [49]
Guzina and Pak [131]
Pak and Guzina [245]
Tadeu et al. [315]
Bai et al. [17]
BE-CQM Schanz and Antes [288,289]
Schanz [290]

cos 2 (a1 x1 + a2 x2 ) andcosh 2 (a1 x1 + a2 x2 ), where (a1 ,a2 ) and (x1 ,x2 ) re-
spectively are the components of the inhomogeneity and position vec-
tors at the observer point. The inhomogeneity vector a=(a1 , a2 ) in po-
lar coordinate is defined as a = |a|(cos (𝛼), sin (𝛼)), where 𝛼 and |a|
are direction angle and magnitude of the material inhomogeneity, re-
spectively. We note that for isotropic materials, the elasticity tensor
constraints correspond to equal Lamé constants or, alternatively, to a
fixed Poisson’s ratio. These fundamental solutions were implemented
in: (a) 2D non-hypersingular, traction-based BEM formulations for
wave propagation problems in cracked isotropic media, with quadratic
[212,87] and exponential [88] material profiles; (b) 2D direct BEM for
evaluating the time-harmonic response of a multi-layered soil deposit
resting on the quadratically and the exponentially inhomogeneous half-
plane under incoming P and S waves [89]. Also, frequency dependent
2D Green’s functions for the exponentially and the quadratically graded
half-plane were derived in Rangelov and Manolis [272] and Rangelov
and Manolis [273] using the Radon integral transform. The latter
Green’s function was implemented in the BEM by Wuttke et al. [353] for
solving the quadratically graded half-plane with both free-surface and
subsurface relief, subjected to time harmonic and transient waves, plus
waves radiated by an embedded seismic source. More details on 2D BEM
results can be found in Manolis and Dineva [215] and in Manolis et al.
[216].
Moving on to 3D elastic wave propagation in the inhomogeneous
half-space, we have an analytical approach based on plane wave de-
composition in conjunction with various functional transformations for
the displacement vector in Manolis et al. [213]. Specifically, free-field
motions are recovered at the surface of a half-space with either quadratic
or exponential type of depth-dependent material parameters. The inci-
dent wave is a time harmonic P wave and the resulting free-field mo-
tions are obtained in closed form, first for the full-space and then for
the half-space by adding the reflected waves. Parametric studies show
marked differences in the results between homogeneous and inhomoge-
neous media. Next, Manolis and Shaw [211] presented a time-harmonic
fundamental solution for 3D non-homogeneous media with a fixed Pois-
son ratio of 𝜈 = 0.25 and with stiffness and density varying quadratically,
but proportionally so as to yield constant velocity profiles. The first step
is to transform the displacement vector in the Navier equations of dy-
namic equilibrium through scaling by the square root of the position-
dependent shear modulus. Following imposition of certain constraints
that are subsequently used to derive the vertical profile of the mate-
rial parameters, the Helmholtz’s vector decomposition is employed so
as to generate two scalar wave equations for the dilational and rota-
tional components of the wave motion, a process which again generates
additional constraints. The corresponding fundamental solution is then
synthesized in the conventional way followed for homogeneous media.
Later on, Daros and Mesquita [83] presented a 3D BEM based on the
fundamental solution by Manolis and Shaw [211] and solved for a se-
ries of numerical examples to demonstrate the potential of the BEM for
modelling of 3D inhomogeneous continua.

52
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
Table 2
Fundamental solutions, Green’s functions and early results for 3D continuously inhomogeneous, elastic isotropic materials.
Fundamental solution Fundamental solution
constant phase velocity variable phase velocity
Time domain Hook [148]
Frequency domain Manolis and Shaw [211] Hook [146]
Daros and Mesquita [83] Hook [147]
Alverson [9]
Ben-Menahem [28]
2.3.2. Graded materials with variable wave velocities
A generalization of the classical method of separation of vari-
ables through the use of Helmholtz potentials is presented in Hook
[146,147] as a means for solving problems involving a restricted class of
inhomogeneous materials. More specifically, formulations are presented
for axially symmetric waves in 3D and for waves in 2D configurations,
where it is shown that for specific types of materials, the P wave is to-
tally uncoupled from the vertical polarized shear (SV) wave and the
horizontal polarized (SH) wave is in turn separated from the previous
two. The same approach was again used by Hook [148] for the deriva-
tion of a transient fundamental solution for axisymmetric elastic waves
in a media having a constant gradient in the velocity profile of both P
and SV waves along the direction of the inhomogeneity. Alverson et al.
[9] cast the Helmholtz potentials in terms of matrices and extended the
work of Hook [147] to media with variable Poisson’s ratio. It was found
that the constitutive law parameters must satisfy a pair of nonlinear
ordinary differential equations. These differential equations were sub-
sequently integrated for a particular case and an example for a nonho-
mogeneous medium is given. The most authoritative and complete study
on the use of the method of potentials for the separation of variables in
non-homogeneous media is probably that by Ben-Menahem [28], who
derived a time-harmonic fundamental solution for 3D inhomogeneous
isotropic media with varying material properties in one principal direc-
tion. However, the final expressions are extremely complex, involving
numerical solutions to non-linear equations in the most general case.
Next, a special class of graded materials with an exponential varia-
tion of the square of the S wave velocity and density from the reference
value at the surface of the half-space to some finite value at infinite
depth was examined by Rao and Goda [274]. It was shown that for
the case of latter inhomogeneity, the solution for time-harmonic mo-
tions can be obtained from a system of coupled equations by applying
Frobenius’ method with a suitable change of the depth variable. Fur-
thermore, a set of 3D Green’s functions for a vertically inhomogeneous
half-space with a linear shear velocity profile subjected to a variety of
time-harmonic, ring- and point-sources, is presented in Guzina and Pak
[130] by using the method of potentials. The evaluation of these Green’s
functions on the basis of decomposition into analytical and residual
parts is described in detail, with the analytical parts for the ring- and
point- source Green’s functions expressible in terms of elliptic integrals
and algebraic functions, respectively. The residual regular parts of the
Green’s functions can be evaluated by contour integration over the com-
plex plane. A set of numerical results is then presented and compared
with solutions for a uniform half-space, thus highlighting the character-
istic features of wave propagation in media whose modulus increases
continuously with depth.
Time-harmonic vibrations in an incompressible half-space with a
shear modulus increasing linearly with depth are studied in Muravskii
[231]. The half-space is subjected to a surface load with both vertical
and horizontal components. Numerical results for surface displacements
due to a point force show that inhomogeneity can considerably increase
amplitudes at large distances from the applied force. In more detail,
the solution of the time-harmonic problem been constructed in cylin-
53
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
Green’s function for the Green’s function for the
half-space half-space
constant velocity profile variable velocity profile
Rao and Goda [274] Muravskii [231]
Guzina and Pak [130]
Muravskii [232]
Acharya [2]
Vrettos [334]
Vrettos [335]
Vrettos [336]
der coordinates for a load with arbitrary angular distribution along the
horizontal plane. The cases of the incompressibility and linear shear
modulus variation with depth are treated in detail for vertical and hor-
izontal forces applied to the surface of the half-space. Compared to the
corresponding homogeneous case, a significant increase of amplitudes
at large distances from the acting point force is observed, especially
in the case of horizontal displacements due to the horizontally act-
ing force. Next, Muravskii [232] studied time-harmonic vibrations of a
compressible as well as an incompressible half-space with a shear modu-
lus linearly increasing in depth and subjected to vertical and horizontal
surface loads. The solution is represented in terms of Fourier - Bessel in-
tegrals as functions of the depth coordinate that are subsequently evalu-
ated by confluent hypergeometric functions. Numerical results concern-
ing surface displacements due to a point force are given for a wide
range of frequencies and degree of inhomogeneity. The results show
again that, as compared to the homogeneous case, inhomogeneity can
considerably increase vibration amplitudes at large distances from the
applied force. Finally, wave propagation due to a point source in an in-
homogeneous elastic half‐space is investigated in Acharya [2]. Integral
expressions for vertical and horizontal displacement have been obtained
in terms of reflection coefficients for a medium in which P and S veloc-
ities increase monotonically with depth.
Inhomogeneities which can be classified into two broad classes,
namely soils with bounded inhomogeneity (wave velocities tend asymp-
totically to some fixed value that is either larger or smaller than the ref-
erence value at the free surface) and soils with unbounded inhomogene-
ity have been examined by Vrettos [334,335], Vardoulakis and Vret-
tos [329] and Vrettos [336]. More specifically, an analytical solution is
presented in Vrettos [334] describing the response of an exponentially
inhomogeneous, compressible elastic half-space subjected to a time-
harmonic vertical point load on its surface. Displacements and stresses
inside the graded half-space are derived by means of Hankel transforms
and contour integration. Numerical results are then presented to demon-
strate the influence of exponential inhomogeneity. Next, a Green’s func-
tion for a vertical time-harmonic point load on an elastic half‐space with
depth-degrading stiffness is derived in Vrettos [336], where inhomo-
geneity is defined by a function that may describe both increasing and
decreasing shear modulus with depth. The analysis points to the exis-
tence of cut-off frequencies for the SV/P surface waves.
In sum, the above information on fundamental solutions / Green’s
functions for 3D continuously inhomogeneous, isotropic media is
summarized in Table 2.
3. Elastodynamic fundamental solutions / Green’s functions for
3D anisotropic continua
3.1. Homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous materials
Anisotropy is a common property of naturally occurring materials
such as wood, soils and rocks (because of sedimentation), and man-
made materials such as reinforced concrete and composites. In gen-
eral, anisotropy increases the number of elastic constants necessary in
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
the constitutive law, and as a result the construction of the fundamen-
tal solutions becomes difficult, even in elastostatics. Wave propagation
in anisotropic media is markedly different from isotropic ones in that
elastic waves propagate with a velocity that is dependent on direction.
