DCE600 - Jobert Villanueva - Assignment 1 - 2023

LAND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
DCE 600
DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment
Zeeshan Shaikh
Lecturer
Jobert Villanueva
DCE174 | Civil Engineering
Department of Engineering
DCE600 (v1)
Land Information Systems
Assessment #1
(DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment MG)
Time Allowed 4 Weeks
Total Marks 100

Final Weighting: 40%
Lecturer: Zeeshan Shaikh
Name of Student: Student ID:
Jobert Villanueva DCE174
I declare that this is my own work.
Date Submitted:
Signature of Student July 31, 2023
Marking Instructions
1. This assessment is an open book assignment and is based on a variety of questions including scenario-
based theoretical questions, numerical solving of realistic problems and critical analysis.
2. The Internet, relevant library books, ICA’s Databases (Science Direct), Standards New Zealand and other
regulatory authorities’ websites may be used by the students with appropriate referencing (APA or IEEE).
3. All student copies should be submitted through Turnitin.
4. Similarity Index for this assessment is kept at 30%
5. Students caught cheating should be given zero.
6. This Marking Guide consists of appropriate suggested answers and marking criteria. In the case of
diversified answers, the marking criteria will be used to assess the student answers.
7. Different questions may have different marks.
8. Provide detailed comments, where required to justify the marking.
9. Word count within + 10 is acceptable.
10. is equivalent to one mark.
11. ½ is equivalent to half of a mark.
© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 1

Learning Outcome One

Critically review and explain fundamental principles of land information systems.
Key Elements Covered:

A: Critically review land information systems and principles of levelling and surveying in accordance with
current industry practices.
Range: It may include but not limited to development of land information systems in New Zealand,
understanding principles of levelling and surveying and use of measurement instruments.
Question 1 & 2: [Marks=40]

Introduction
The following abstract of paper “Building Floor Levels and Verticality Surveys – Data Capture and Presentation
Using a Canterbury Example” by Phil DEWAR is provided. This paper is published in New Zealand Institute of
Surveyors’ Conference 2016.
The paper is available at

http://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2016/papers/ts06b/TS06B_dewar_8227.pdf
You can also download this research paper from ICA Moodle: http://moodle.ica.ac.nz/.
Abstract
This paper presents personal experiences of the Canterbury earthquake, before reviewing some of the field
data capture and presentation practices that have been adopted. Specific focus is given to surveys of buildings
and structures that measure vertical condition and floor levels. This paper presents challenges, considerations,
and recommendations for field practice, including equipment selection and measurement procedures, and
data presentation, developed from experiences of carrying out such surveys in Christchurch over the past five
and a half years.
Question 1: [Marks 20]
Critically review the data capturing or surveying techniques used in the paper including:
o Survey technique for Structure Vertical Condition (200 words)
o Survey technique for Floor Level Measurement (200 words)
o Compare at least one of the above technique with trivial survey techniques (100 words)
Please note that providing only a description is not acceptable. A critique of 500 words is required for the
survey techniques.
Marking Criteria
The marking must be conducted using the marking criteria given below:
Judgment statement Allocated Marks
Student demonstrated a comprehensive 15-20

understanding of both the survey techniques and
critically compared at least one technique with
conventional survey techniques.

Student demonstrated an adequate understanding 11-15

of both the survey techniques and critically
compared at least one technique with conventional
survey techniques.
Student demonstrated a limited understanding of 1-10

both the survey techniques and critically compared
at least one technique with conventional survey
techniques.
The student did not demonstrate an understanding 0

of both the survey techniques and did not critically
compare at least one technique with conventional
survey techniques.
Question 2: [Marks 20]
PART A: [Marks 15]
Concerning above paper, critically review the techniques a chartered professional civil engineer/
surveyor should use during
o building vertical condition data presentation (200 words)

o floor levels data presentation (200 words)
Please note that providing only a description is not acceptable. A critical review of 400 words is required for the
data presentation techniques is required.
Marking Criteria
Student comprehensively discussed the data 11-20

presentation techniques in accordance with
contemporary professional practices
Student provided the discussion on the presentation 1-10

techniques used in the paper with some minor gaps.
The student didn’t discuss the presentation 0

techniques at an appropriate level.