Furthermore, unlike the isotropic case, three fundamental wave modes
(one longitudinal and two shear waves) are not necessarily pure modes
of particle vibration, or polarization. They may be neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the propagation direction. Hence, anisotropic modes
are referred to as quasi-longitudinal and quasi-shear modes.
Analytical closed-form expressions for elastostatic fundamental
solutions are available mainly for transversely isotropic materials,
[246,350]. The 3D anisotropic fundamental solutions can be presented
in the form of a line or contour integral [116,313]. A comprehensive
review of the methods used for the derivation of elastostatic anisotropic
fundamental solutions in infinite, semi-infinite and bi-material spaces,
plus their applications, can be found in the monograph by Pan and Chen
[251]. Recently, the derivations of the novel explicit expressions for the
general anisotropic elastostatic fundamental solution and its derivatives
based on the residue calculus method (RCM), Stroh formalism method
(SFM) and unified explicit expression method (UEEM) are presented in
Xie [355]. These approaches are accurate for non-degenerate cases in
the case the Stroh eigenvalues are distinct. For nearly degenerate cases,
both the RCM and the SFM become unstable while the UEEM remains
accurate.
Pioneering work on the effects of anisotropy and transverse isotropy
in wave propagation problems stretches back well into the 19th century,
see [195] who considered anisotropy but referred to it as “aeolotropy”.
A good review can also be found in Musgrave [233] where Lord Kelvin’s
“excellent formulation of the dynamics of elastic waves in aeolotropic media
in his Baltimore Lectures (1904)” is mentioned. Later, Stoneley [308] pre-
sented an analysis on wave propagation in a transversely isotropic half-
space for both body and surface waves. Next, Synge [312,313] consid-
ered the propagation of waves in a transversely isotropic medium and
proved that surface waves exist only if the horizontal free surface of the
material is either parallel or perpendicular to the material axis of sym-
metry. Wave propagation due to a time-harmonic surface excitation in
transversely isotropic media was considered by Buchwald [50,51], while
the transient response of a transversely isotropic elastic half-space due to
a suddenly applied line load was studied by Kraut [182]. Furthermore,
Payton [259] presented a comprehensive treatment of wave propaga-
tion in transversely isotropic media, including solutions for a selected
set of loadings applied to an elastic half-space. By 1959, the state-of-the-
art on theoretical and experimental understanding of anisotropic wave
propagation had advanced to the point where rigorous theoretical cal-
culations were in order. It became clear that all the solvable problems
of isotropic elastodynamics, i.e., the initial value problems for an un-
bounded homogeneous medium, the mixed initial and boundary value
problems for a surface line or point source on a half‐space, the nor-
mal mode problem for an elastic waveguide, etc., could be formulated
and solved for the anisotropic case by extensions of the usual transform
methods used in isotropic problems. The review by Kraut [183] summa-
rizes the dynamic anisotropic problems treated in the period 1959–1963
and the techniques developed to solve them.
Two major methodologies based on the analytic functions of com-
plex variables for derivation of 2D fundamental solutions for elastic
anisotropic materials are known:
(a) Eshelby formalism [104], lately known as Stroh’s formalism, see
the earlier results in Stroh [309,310], which are restricted to the
case where all roots of the characteristic equation are distinct.
Later work by Ting and Hwu [322], Wang and Ting [346], Yin
[361], Ding et al. [90] and Xie et al. [354] presents eigensolutions
for all types of anisotropic materials, whether they are classified
as nondegenerate or as degenerate. Stroh’s formalism starts with
the compatible displacements, followed by strain-displacement
relations, constitutive law and equilibrium equations. The gen-
54
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
eral solution is expressed by the Stroh’s eigenvector matrix and
analytic functions of complex variables. For 3D anisotropic elas-
ticity, the Stroh eigenvector matrix depends not only on the elas-
tic properties, but also on the oblique plane whose normal is the
position vector, see Xie et al. [354]. Over the years, it has been
demonstrated that it is possible for Stroh’s formalism to treat cer-
tain classes of problems involving dislocations, line forces and
steady-state waves in anisotropic media.
(b) Lekhnitski formalism [188] generalizes Muskhelishvili’s ap-
proach (Muskhelishvili [234]) and starts with complex potentials
defined for stresses, followed by the constitutive law, the strain-
displacement relation, and the compatibility equations. The re-
sult is set of coupled elliptic partial differential equations for the
complex potentials.
Recently, Barnett and Kirchner [25] provided a direct proof of the
equivalence between the Lekhnitskii and the Stroh formalisms. The most
frequently used method however to obtain displacement fundamental
solution and half-space Green’s functions is based on the integral trans-
form techniques, as discussed below.
3.1.1. Fourier and Laplace integral transforms
The literature on fundamental solutions for anisotropic media using
the Fourier transformation (FT) is rich. The advantage of FT is that an
infinite point load (represented by the Dirac delta distribution) used in
the definition of the fundamental solution is transformed into a finite
quantity, i.e., a bounded function. The FT fundamental solution is then
transformed back into the original domain of definition and the BIE can
be solved using standard techniques. However, this approach induces
certain numerical problems, because the integrands of the BIE contain
singularities brought by the fundamental solution. If the BIE is solved
numerically, many quadrature points are needed around these singular-
ities, which makes a numerical inverse transformation rather inefficient.
Most of the earlier solutions that were obtained by Buchwald
[50,51], Payton [259], Burridge et al. [56] and Budreck [52] are based
on the use of either Fourier or the Laplace (LT) transforms. For the
isotropic case, an analytical evaluation of the inverse transformations
can be achieved without much difficulty, but this is not the case for gen-
eral anisotropy. The solutions presented in the papers mentioned above
are either approximations, or are in complicated mathematical forms
that are difficult to be evaluated numerically. The oscillatory nature
of the Fourier-Laplace representations of the fundamental solutions, as
well as the calculation of the principal values at the singularities, create
computational difficulties which are overcome in different ways, almost
on a case-by-case basis.
In Yakhno and Yaslan [357], an approximate to the time-dependent
fundamental solution for homogeneous solids is used to represent the
general structure of anisotropy. The computational method consists in
the following steps: (i) A FT with respect to the space variables is applied
to the second order equations of elastodynamics in the time-domain;
(ii) a solution of the resulting initial value problem is derived by matrix
transformations, and the solution technique is now for ordinary differen-
tial equations with coefficients depending on the Fourier parameter. In
this step the Fourier image of the fundamental solution is computed; (iii)
the fundamental solution is calculated by the inverse FT on the previ-
ously Fourier image. Numerical implementation of the method was car-
ried out using the Matlab platform. In Igumnov and Markov [150] and
Igumnov et al. [151], a multi-domain 3D BEM is applied for modelling of
transient behaviour of anisotropic solids, formulated in the LT domain.
The transient response is then calculated via an inverse transformation
with the Runge- Kutta convolution quadrature method (CQM). Thus, 3D
anisotropic elastodynamic fundamental solutions are expressed as sur-
face integrals over half a unit sphere.
A CQM BEM for 2D and 3D transient wave propagation in general
anisotropic solids is presented in Furukawa et al. [120]. The conven-
tional time-domain BEM has a critical disadvantage because it produces
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
unstable numerical solutions for small time increments. To overcome
this disadvantage, the CQM is applied to the time-discretization of the
boundary integral equations. As numerical examples, problems of elastic
wave scattering by a cavity are solved to validate the method. The CQM,
originally proposed by Lubich [199,200], gives a numerical approxima-
tion to the convolution integrals using the fundamental solution in the
LT domain. This approximation formula is based on the linear multi-
step method using a backward finite difference formula. Subsequently,
a Runge-Kutta based CQM was developed for improving performance in
solving engineering applications, see Banjai et al. [22]. The CQM-BEM
is known to improve the numerical stability of a time-domain BEM that
uses time-domain fundamental solutions, while the CQ-BEM requires LT
domain ones. Thus, the CQ-BEM can produce stable numerical solutions,
even for a small time increments that are not allowed in a conventional
time-domain BEM.
3.1.2. Laplace or Fourier transforms in combination with Hankel integral
transforms
This technique was applied by Wang and Rajapakse [338] fol-
lowing the use of displacement potential functions for obtaining a
3D transient Green’s function for a transversely-isotropic half-space
under internal loadings and displacement discontinuities. Rajapakse
and Wang [269] presented an analytical treatment of the 3D response
of a transversely isotropic half-space subjected to time harmonic ex-
citations. General solutions for the equations of equilibrium expressed
in terms of displacements are derived by applying a Fourier series
expansion with respect to the circumferential coordinate plus Hankel
integral transforms with respect to the radial coordinate. The general
solutions are used to derive explicit solutions for Green’s functions
(displacements and stresses) corresponding to a set of time harmonic,
circular ring loads acting inside a half-space.
The response of a transversely isotropic 3D half-space subjected to
a surface time harmonic excitation is presented in analytical form by
Noorzad et al. [239]. This derivation of the Green’s function expressed
in terms of displacements is based on a series expansion of displacement
potential functions. At first, the governing equations are uncoupled in
the cylindrical coordinates. Then, the uncoupled equations are analyti-
cally solved to obtain Green’s functions that are expressed in terms of the
Fourier series in the angular direction of the coordinates and in terms
of the Hankel functions in the radial direction. The analytical Green’s
functions in this paper reduce to the solutions by Lamb [185] in the case
of an isotropic material.