PART B: [Marks 5]
Evaluate the role and responsibilities of a professional Civil Engineer as part of a survey team:
Marking Criteria
Student comprehensively evaluated the role and 4-5

responsibilities of professional Civil Engineer
regarding
o accurate and reliable measurement
o the level of accuracies expected and
delivered in data
o delivery of clear and unambiguous data for
future use.
Student evaluated the role and responsibilities of a 1-3

professional Civil Engineer with some gaps.
The student didn’t evaluate the role and 0

responsibilities of professional Civil Engineer
appropriately.

Learning Outcome Two

Critically review underlying concepts of curves and apply analytical methods to solve curve related problems.
Key Elements Covered:

a) Critically review underlying concepts of curves in accordance with current industry practices.
Range: It may include but not limited to types of horizontal and vertical curves and their application in civil
engineering projects.
b) Apply analytical methods to solve curve related problems.
Range: It may include but not limited to solve the problems related to principal elements of curves: azimuths,
chord distances and coordinates, and vertical curves: crest and sag vertical curves.
Question 3 [Marks=15]
PART A [Marks 10]
You are leading a team of civil design engineers who are assigned a task to design a vertical curve as part of a
road design. You need to explain to the team what design considerations should be made for a standard
vertical curve design and a Sag vertical curve design. Propose at least six design considerations for vertical
curve designs and at least four design considerations for Sag vertical curve designs.
Marking Criteria
• Answer is acceptable as long as it proposes at least six design considerations for vertical curves as given
above or any other appropriate design consideration
• Total marks=3
• ½ marks for each design consideration
Marking Criteria
• The answer is acceptable as long as it proposes at least four design considerations for Sag vertical curves
as given above or any other appropriate design consideration.
• Total marks=2
• ½ marks for each design consideration

PART B [Marks 5]
Three tangent sections of a grade line are shown in profile view in Figure 1. Determine the gradient of
each tangent section and the elevation at each full station along the tangents.
740
Sta. 1+000
Elev. 738.50
Sta. 1+700
Elev. 732.00
g1
730
Rise1
g2 Rise1
g3
Rise1
Run1 Run2
720
Sta. 1+400
Elev. 720.00
Run3
Sta. 1+975
Elev. 714.50
710
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
Figure1: Profile View

PART A [Marks 5]
Two highway tangents intersect with a right intersection angle I = 12°30’00” at station 0+152.204m. If the
radius of 300m is to be used for the circular curve, prepare the field notes to the nearest full minute as needed
to lay out the curve with stakes at 20m intervals.
PART B [Marks 10]
Two straight roads meet at an angle of 130°. Calculate the necessary data for setting out a circular curve of 15
chains radius between the roads by the perpendicular offset method. The length of one chain is 20m.
Making the use of the following data, determine the coordinates of PC, PT, and the apex of the curve.
a) Coordinates of a control point X = E 1200 m, N 1500 m
b) Distance of X from PI = 100 m
c) Bearing of line joining IX = 320°
d) Angle between IX and back tangent = 90°

LEARNING OUTCOME THREE

Critically review and explain underlying concepts of contemporary positioning systems in accordance with
current industry practices.
Key Elements Covered

a) Critically review and explain the fundamental concepts of coordinate systems, and datum transformations in
accordance with current industry practices.
Range: It may include but not limited to coordinate systems, datum transformations, the relationship of latitude
and longitude to ground distances, types of geodetic datum.
A geographic coordinate includes latitude, longitude and ellipsoidal height and can be represented with the
help of datum such as New Zealand standards: NZGD2000 and NZGD1949. You need to review the types of
geodetic datum including:
1. critical analysis of different types of datum used worldwide and in New Zealand (250 words)
2. conversion methods between different data (250 words)
3. conversion example between one of the following:
o NZGD1949 - NZGD2000
o WGS84 - NZGD2000
o CIGD1979-NZGD2000 (250 words)
Please note that providing only a brief description is not acceptable. A critical analysis of 750 words is required
that is supported with appropriate diagrams, equations, and tables
Marking Criteria
Student comprehensively reviewed geodetic datum 6-10

by analysing their types, explaining conversion
methods and provide at least one example of
conversion of coordinates between two datum
systems

of geodetic datum by analysing their types,
explaining conversion methods and provide at least
one example of conversion of coordinates between
two datum systems
The student didn’t demonstrate an appropriate 0

understanding of geodetic datum systems.