Eskandari-Ghadi [105] introduced a complete solution for the gen-
eral elastodynamics problems in a transversely isotropic, mono-axial
convex domain in terms of two potential functions, one of which
describes SH wave and the other gives both SV and P waves in any
plane containing the axis of material symmetry. With the aid of this
representation, Eskandari-Ghadi and Sattar [106] investigated the
problem of transient waves in an axisymmetric transversely isotropic
half- space due to surface loading and their solution included an inte-
gral representation with a finite limit. In Naeeni and Eskandari-Ghadi
[236], the potential functions introduced by Eskandari-Ghadi [105] are
implemented in order to derive the displacement Green’s function of the
transversely isotropic half-space under the action of transient tractions
applied at an arbitrary depth. To do so with the use of two scalar
potential functions for representating the displacements, the governing
partial differential equations of elastodynamic are uncoupled into a
fourth- and a second-order system of partial differential equations in the
cylindrical coordinate system. These are solved by virtue of a Fourier
series expansion in terms of the angular coordinate and joint Hankel-
Laplace integral transforms in term of the radial coordinate and time
variables.
3.1.3. Fourier-Bessel integral transforms
This integral transform was used by Chen [79], who presented a
numerical approach for the evaluation of the Green’s function for a
55
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
multi-layered, transversely-isotropic half-space. In here, the Fourier-
Bessel transform is employed to convert the wave motion equation from
the spatial domain to the wavenumber domain. Then, a dual vector
representation of the wave motion equation is introduced to reduce
the second-order differential equation to first order, which is solved
by a precise integration method. Finally, the Green’s function in the
wavenumber domain is obtained. In order to obtain the Green’s func-
tion in the spatial domain, the inverse Fourier-Bessel transform over
the wavenumber is employed for deriving the solutions, which are ex-
pressed by 1D infinite integrals involving Bessel functions, calculated by
an adaptive Gauss quadrature technique.
3.1.4. Fourier-Bessel-Hankel integrals transform
The solution of the equations of motion in the wavenumber domain
runs into serious difficulties. The reason is that numerical integration
over wavenumbers involves improper integrals with integrands that are
oscillatory and decay relatively slowly when the source and the receiver
are at the same elevation. In addition, and depending on the frequency,
the integrands exhibit a finite number of singularities whose contribu-
tion to the integrals require changing the numerical integrals into con-
tour integrals combined with branch cuts without singularities. The con-
ventional way to avoid these problems is by adding damping, which re-
moves the singularities from the real axis, even if the transfer functions
continue to show sharp peaks in the vicinity of the singularities. One
alternative way to deal with this problem is to make use of complex
frequencies in the context of the exponential window method. Other
problems relate to the truncation of the tail end of the integrands, and
to the sampling rate used in the wavenumber domain. Indeed, as soon
as the integrals are replaced by discrete summations, the response be-
comes periodic in space. In summary, numerical evaluation of integral
transforms over wavenumbers is a delicate matter, although many prob-
lems are largely avoided in the TLM because it is based on analytical
inversion via contour integrations.
3.1.5. The Cagniard-de Hoop technique
For this type of approach applied to the anisotropic half-space, see
Burridge [54]. Simplified versions of the Cagniard de Hoop technique
have been used by Willis [351,352] and by Payton [259] for several
anisotropic half-space problems.
3.1.6. The Radon integral transform
Radon transform is an elegant technique that helps in transforming
3D images into planes and 2D images into lines. Hence, this technique
is heavily applied in the field of computed tomography and 3D image
reconstruction from a cluster of 2D projection images taken on differ-
ent planes. The transformation of 3D function into multiple functions
projected on 2D planes is made possible by Radon transform via param-
eterization of the orientation of the planes. Furthermore, the transfor-
mation of images on the 2D planes to a 3D image is made possible by
the inverse Radon transform.
For the Radon integral transform reference is made to Ludwig [202],
where the most important feature of this transform is that it reduces 3D
hyperbolic partial differential equation to a 1D equation of the same
kind. After solving this equation in the Radon transform domain, the
3D solution follows from application of the inverse transform, which is
expressed in terms of an integral over a unit sphere that can be eval-
uated numerically. Along these lines, a fundamental solution for the
unbounded, anisotropic elastic medium was developed by Yeatts [359].
Moreover, the method was further developed by Wang and Achenbach
in a series of works, see Wang and Achenbach [339–341,343], and Wang
et al. [342], who derived both 2D and 3D fundamental solutions for gen-
eral anisotropic solids in time and frequency domains. These solutions
are in the form of a surface integral over a unit sphere for 3D cases, and
in the form of a contour integral over a unit circle for 2D cases. The inte-
grals have a simple structure that can be interpreted as a superposition
of planar waves. These wavefields can be separated into singular and
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
regular parts, with the former part corresponding to the singularity of
the elastostatic fundamental solutions. The regular parts are bounded
continuous functions and are evaluated numerically. The idea of rep-
resenting the fundamental solution by the integral over a surface for
the case of elastodynamics goes back to Burridge [53]. Actually, this
integral formulation over the slowness surface is known as the Hergloz-
Petrowski formula. The books of John [156] and Gelfand and Shilov
[124] give a good description of the ideas that lead to these formulas.
By using the slowness surfaces, a great deal of simplification can be
achieved, namely the possibility of a line integral representation of the
fundamental solution [101].
The time-dependent fundamental solution for 3D anisotropic solids
was derived in Tewary [319] by the Radon transform and by solving the
Christoffel equation in terms of the delta function. Computational ad-
vantages of this method are as follows: (i) It does not require integration
over frequency; (ii) the integration is made over two of the three inde-
pendent variables. The numerical realization of this method for general
(triclinic, monoclinic, etc.) anisotropic elastic solids is questionable, be-
cause the paper does not clarify how to compute the weight function in
the obtained Radon representation.
A BIE formulation based on the static fundamental solution is pre-
sented in Kogl and Gaul [181] for the solution of 3D problems of
anisotropic elastodynamics. This leads to a domain integral in the repre-
sentation formula which contains the inertia term. The domain integral
can be transformed to the boundary using the Dual Reciprocity Method
(DRM). This results in a system of ordinary differential equations in time
with time-independent matrices. The results for test cases show excel-
lent agreement for the displacements, and reasonably good accuracy in
the stress calculations when compared with FEM analyses. Another vari-
ant is far field, time-harmonic fundamental solutions for 3D transversely
isotropic solids that were obtained by Saez and Dominguez (2000). This
result is important for practical purposes, since the evaluation of the ex-
act general solution presents serious numerical difficulties for far field
points. The general BIE formulation proposed in this paper combines
the exact fundamental solution when the distance between observation
and collocation points is small, with the far field fundamental solution
when this distance is large.
In Dravinski and Zheng [97], an alternative, efficient method for
numerical evaluation of the dynamic behavior of 3D anisotropic me-
dia subjected to time harmonic loads is developed. The key feature of
the method is that, by dealing with entire elastodynamic state vector, re-
peated evaluation of the common parts of the integrands can be avoided.
This results in a more efficient algorithm when compared with the stan-
dard, sequential integrand evaluations. When compared to the sequen-
tial approach, this method is more than three times faster in evaluat-
ing the displacement state vector and more than five times faster in
the calculation of the stress state vector. The direct 3D time-harmonic
boundary element method is applied in Niu and Dravinski [238] to de-
termine the elastic response of a cavity of arbitrary shape embedded
within a 3D homogeneous, triclinic half-space. This BIE is based on the
fundamental solution derived in Dravinski and Niu [98] for calculating
the scattered wave field. Using an indirect BIE formulation, Zheng and
Dravinski [366] studied the scattering of elastic waves by a 3D basin in
an orthotropic geological medium. Dravinski [100] and Dravinski and
Wilson [99] extended this approach to study amplification phenomena
for ground motions in 3D and 2D anisotropic media.
A generalization of the fundamental solution for homogeneous,
anisotropic elastic media (see [50,53,241,340]) to viscoelastic media
for three simple types of anisotropy is presented in Vavrucuk [332]. Fur-
thermore, an asymptotic Green’s function valid for high frequency sig-
nals at distances far from the source is derived based on the ray method.
Also, 3D Green’s functions for steady-state motion in the anisotropic
half-space and in bimaterials are derived in Yang et al. [358] within the
framework of generalized Stroh formalism and the double FT. Numeri-
cal evaluation of harmonic Green’s functions for triclinic half-space with
embedded sources was considered in Chen and Dravinski [74]. An ef-
56
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
ficient and accurate analytical derivation of the 3D dynamic Green’s
functions for a transversely isotropic, multilayered half-space by the
method of displacement potentials is presented in Khojasteh et al. [176].
In there, proper algebraic factorizations are used to constitute a set of
generalized transmission-reflection matrices and internal source fields
that are free from numerically unstable exponential terms, and are used
in the effective computation of the potential solution. The end result is a
3D, point-load Green’s functions for stresses and displacements defined
in the complex plane as line integral representations. The formulations
and solutions are in exact agreement with the existing solutions given
by Pak and Guzina [245] for the isotropic case.
The dynamic response of a multi-layered transversely isotropic
medium subjected to the axisymmetric time-harmonic forces is stud-
ied in Zhang et al. [365], where the planes of cross anisotropy are as-
sumed to be parallel to the horizontal surfaces of the stratified layers.
Vertically acting axisymmetric loads are applied, either at the external
surface or in the interior of the layers, whose thicknesses and number
are arbitrary. Next, the Hankel integral transform in cylindrical coor-
dinates is applied and the axisymmetric governing equations defined
in terms of displacements of the layers become uncoupled. After using
mixed variable formulations, more concise forms of the resulting first-
order, ordinary differential matrix equations for the uncoupled motions
are obtained. Solutions of these ordinary differential matrix equations
in the transformed domain are obtained through a precise, yet cumber-
some integration method based on subdividing the physical layers into a
large number of extremely thin layers, which eventually yields the cor-
rect stiffness matrix for the layers. More elegant and less cumbersome
is the solution presented in Rokhlin and Wang [279] by using the stiff-
ness matrix method for elastic wave propagation in layered anisotropic
media. Their results show that the method is stable for an arbitrary num-
ber and thickness of layers, and the numerical scheme is validated by
recovering the correct solution for a half-space supporting a thick layer.
Moving on, the time-harmonic Green’s function for a transversely
isotropic and layered half-space with imperfect interfaces and subjected
to surface loads is obtained in Liu and Pan [191]. Different imperfect
bonding models are considered, including the direct thin-layer model
[57], spring models (with different interface modules in different direc-
tions, see Goodman et al. [127]) and the density model [356]. A novel
form of the propagator matrix method is further introduced, which is
more accurate and suitable for layered structures with thin layers under
high frequency excitations.
Xie et al. [354] state that in general, the elastostatic part of the fun-
damental solutiоns and their derivatives for 3D anisotropic solids pre-
sented in the literature can be categorized into five different forms: (i)
line integrals on the oblique plane with normal coincident with the posi-
tion vector; (ii) line integrals on the vertical and horizontal planes; (iii)
expressions in terms of Stroh’s eigenvalues; (iv) expressions in terms of
Stroh’s eigenvectors, and (v) expressions in terms of an approximated
series expansion. Then, three advanced solution methods to construct
3D fundamental solutions for anisotropic elastic solids are proposed.
They are expressed in terms of Stroh’s eigenvalues (first method), Stroh’s
eigenvectors (second method) and the fundamental elasticity matrix in
the 2D Radon transformed vertical planes (third method).
As before, the above review is summarized in Table 3, listing
all references on the 3D homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous
anisotropic media.
3.2. Continuously inhomogeneous materials
Elastic wave propagation in inhomogeneous and anisotropic media
is of significant interest in geophysics, soil dynamics, earthquake engi-
neering, material science and petroleum engineering. Many naturally
occurring soils, such as flocculated clays, varved silts and sands, are
typically deposited via sedimentation over long periods. The effects of
deposition, overburden, and desiccation can cause soil media to exhibit
both anisotropic and inhomogeneous deformability. From the practical
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69

Table 3
Fundamental solutions, Green’s functions and early results for 3D homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous, elastic anisotropic materials.

Fundamental solution Green’s function for the homogeneous half-space Green’s function for the layered half-space

Time domain Kraut [183] Kraut [182]

Transformed domain
BE-CQM Transformed domain
Burridge [53] Burridge [54]
Burridge et al. [56] Payton [259]
Wang and Achenbach [339] Wang and Rajapakser [338]
Wang and Achenbach [340] Every et al. [110]
Tewary [319] Eskandari-Ghadi andSattar [106]
Yakhno and Yaslan [357] Naeeni and Eskandari-Ghadi [236]
Igumnov and Markov [150]
Igumnov et al. [151]
Buchwald [50,51] Buchwald [51] Khojasteh et al. [175]
Payton [259] Rajapakse and Wang [269] Khojasteh et al. [176]
Zhu [373] Niu and Dravinski [238] Ai et al. [4]
Budreck [52] Noorzad et al. [239] Zhang et al. [365]
Dong and Schmidt [96] Yang et al. [358] Chen [79]
Norris [241] Chen and Dravinski [74] Liu and Pan [191]
Wang and Achenbach [340] Khojasteh et al. [174]
Wang and Achenbach [341]
Wang et al. [342]
Wang and Achenbach [343]
Sáez and Domınguez [281]
Dravinski and Zheng [97]
Zheng and Dravinski [366]
Hirose et al. [142]
Kӧgl and Gaul [181]
Dravinski and Niu [98]
Niu [240]
Niu and Dravinski [237]
Dravinski [100]
Vavrucuk [332]
Furukawa et al. [120]

standpoint, anisotropy rocks are often modeled as orthotropic or trans-
versely isotropic media. Also, given the nature of industrial processing
techniques, man-made graded materials can become anisotropic. For ex-
ample, graded materials processed by the plasma spray technique gen-
erally have a lamellar structure [286], whereas processing by electron
beam physical vapor deposition leads to a highly columnar structure, see
[170]. In general, 3D elastic wave propagation in graded anisotropic
materials has received much less attention in the literature compared
to either homogeneous anisotropic or graded isotropic materials. The
main reason is that the combination of anisotropy with material non-
homogeneity gives rise to additional mathematical complications in
the derivation of elastostatic and elastodynamic fundamental solutions.
To the authors’ best knowledge, the following types of solutions are
available:
• 2D inhomogeneous elastodynamics of anisotropic continua: A detail
review on the BEM results available in the literature can be found
in Manolis et al. [216]. More specifically, Rangelov et al. [270,271],
Manolis et al. [214,216] solved various BVP in 2D elastodynamics
of continuously inhomogeneous, anisotropic media containing finite,
infinite and semi-infinite cracks, based on frequency domain funda-
mental solutions. These were derived by algebraic transformations
for the displacement vector in conjunction with the Radon transform
method for the recovered form of partial elliptic differential equation
with constant coefficients.
• 3D inhomogeneous elastostatics of anisotropic materials, see
[103,218,344,80,81], Eskandari and Shodja [107,8]. Specifically,
Erguven [103] derived the elastostatic axisymmetric fundamental
solution for an exponentially inhomogeneous, transversely isotropic
elastic medium using ring sources or forces by integral transform
techniques. Also, the integral form solution for displacements and
stresses under vertical point loads in an exponentially graded, trans-
versely isotropic half-space was obtained by Wang et al. [344] via
the Hankel transform in a cylindrical co-ordinate system. Addition-
ally, that reference contains a comprehensive review of the literature
corresponding to the analytical and numerical solutions for inhomo-
geneous, both isotropic and anisotropic media under static loads.
The fundamental solution for an exponentially graded continuum
was obtained by Fourier transforms in Martin et al. [218]. It consists
of a singular part, given by the Kelvin solution, plus a non-singular
remainder. This grading term is not obtained in simple closed form,
but as the sum of single integrals over finite intervals of modified
Bessel functions, and double integrals over finite regions of elemen-
tary functions. This fundamental solution is validated in Criado et
al. [81] by employing it as a kernel function in the indirect bound-
ary integral formulation and using a Galerkin approximation to solve
several problems having analytic solutions.
• 3D elastodynamic fundamental solutions or Green’s functions for
graded anisotropic materials. There are no frequency or time de-
pendent closed form solutions for fundamental solutions for this
category of materials.
More specifically, Eskandari and Shodja [107] derived analytical
Green’s functions for the exponentially graded, transversely isotropic
half-space subjected to static loads using a complete set of displacement
potential functions and the Hankel transform. Employing the asymptotic
expansion technique, they showed that the solution can be decomposed
to a closed-form expression for the Green’s function part pertaining
to the homogeneous transversely isotropic half-space, and a part that
must be evaluated numerically with strong decaying integrands and
corresponds to the gradient term. Next, in Akbari et al. [8] presented
an analytical derivation of the elastostatic Green’s functions for an
exponentially graded, transversely isotropic substratum-coating system
by virtue of a complete set of two displacement potentials, plus Fourier
and Hankel transforms. The 3D point-load and patch-load Green’s
functions for stresses and displacements are given by line integral
representations. Because of complicated integrand functions, the inte-
grals are evaluated numerically and this is achieved by a robust and
effective integration scheme which takes into account the presence of
singularities. Elastostatic fundamental solution for an exponentially
graded, transversely isotropic bi-material was presented in Akbari et al.
[7]. In there, the formulation included a complete set of transformed

57
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
stress-potential and displacement-potential relations, with the use
of Fourier series and Hankel transform. Kashtalyan and Rushchitsky
[159] presented two displacement potential functions in 3D elasticity
for a transversely isotropic, inhomogeneous medium with the as-
sumption of a constant Poisson ratio and functionally graded Young’s
and shear modulii. Finally, Selvadurai and Katebi [297] studied the
axisymmetric response of an incompressible elastic half-space for an
exponential variation of the medium’s shear modulus with the depth.
Going back to wave propagation solutions for inhomogeneous, cross-
anisotropic 2D and 3D media, Wang et al. [345] discuss analytical
solutions for body-wave velocities and vectors. The medium inhomo-
geneity is described by material parameters that vary exponentially
with depth. It is assumed that the planes of cross-anisotropy are par-
allel to the horizontal surface. Utilizing displacement components as
fundamental variables, three quasi-body-wave velocities are recovered
by solving the eigenvalue problems. Next, Eskandari-Ghadi and Amiri-
Hezaveh [108] presented results for wave propagation in an exponen-
tially graded, transversely isotropic half-space with the aid of Fourier
series and the Hankel transform.
Because separation of the equation of motion into dilatational
and rotational components for the general inhomogeneous, anisotropic
medium is not an easy task, it is necessary to use of approximate meth-
ods, e.g. the ray method. The theory of ray series was first applied to
anisotropic media by Babich [16], who derived differential equations for
the wave fronts and for the amplitude coefficients of a ray series term.
The basic idea behind Babich’s [16] approach is predated in the work
of Cerveny [60], who developed a ray method with the power to treat
general anisotropic media with elastic parameters which are continuous
functions of all three coordinates.
A meshless method based on the local Petrov-Galerkin approach is
proposed in Sladek et al. [304] for 3D static and elastodynamic problems
in exponentially inhomogeneous anisotropic solids. For transient prob-
lems, either the Laplace transform or the time difference techniques are
applied. The Heaviside step function is used as test function in the local
symmetric weak form, leading to the derivation of the local boundary-
domain integral equations. In contrast to the conventional BEM, all the
integrands in the present formulation are regular. The method has an ad-
vantage for problems which cannot be solved by the conventional BEM
for the cases when the fundamental solutions are not available. The au-
thors comment that the computational time in the proposed method is
larger since there are many more nodes involved and the shape func-
tions in the moving least-square approximations are significantly more
complex than in the BEM.
As a conclusion to this part, and to the authors’ best knowledge,
there are no time-harmonic or transient, closed form 3D fundamental
solutions for generally anisotropic and graded materials.
4. Poroelastodynamic fundamental solutions / Green’s functions
for 3D isotropic media
4.1. Homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous materials
From a macroscopically point of view, saturated soil is a two-phase
medium comprising a solid skeleton plus fluid. The dynamic behaviors
of each phase, as well as of the entire mixture, are governed by the
basic principles of continuum mechanics. Since the skeleton pores are
fluid-filled, the presence of the fluid not only acts as a stiffener for the
material, but also results in the flow of the pore fluid (diffusion) between
regions of higher and lower pore pressure.
The starting points of poroelastodynamics are the works of Frenkel
[115] and Biot [35,36]. Biot’s motivation, and the application of his
theory over the years, has focused on soil consolidation (quasi-static)
and wave propagation (dynamic) problems in geomechanics. A set of
equations governing acoustic wave propagation in an isotropic porous
medium was derived by Frenkel [115], preceding Biot’s publications,
but his work did not receive the proper attention. A comparison of
58
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
Frenkel’s and Biot’s equations can be found in Pride and Garambois
[267].
In Biot’s theory, two sets of field variables (displacement, strain and
stress) are introduced to describe the motion of the solid and the fluid
phases, respectively. The equations of motion of a representative vol-
ume element for the two-phase material were derived from the Lagrange
equations in terms of a specific kinetic energy density, in which a set of
mass coefficients were introduced to account for the coupling interac-
tions between the two phases. After taking divergence and curl of the
governing equations, Biot obtained two independent equations for the
dilatational waves and one for the transverse waves, by which he pre-
dicted the existence of two longitudinal propagation modes, known as
the Biot waves of the first and the second type.
In Biot’s theory, fully saturated materials are considered and the ex-
tension to nearly saturated ones was first presented in Vardoulakis and
Beskos [328]. A historical review on the subject of multiphase contin-
uum mechanics identifies two poroelastic theories that have been de-
veloped and are used nowadays, namely Biot’s theory and the theory of
porous media [84] which is based on the axioms of continuum theories
of mixtures [326]. The latter theory has been extended by the concept
of volume fractions by Bowen [46]. Remarks on the equivalence be-
tween the linearized versions of both theories are found in the works
of Bowen [47] and Schanz and Diebels [293]. In Schanz and Diebels
[293] it was pointed out that for wave propagation problems, the dif-
ferential operators stemming from both theories are equivalent in the
Laplace transformed domain. Therefore, in what follows, it is sufficient
to discuss the fundamental solutions for Biot’s theory only.
A comprehensive state-of-the-art reviews providing information on
constitutive models, problem formulations, solution methodologies, fun-
damental solutions and their geotechnical applications can be found in
the following papers: Cheng and Detournay [70], Detournay and Cheng
[86], Gatmiri and Kamalian [121], Gatmiri and Nguyen [122], Selvadu-
rai [299], Schanz [295], Gatmiri et al. [123], Maghoul et al. [206,207],
Ding et al. [92] and Cheng [71]. At first, the development of time-
dependent fundamental poroelastic solutions employed the six variable
u-w formulation, where u is the solid displacement vector and w the rel-
ative fluid displacement vector in 3D. This was done by Burridge and
Vargas [55], using the Laplace integral transform for both time and spa-
tial variables. As they chose only a point force in the solid phase, this
was insufficient for using the derived fundamental solution in a BEM
formulation. A reduction of the set of coupled equations to two decou-
pled, second-order systems each consisting of two coupled wave equa-
tions, was achieved by using four scalar potential functions. Displace-
ment fundamental solutions at large times were obtained by the saddle
point method. The same basic approach, but with three scalar potential
functions, was used by Norris [242], who derived the time-harmonic
fundamental solutions for a point force in the solid as well as a point
force in the fluid using the u-w formulation. Norris [242] obtained a
close-form asymptotic solutions for the far-field displacements at high
and low frequencies, and also in the time domain for an impulsive point
load applied in a non-dissipative medium by applying the FT. Manolis
and Beskos [209,210] derived an integral equation formulation and a
closed form fundamental solution for a 3D point force using u-w for-
mulation in the LT (with respect to time) domain. By drawing an anal-
ogy between poroelasticity and thermoelasticity [243] in the frequency
domain, Bonnet [40] and later Cheng et al. [69] produced the 2D and
3D fundamental solutions for a time-harmonic, concentrated load and
fluid source, by using the four-variable, u-p formulation, where p is the
fluid pore pressure. Chen [72,73] obtained 2D and 3D time domain
fundamental solutions due to a point force and fluid source by using
this four-variable formulation in the LT domain. Parts of the solutions
are in integral form, demanding numerical treatment. Philippacopou-
los [265] published a fundamental solution in frequency domain by the
six-variable formulation using the methodology of Burridge and Vargas
[55] for a point force in the solid skeleton. Sahay [282] derived a 3D
fundamental solution in the frequency domain for a point force only by
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
the u-w formulation, while Kaynia and Banerjee [169] using the same
formulation and Laplace integral transform, proposed time-dependent
fundamental solutions due to both point and fluid body forces. Zimmer-
man and Stern [372] obtained 3D frequency-dependent fundamental so-
lution due to point and fluid body forces based on the u-p formulation.
Ding and Yuan [91] discussed the derivation of a time-dependent funda-
mental solution for the low-frequency intervals. Lu et al. [197,198] pre-
sented a so-called 2.5D fundamental solution in the frequency domain,
which can be used if a 3D load is applied to an infinitely long structure
with a uniform cross-section. In Wiebe and Antes [348], a direct, time
stepping BEM approach for solving 3D problems of dynamic poroelas-
ticity in the time domain is presented. Furthermore, a 3D time domain
BEM for wave propagation in poroelastic solids is discussed in Schanz
[292], where by applying the convolution quadrature formula to the
time dependent BIE, a time-stepping procedure is obtained based on
the LT fundamental solutions available in Chen [73]. In Badmus et al.
[18] the formulation and numerical implementation of a 3D direct BEM
for poroelasticity is presented basing on the Laplace transform space. Fi-
nally, 3D fundamental solutions for dynamic poroelasticity in frequency
domain are discussed in detail in Dominguez [94,95].
In a two-phase material, not only each constituent, namely the solid
and the fluid phases, may be compressible at the microscopic level,
but also the soil skeleton itself possesses a structural compressibility.
If the compression modulus of a constituent is much larger than the
compression modulus of the bulk material, then the former may be as-
sumed as incompressible. In both u-w and u-p formulations, the fun-
damental solutions are derived in the LT domain using Hörmander’s
method by Schanz and Pryl [294], and additionally a distinction is
made between compressible and incompressible poroelastic continua.
Time domain, 3D fundamental solutions for saturated poroelastic me-
dia with incompressible constituents are presented in Kamalian et al.
[158]. At first, the corresponding BIE, as well as the explicit LT domain
fundamental solutions are obtained in terms of solid displacements and
fluid pressure. Subsequently, the closed-form, time domain fundamen-
tal solutions are derived by analytical inversion of the LT solutions. Fi-
nally, a set of numerical results are presented, which demonstrate the
accuracy and some salient features of these analytical, transient fun-
damental solutions. Zhou et al. [371] obtained a time domain solu-
tion for saturated soil to a point load, assuming incompressible consti-
tutes, while the inertia coupling between the solid skeleton and fluid is
neglected.
In comparison with the full-space fundamental solutions, only lim-
ited work has been done for sources buried in a poroelastic half-space
or in layered poroelastic configurations. Most geophysical applications
involve an infinite horizontal boundary with zero tractions, which is
normally used to model the traction-free ground surface. Thus, the half-
space Green’s functions for fluid saturated porous solids seem more de-
sirable in solving practical problems. Along these lines, Halpern and
Christiano [134] studied the poroelastic counterpart to Lamb’s elas-
todynamic problem, which was reformulated and solved for a liq-
uid‐saturated poroelastic half-space using Biot’s theory. The responses of
the solid and fluid phases were evaluated for steady‐state harmonic con-
centrated loads applied to each phase at the surface. The solutions were
presented over a broad range of permeabilities and were compared to
solutions for Lamb’s problem for two cases, the equivalent drained and
undrained solids. Next, based on the theory of propagation of elastic
waves in a fluid-saturated porous medium established by Biot, the tran-
sient dynamic responses of a homogeneous poroelastic isotropic half-
space due to either a point load or uniform load within a circular area
at the boundary were addressed by Paul [257]. Following up on this,
Paul [258] studied the disturbance produced by an impulsive line load
in a porous elastic half-space by using the Laplace-Fourier transform and
Cagniard’s technique.
An analytic solution for axisymmetric wave propagation in a fluid-
saturated half-space produced by a time-harmonic point load acting
vertically at the surface is presented in Philippacopoulos [263]. The
59
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
field equations in cylindrical coordinates are reduced to Helmoholtz-
type equations with the aid of four scalar potentials related to the solid
and fluid constituents. Two uncoupled (dilatation-rotation) sets of equa-
tions are obtained, each of them in turn comprising two coupled (solid-
fluid) equations. By solving the governing homogeneous wave equa-
tions, two complex eigenvalue problems which are associated with the
propagation of free annular waves in a fluid-saturated, porous medium
are obtained. Using the homogeneous solution, a BVP is formulated in
the frequency-wavenumber (f − k) domain from which integral solutions
for the surface displacements are obtained. It is shown that in the ab-
sence of a saturating pore fluid, the results are reduced to known solu-
tions of Lamb’s problem for the conventional one-phased medium. The
motion in a poroelastic half-space produced by a buried point source
with arbitrary time variation was further considered by Philippacopou-
los [264] via the FT with respect to time and Hankel transform with
respect to the space coordinates. Thus, the motion generated at an ar-
bitrary observation point is synthesized by three direct waves radiating
from the source (fast / slow dilatational and a transverse wave) and by
a series of waves (nine for the general case) associated with reflections
at the free surface. This solution was obtained in integral form for the
vertically buried point source and for zero porosity was reduced to the
classical solution of Pekeris (1957).
The frequency dependent response of a poroelastic half-space due
to horizontal buried loading is studied in Jin and Liu [155], where
solutions are found in the frequency domain by superposition of the
singular solutions corresponding to the inhomogeneous problem for
the entire space, plus the solutions of homogeneous wave equations
representing reflection effects due to the presence of the free surface.
Furthermore, Chen et al. [75] derived a 3D Green’s function for the
saturated porous isotropic half-space under buried time-harmonic loads
in cylindrical coordinates with the aid of a Fourier transformation in
the circumferential direction and a Hankel integral transform in the
radial direction. The dynamic responses of a poroelastic half-space to
an internal point load and to a fluid source were investigated in the fre-
quency domain by Zheng et al. [367] using the method of displacement
potentials and the mirror-image technique. Explicit analytical solu-
tions for displacement fields and pore pressure are obtained in terms
of semi-infinite Hankel-type integrals with respect to the horizontal
wavenumber. In two limiting cases, the solutions presented in this study
are shown to reduce to known counterparts of elastodynamics and those
of Lamb’s problem, thus ensuring the validity of the results. Lo et al.
[194] derived an analytical solution for the poroelastic half-space due
to harmonic surface tractions, using the decoupled poroelasticity theory
of Biot [39]. In cylindrical coordinates, a method employing potentials
was developed in Zheng and Ding [370] for 3D wave propagation in
a poroelastic medium. The wave propagation problems can then be
reduced to the determination of four scalar potentials governed by
four scalar Helmholtz equations, representing the motions of P1, P2,
SV, SH waves in the porous media, respectively. Using the methods
of separation of variables, the general solutions to those Helmholtz
equations are derived in terms of cylindrical coordinates. Then, various
boundary value problems associated with a homogeneous poroelastic
half-space loaded by surface tractions, which correspond to Lamb’s
problem for a fluid-saturated medium, are re-solved using the above
general solutions. Furthermore, numerical examples for the steady
state and the transient response of the poroelastic half-space are
provided.
When analysing problems in a homogeneous, linear and poroelastic
solid, the BIE method offers significant computational advantages over
domain discretization methods such as the FEM [95]. When a BEM for-
mulation is applied directly to a layered poroelastic structure, however,
its advantages are lost because all the interfaces in the geological forma-
tion need to be discretized. An efficient way to handle this problem is to
implement the Green’s functions for the layered system to the BEM for-
mulation. Green’s functions for a layered poroelastic isotropic half-space
are presented in the papers discussed below.
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
At first, Lu and Hanyga [196] developed the transmission and re-
flection matrix (TRM) method for a layered porous half-space subject
to a point force or a fluid point source by using the method of the po-
tentials, plus the Hankel and Fourier transforms. The TRM method for
the layered porous medium is developed on the principle that waves are
transmitted and reflected across layers, taking into account the bound-
ary conditions as well as the source terms for the point force and fluid
source. Essentially, the TRM solution corresponds to Green’s function
due to a point force and a point fluid source in both frequency and time
domains. A complete set of 3D dynamic Green’s functions in a multi-
layered poroelastic medium are presented in Zheng et al. [368]. The
method of potentials in cylindrical coordinates is first applied to de-
couple the Biot’s wave equations into four scalar Helmholtz equations,
allowing general solutions to 3D wave propagation problems to be re-
covered. Following that, a three vector base and the propagator matrix
method are introduced to treat 3D wave propagation problems in the
stratified poroelastic half-space disturbed by buried sources. It is known
that the original propagator algorithm has the loss-of-precision problem
when the waves become evanescent. A solution was proposed to apply
an orthogonalization to the matrix propagation loop so as to avoid the
numerical difficulty of the original propagator algorithm. Finally, the
validity of this approach was established by comparing numerical re-
sults with known exact analytical solutions for a uniform, poroelastic
half-space.
More recently, Ai and Wang [5] formulated the analytical basis for
a layer element method corresponding to a single poroelastic, satu-
rated layer in the Hankel transformed domain and derived the global
stiffness matrix for the multilayered case under axisymmetric harmonic
excitations. Solutions in the frequency domain are obtained by taking
the inverse Hankel transformation. Selected numerical examples are
presented to validate the method and to ascertain the influences of com-
pressibility in the soil grain and the pore fluid, as well as the influence of
soil stratification, on the vertical displacements and the pore pressures.
Subsequently, Ai et al. [6] presented a stable and efficient method for
calculating the transient solution of layered, saturated media subjected
to impulsive loadings by means of this analytical layer element method.
Starting with the field equations based on Biot’s linearized theory for
porous, fluid‐saturated media, and the seepage continuity equation, an
analytical layer element for a single layer is established by applying the
Laplace‐Hankel integral transformations. The global, transformed stiff-
ness matrix for a layered, saturated half‐space subjected to a transient
circular patch loading is obtained by assembling the individual layer
elements. The displacements in the time domain are then recovered
by Laplace‐Hankel inverse transformations of this global stiffness
matrix. Numerical examples are conducted to verify the accuracy of the
methodology and to demonstrate the influence of depth of burial of the
loading and type of loading, of permeability, and of stratification on
the transient response of the multilayered saturated poroelastic media.
Finally, Liu et al. [190] presented a modified stiffness matrix method for
evaluating the dynamic response of a 3D poroelastic, layered half-space
subject to internal concentrated loads in both frequency and time
domains.
The indirect BEM was used by Ba et al. [14] to study the dynamic
response of an infinitely long alluvial valley embedded in a saturated
layered half-space under obliquely incident SV waves by the wave num-
ber transform. The effects of drainage conditions, porosity, soil layer
stiffness, and soil layer thickness on the dynamic response are discussed
in detail and engineering type conclusions are drawn.
The above presentation is now summarized in Table 4, with refer-
ences on fundamental solutions or Green’s functions for 3D homoge-
neous and discrete inhomogeneous poroelastic isotropic media.
4.2. Continuously inhomogeneous materials
Porous materials with changing composition and microstructure are
referred to as functionally graded poroelastic materials. The dynamic
60
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
response problems of graded, fluid-saturated porous media has a wide
range of applications in geotechnical and earthquake engineering and
as well in more diverse fields such as bioengineering. To date, very few
studies on the theory of graded porous media are found in the literature.
To the best authors’ knowledge, there are practically no fundamental so-
lutions available for 3D poroelastodynamics of functionally graded, fully
saturated isotropic materials. One exception is in Seyrafian et al. [300],
where a Green’s function for an exponentially inhomogeneous, saturated
half-space subjected to time-harmonic, normal point load at the surface
is considered. The mass density, porosity and permeability of the media
are constant but the shear modulus varies with depth. The system of
equations is cast in the frame of the Biot model, comprising four cou-
pled, second-order partial differential equations. These are converted
into ordinary differential equations by means of Hankel integral trans-
forms. Then, this new system of equations is solved by use of generalized
power series (Frobenius method) and the expressions for displacements
in the interior of the medium (in other words, the Green’s function for
a saturated isotropic half-space) are derived without introducing poten-
tial functions. Selected numerical results include the frequency variation
of surface displacements for different values of the inhomogeneity pa-
rameter, and clearly show that the dynamic response of the poroelastic
medium is strongly dependant on the shear modulus variation and on
the depth of the nonhomogeneit
5. Poroelastodynamic fundamental solutions / Green’s functions
for 3D anisotropic media
The references given in the previous section dealt with a variety
of poroelastodynamic problems for the case of isotropic materials. On
the other hand, there exist many natural and man-made engineering
poroelastic materials, which are not isotropic. Numerous experimental
findings evidence the presence of anisotropy in natural saturated ma-
terials. For instance, poroelastic soils and rocks are anisotropic due to
their original deposition, compaction, microstructural characteristics,
the presence of aligned microcracks and fractures, etc. A specific form
of anisotropy, namely transversely isotropic, is more relevant for the
description of geological materials and practical for use in engineering
problems as well. Regarding the theoretical background, Biot’s theory
was reformulated by Biot himself for anisotropic poroelastic media and
for different ranges of frequencies, see Biot [34–37] and the constitu-
tive equations for anisotropic porous media were presented, see Biot
and Willis [38] as well. More recently, Thompson and Willis [321] re-
formulated the stress-strain equations in terms of measurable quanti-
ties, and Badiey et al. [19] applied these concepts to wave propagation
in a transversely isotropic seafloor, see Coussy [78] for details. In gen-
eral, investigations on the propagation of elastic waves in 3D anisotropic
saturated media are rather limited, due to the mathematical complex-
ities of the corresponding BVP. A review of the literatures shows that
a few specialized studies have been reported for the solution of BVP
involving anisotropic saturated poroelastic media. In what follows we
will consider results only for homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous
(layered) poroelastic, anisotropic media, as there are no results in the
literature for 3D fundamental solutions of graded anisotropic porous
continua.
5.1. Homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous materials
A fundamental solution for steady-state wave propagation in an infi-
nite, transversely isotropic saturated solid was presented in Kazi-Aoual
et al. [171] employing Kupradze’s [184] method and a 3D Fourier trans-
formation. An analytical inverse Fourier transformation, followed by an
inverse Hankel transformation, leads to expressions for the frequency-
dependent fundamental solution. Also, some numerical techniques for
computing the final form of the expressions for this fundamental solu-
tion in time are listed. Next, Taguchi and Kurashige [317] derived the
fundamental solutions for a saturated, poroelastic infinite transversely
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69

Table 4
Fundamental solutions, Green’s functions and early results for 3D homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous, poroelastic isotropic materials.

Fundamental solution Green’s function for the homogeneous half-space Green’s function for the layered half-space

Time domain
Transformed domain
BE-CQM Transformed domain
Burridge and Vargas [55] Paul [257] Lu and Hanyga [196]
Norris [242] Paul [258] Liu et al. [190]
Cheng and Predeleanu [68] Philippacopoulos [264] Ai et al. [6]
Pan [247]
Wiebe and Antes [348]
Kaynia and Banerjee [169]
Chen [73]
Pan and Maier [248]
Rizos and Karabalis [277]
Schanz [291]
Schanz [292]
Zhou et al. [371]
Kamalian et al. [158]
Sharahi and Kamalian [301]
Ding and Yuan [91]
Cheng [71]
Burridge and Vargas [55] Halpern and Christiano [134] Lu and Hanyga [196]
Norris [242] Philippacopoulos [263] Ba et al. [14]
Bonnet [40] Jin and Liu [155] Zheng et al. [368]
Boutin et al. [44] Chen et al. [75] Liu et al. [190]
Manolis and Beskos [209,210] Lo et al. [194] Ai and Wang [5]
Cheng et al. [69] Zheng et al. [367]
Dominguez [93,94,95] Zheng et al. [369]
Badmus et al. [18] Zheng and Ding [370]
Zimmerman and Stern [372]
Chen [73]
Philippacopoulos [265]
Sahay [282]
Schanz and Pryl [294]
Lu et al. [197,198]
Ding et al. [92]
Cheng [71]
Senjuntichai et al. [298]
Schanz [292]

isotropic solid under step-like point forces and an instantaneous fluid
point source in an explicit form. The authors applied the inverse LT
for the time variable, the inverse FT for one of the spatial coordinates,
and for the remaining two spatial coordinates, they applied Hankel inte-
gral transforms to determine the solutions in the physical domain. Fur-
thermore, Yi and Xiao-gang [360] solved the problem of the dynamic
response of a transversely isotropic, saturated 3D half-space under arbi-
trary rectangular traction by using a displacement potential function to
uncouple the wave equation in the frequency domain. Finally, solutions
are obtained after application of double Fourier transform.
The time-harmonic response of a multi-layered, transversely
isotropic saturated half-space due to point forces and pore pressure
moving with a constant speed is investigated in Ba and Liang [15].
The dynamic stiffness method is combined with the Fourier transform
to solve the governing equations of motion using the u-p formulation.
Next, exact 3D dynamic stiffness matrices for a transversely isotropic
saturated layer, as well as for the transversely isotropic saturated
half-space, are derived. Thus, the global dynamic stiffness matrix of
the problem is constructed by assembling the dynamic matrices of
the discrete layers and of the underlying half-space. This allows for
numerical solutions in the frequency-wavenumber domain. Finally,
results in the time-space domain are recovered by Fourier synthesis
of the frequency response which, in turn, is obtained by numerical
integration over one horizontal wavenumber. The accuracy of this
formulations is established by comparison with existing solutions for an
isotropic, fluid saturated medium. Numerical results for both low and
high fluid source velocities are presented, and the effects of moving
speed, material anisotropy, permeability, surface drainage condition
and transverse isotropy of a layer on the dynamic response are studied.
Displacement Green’s functions for a three-material, transversely
isotropic saturated medium composed of an upper half-space, a fi-
nite thickness middle layer and a lower half-space, subjected to time-
harmonic ring load and point load are analytically presented in Sahe-
bkar and Eskandari-Ghadi [284]. It is assumed that each region consists
of a different transversely isotropic material. The equations of poroelas-
todymanics in terms of the solid displacements and the pore fluid pres-
sure are uncoupled with the help of two scalar potential functions. The
use of these scalar potential functions reduces the governing equations
into a second-order equation, which is readily solved in the transformed
domain. With the aid of Fourier expansion with respect to circumferen-
tial direction and a Hankel integral transform with respect to the radial
direction in a cylindrical coordinate system, the response is determined
in the form of line integrals in the real space, followed by an inverse
Hankel integral transform. The solutions degenerate to a single phase,
elastic material and numerical results can be compared with those from
previous studies available in the literature.
The same authors, Sahebkar and Eskandari-Ghadi [283], pre-
sented the dynamic analysis of a half-space comprising a saturated
porous, transversely isotropic material under surface tractions. The solid
displacement-pore fluid pressure formulation is adopted and the free
surface of the half-space is considered completely permeable. As before,
uncoupling of the governing system of partial differential equations is
done by the using the two scalar potential functions. The displacements,
stresses and pore fluid pressure are then presented in terms of line in-
tegrals that are evaluated numerically. These responses are derived for
general patch load, and presented for horizontal and vertical circular
loads, a vertical ring load and a vertical point load, as well as other spe-
cial cases. Some select numerical results for a half-space subjected to uni-
form horizontal load applied on a circular disc are then produced. Even
more recently, the dynamic behaviour of an infinite, saturated trans-
versely isotropic porous medium under fluid-phase excitation is studied
in Sahebkar and Eskandari-Ghadi [285]. Using again the framework of

61
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
Table 5
Fundamental solutions, Green’s functions and early for 3D homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous, poroelastic anisotropic materials.
Fundamental solution Green’s function for the homogeneous half-space
Time domain Taguchi and Kurashige [317]
Transformed domain Kazi-Aoual et al. [171] Yi and Xiao-gang [360]
Sahebkar and Eskandari-Ghadi [284]
Sahebkar and Eskandari-Ghadi [285]
coupled formulations for the displacemenst and pore-fluid pressure, fun-
damental solutions are analytically presented when the domain of inter-
est is affected by a time-harmonic fluid in the form of either a ring flux
or a ring pressure. A single scalar potential function is used to uncou-
ple Biot’s coupled partial differential equations. In the end, a sixth or-
der partial differential equation appears, from which the potential func-
tion is determined with the aid of the Hankel integral transform and
a Fourier series expansion in a cylindrical coordinate system. The fun-
damental displacements, stresses and pore-fluid pressure are presented
in the form of 1D semi-infinite integrals, to which the inverse Hankel
integral transform must be applied. The integrals degenerated to those
encountered when solving for poroelestic, isotropic materials. Because
of the complexity of the integrands, these integrals must be evaluated
numerically.
6. Conclusions
Based on the present state-of-the-art on fundamental solutions to
problems of 3D elastodynamics and poroelastodynamics that can be
used in BIE formulations, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• The majority of results available for 3D fundamental solutions
and their applications concern homogeneous and discrete inho-
mogeneous continua, either isotropic or anisotropic, and isotropic
poroelastic continua, see Tables 1, 3 and 4. There are few results
for continuously inhomogeneous isotropic materials, see Table 2,
and for homogeneous and discrete inhomogeneous poroelastic
anisotropic materials, see Table 5. There are no results available
at present for continuously inhomogeneous anisotropic materials
and for continuously inhomogeneous poroelastic, either isotropic
or anisotropic, materials. Until now, an accurate and efficient cal-
culation of the fundamental solutions/Green’s functions for 3D
anisotropic solids remains an important and demanding issue for
graded anisotropic elasticity and for continuously inhomogeneous
poroelasticity.
• In terms of mathematical derivations, the majority of results for fun-
damental solutions are based on integral transform methods. The
final results are presented in integral form that requires applica-
tion of an inverse transformation, which usually cannot be evaluated
analytically, and thus numerical treatment is needed. This prevents
an extension of the library of available fundamental solutions and /
or Green’s functions for advanced mesh-reduction / meshless meth-
ods.
• Elastodynamic fundamental solutions for homogeneous, anisotropic
continua are usually derived on the base of integral transformations
such as the Fourier / Laplace / Hankel / Bessel / Radon types. For
isotropic and transversely-isotropic materials, an analytical evalua-
tion of the inverse transformation could be achieved, but not so for
general anisotropy, where the most appropriate integral transforma-
tion is the Radon transform, yielding a solution in the form of surface
integrals over a unit sphere.
• Whereas 2D/3D fundamental solutions are locally integrable, their
derivatives yield hyper-singular kernels that cannot simply be reg-
ularized by means of a Cauchy principal-value. Still, they are fully
legitimate objects within the theory of distributions and their ap-
parent singularity is handled by introducing Hadamard’s finite-part
62
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
Green’s function for the layered half-space
Ba and Liang [15]
Sahebkar and Eskandari-Ghadi [283]
treatment [124]. From an operational standpoint, finite parts can ul-
timately be reduced by carrying out suitable integration by parts on
the convolution integrals. Hypersingular kernels in BEM are com-
monly encountered in dynamic fracture mechanics (Manolis et al.
[218]) and because of their importance in practice, their handling is
a recurrent issue in elastodynamic problems.
• The constraints, convergence and computational cost issues of the
indirect BEM (IBEM) for 3D elastostatic and elastodynamic probems
are discussed in the review paper by Mesquita et al. [220]. Based
on their numerical experiments, Mesquita et al. [220] reported that
the IBEM solution presents a slower convergence rate and it is more
computationally expensive than the standard, direct BEM.
• As was discussed in Ding et al. [92], the solution of poroelastody-
namics in either the frequency or the time domain can be achieved
with four variables, namely three solid displacements and the fluid
pressure u, p, because six variable displacement u,w formulations are
redundant.
• There are few results for 3D poroelastodynamics of unsaturated ma-
terials and also for 3D wave propagation BEM formulation in un-
saturated media. The only available fundamental solution for this
case is obtained in the Laplace transformed domain by Hörmander’s
method, see Maghoul et al. [207]. This solution has the potential to
be used in the time-dependent, convolution quadrature-based BEM
formulation which needs only Laplace transformed fundamental so-
lutions.
• Available 3D solutions for dynamic poroelasticity of anisotropic ma-
terials are in the most cases for the transversely isotropic type of
anisotropy.
• The main reason for scarcity of fundamental solutions for contin-
uously inhomogeneous, anisotropic materials and for continuously
inhomogeneous, poroelastic isotropic and anisotropic materials is
that the mathematical model is a complex set of partial differential
equations, which increases in complexity if anisotropy and poroelas-
ticty are added. The mathematical background behind wave motion
in continuously inhomogeneous media involves solution of partial
differential equations with variable coefficients. In general, these
equations do not possess explicit and easy to calculate fundamental
solutions, which prevents reduction of the physical BVP to a system
of BIE that can then be processed by standard numerical quadrature
techniques.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for support provided under research grant
EnTranEmiss from the Federal Ministry of Education and Research
in Germany and by the bilateral Bulgarian-Greek Scientific Exchange
project between BAS and AUTH. The paper was also partially supported
by the National Scientific Program “Information and Communication
Technologies for a Single Digital Market in Science, Education and
Security-ICTinSES”, contract No. D01\055205/23.11.2018, financed by
the Ministry of Education and Science of Bulgaria.
Supplementary material
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.enganabound.2019.04.003.
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
Appendix: The fast BEM applied in 3D elastodynamics
Because of thе well-known reduction of the problem dimensionality
achieved by the BEM, it is expected to be highly advantageous for large-
scale problems. However, application of the conventional BEM to date
have been limited to relatively small-sized problems. This is probably
so because the influence matrices are fully populated, which limits the
size of the problems that can be analyzed. For instance, a 32-bit com-
puter has 2 GB of addressable space for applications, limiting the largest
BEM model to 11,585 unknowns, assuming in-core calculations. Out-
of-core implementations reduce memory limitations at the expense of
CPU time. The usage of iterative solvers require order O(N3 ) arithmetic
operations, order O(N2 ) = O(f4 ) memory and order O(N2 ) = O(f6 ) com-
putational time per iteration, with N the number of degrees-of-freedom
(DOF) and f the upper frequency limit, keeping in mind that the em-
pirical rule of six elements per wavelength (l) is commonly used to
avoid spatial aliasing. As a result the applicability of the BEM produces
moderately-sized models with a typical DOF number N = O(104 ) (or less
in the case of double-precision complex arithmetic). On the other hand,
the coefficient matrices in domain methods such as the FEM are banded
and both computational complexity for matrix buildup and memory
requirements are O(N). It is therefore clear that traditional BEM ap-
proaches are computationally intensive and time-consuming for solving
large-scale equations, and a large coefficient matrix usually needs to be
stored. Applications of the BEM to large models, with typical N = O(106 ),
requires procedures that are fast and avoid the explicit storage of the
system matrix. The idea is to compress the informations and give a
data-sparse representation of the matrix of the linear system of alge-
braic equations, whose amount of storage is no longer quadratic but
logarithmic-linear or almost linear. These procedures are known as fast
BEM techniques. In the last decades, several fast BEM have been pub-
lished, the main ones being the Fast Multipole Method (FMM) and the
Hierarchical Matrices (H-matrices).
The use of the FMM in conjunction with iterative solvers such as the
Conjugate Gradient method (CGM) and the Generalised Minimal RESid-
ual (GMRES) method has been shown to reduce memory requirements
to O(N) and the operation count to O(N(logN)𝛼 ), where 𝛼 is a small non-
negative number. This means that the FMM improves the applicability
of the BEM to solve large-scale problems. The latest developed FMM
can reduce the computation complexity and memory storage of BEM
back to O(N), making it possible to solve 3D problem with millions of
DOF on a personal computer. The combination of both BEM as mesh-
reducing approach and FMM as computational cost reducing algorithm
makes the FMM-BEM a most effective tool in computational mechan-
ics. This method was introduced by Rokhlin [278] and then adapted
to integral equations for wave propagation problems by Coifman et al.
[77]. Applications of FMM to 3D BEM have been investigated by many
authors: Yoshida et al. [362], Fu et al. [117,118] in 3D elastostatics,
Fujiwara [119], Takahashi et al. [318], Chaillat et al. [61,62,66], Tong
and Chew [323], Grasso et al. [128], Chaillat and Bonnet [64], Liu et
al. [190,192,193] to 3D elastodynamics for isotropic materials. In the
case of anisotropic materials, the BEM limitations discussed above are
worsened by the poor efficiency in the assembly of the influence matrix,
related to the need of numerically computing the fundamental solution
kernels. As discussed in Sections 3-5, non-explicit fundamental solutions
appear often and require infinite integral evaluations that are not suit-
able for efficient BEM implementation.
The basic idea of the FMM consists in an approximate calculation of
the interactions between points, which are located far enough from each
other. The goal is to speed up the matrix-vector product computation
required for each iteration of the iterative solver applied to the BEM-
discretized equations, while avoiding actual computation and storage of
the influence matrix. Instead of point-to-point interaction as in classical
BEM, the fast multipole method [119] considers interactions between
groups of points (cells centered on a multipole) and hence avoids multi-
ple computations of nearly identical terms corresponding to very close
63
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 105 (2019) 47–69
points. It is possible to apply this method at a single scale or even at var-
ious scales through a multilevel approach. The size of each cell around
its multipole depends on the distance from the other cells: the larger the
distance between cells, the larger the cells. The computations of the sin-
gular integrals are then performed through this approach. They are split
in an integral on the surface around the singularity and another integral
on the complementary distant surface. The first one is estimated using
classical regularization techniques, whereas the latter is computed with
a fast multipole algorithm. The fast multipole method then allows the
computation of very large models considering a larger number of hetero-
geneities, a more realistic geometrical representation of 3D structures as
well as higher frequency values (for modeling of short wavelength am-
plification). In general terms, the FMM exploits a reformulation of the
fundamental solutions in terms of products of functions at the source
and at the field points. Combined with the conjugate gradient, squared
iterative algorithm, Fujiwara [119] first solved seismic wave scattering
by a 3-D canyon with fast multi-pole direct BEM, but only a low fre-
quency example was presented. Lee [187] solved the site amplification
effect by the alluvial basin using FM-indirect BEM based on the Taylor
series expansion method. Tong and Chew [323] utilized the multilevel,
fast multipole algorithm - Nyström algorithm to study elastic-wave scat-
tering by large-scale objects. Bonnet et al. [41] and Chaillat and Bonnet
[64,65] developed the FM-DBEM to investigate wave diffraction around
the 3-D geological structures using fundamental solution and half-space
Green’s function, respectively. Wilkes and Duncan [349] solved 3-D elas-
todynamic problems with FM-BEM basing on the spherical wave func-
tions. Liu et al. [190] proposed a FM-indirect BEM for multi-domain
scattering problems in an infinite domain based on the Taylor series ex-
pansion of wave potential functions, but the numerical models are lim-
ited to low-frequency cases. Because of the complexity of the scattering
problems in a heterogeneous solid, many difficulties remain to be tack-
led. Primarily for high-frequency and large-scale models, the calculation
efficiency, accuracy and high-frequency stability of FM-BEM all need to
be improved. Taking full advantage of the indirect boundary element
method (IBEM) and the fast multi-pole expansion algorithm, Liu et al.
[193] develops a fast multi-pole IBEM to solve the scattering of high-
frequency seismic waves by 3D superficial irregularities or heterogene-
ity in a half- space. By using the plane wave expansion of compressional
and shear waves and the potential function related to the exact funda-
mental solution, the CPU time and memory requirements of multi-pole
and local expansion were substantially reduced.
The FMM tackles the problem from an analytical point of view
and requires in advance knowledge on kernel expansions to build the
governing approximated integral operator. This approach proves to
be very efficient for cases in which the closed form expressions of
the involved kernels (i.e., the fundamental solutions) are available,
like in 3D isotropic elastodynamic problem. The methods based on
hierarchical matrices [132] are another class of fast BEMs. In particu-
lar, the H-matrix/vector product accelerates the classical matrix/vector
product and, consequently, reduces the time of each iteration of the it-
erative solver, which is the most expensive task for these solvers. Fast
BEM approaches based on hierarchical matrices (Borm et al. [42]) and
on an approximation of their blocks through suitable algorithms, like in-
terpolation and Adaptive Cross Approximation (ACA) [26], have been
used for isotropic elastodynamics [27]. Considering that the hierarchi-
cal matrices coupled with ACA provide a purely algebraic tool for the
approximation of the BEM matrices, without requiring any a priori ker-
nel expansion, they appear to be suitable also for applications to prob-
lems for which the analytic closed-form expressions of the fundamental
solutions are not available, like in the 3D dynamic anisotropic case. Mi-
lazzo et al. [222] presented a fast BEM for anisotropic time-harmonic
3D elastodynamic problems using the hierarchical matrices format and
the Adaptive Cross Approximation algorithm for the collocation matrix
setup and a preconditioned GMRES solver for the solution.
In general, evaluation of the seismic wave field in inhomogeneous ge-
ological regions with complex topography, with isotropic / anisotropic
P.S. Dineva, G.D. Manolis and F. Wuttke
and elastic / poroelastic soil layers, plus with multiple large-scale in-
clusions, leads to hundreds of interactive steps for high-frequency so-
lutions. Since no preconditioning was used in the most of the earlier
publications, this showed that a large numbers of solver iterations could
constitute a significant limiting factor, especially for multi-region con-
figurations. A preconditioning strategy is clearly needed to improve con-
vergence properties for large models. The determination of an efficient
preconditioner for the elastodynamic FM-BEM is largely an open issue.
More effective preconditioning techniques than those currently avail-
able [306,143,63] are needed to explore further improvements of fast
BEM techniques in computational mechanics, and especially for prob-
lems in geophysics.
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