LEARNING OUTCOME FOUR

Critically review and explain land development, subdivision process and cadastral survey system in New Zealand.
KEY ELEMENTS Covered

a) Evaluate the land development and subdivision processes in accordance with current New Zealand
practices.
Range: It may include but not limited to elements of land development and subdivision processes.
b) Critically review and use the cadastral survey system in New Zealand.
Range: It may include but not limited to the geodetic system in New Zealand, Geodetic networks, Geodetic Datum
1949, Geodetic Datum 2000, conversions between NZGD49 and NZGD2000, vertical datum and projections.
c) Demonstrate professional practices in the use of land development, subdivision process and cadastral
survey system.
Range: Professional practices may include the consideration of consent, AS/NZS ISO 19115.1:2015, Assessment
of environmental effects and Ethical and cultural considerations
You are a chartered professional engineer and deal in civil works and surveying. A customer contacted you to
help to subdivide his 800Sqm land in a southern suburb of Auckland. It has already 200Sqm building on the
land. He is interested in dividing the land into two separate parts to enable him to sell or carry out land
development.
As an expert, you need to explain and guide him to land subdivision processes. You will need to write a brief
analysis of the customer and must include
1. subdivision types (100 words)

2. consent requirements (100 words)
3. subdivision processes including feasibility assessment, budget costings, survey, scheme plan and
timelines (300 words)
Please note that providing only a brief description is not acceptable. A critical analysis of 500 words is required
for the subdivision and land development process for the above requirements.
Marking Criteria
Student comprehensively analysed subdivision and 6-10

land development processes in New Zealand at an
appropriate academic and professional level.

of subdivision and land development processes in
New Zealand at an appropriate academic and
professional level.
The student didn’t analyse subdivision and land 0

development processes New Zealand at an

Introduction:
Land Information New Zealand implemented a geocentric datum: New Zealand Geodetic Datum (NZGD) 2000
to meet New Zealand’s spatial positioning needs in 1998. The details on the research and development of
NZGD2000 can be found on http://www.linz.govt.nz/.
Task: Critically review and explain the NZGD 2000 development process in New Zealand, and you must include
• a comparison between NZGD2000 with the previous datum NZGD49 (200 words)
• features and working principles of NZGD2000 (200 words)
• the impact of NZGD2000 on Cadastral Surveys and Mapping (200 words)
• a feature of the vertical datum in NZGD2000 (100 words)
Please note that providing only a brief description is not acceptable. A critical review of 500 words is required
for the data presentation techniques is required.
Marking Criteria
Student comprehensively discussed NZGD2000 6-10

development process in New Zealand at an

of NZGD2000 development process in New Zealand
at an appropriate academic and professional level.
The student didn’t discuss NZGD2000 development 0

process in New Zealand at an appropriate academic
and professional level.

Department of Engineering DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment
 Question 1 Answer:
The paper, titled Building Floor Levels and Verticality Surveys – Data Capture and
Presentation Using a Canterbury Example authored by Phil Dewar, discusses the experiences
and considerations of a surveying firm in capturing and presenting structure vertical condition
and floor level survey data after the Canterbury earthquakes.
Surveying Techniques for Structure Vertical Condition
Fig. 1: Tools for Surveying Structure Vertical Condition
The paper discusses the challenges faced by surveyors in capturing data for assessing
the vertical condition of structures in Christchurch after the earthquakes. The author
highlights the lack of established best practices and the need for on-the-fly establishment of
principles for data capture, processing, and presentation. Several techniques for measuring
vertical condition are mentioned, including using a builder's spirit level, laser setting-out tools,
reflector-less total station measurements, and laser scanning which can be seen in Figure 1
above.
© International College of Auckland Page 1 Jobert Villanueva | DCE174

The paper acknowledges the advantages and limitations of each technique. Reflector-
less total station measurements are commonly used due to their availability, scalability, and
straightforward data capture and reduction process. Laser scanning, while capable of
capturing vast amounts of data, requires greater expertise for processing and presenting
reliable results. Simple methods like using a builder's spirit level and tape-measured offsets
are suitable for assessing the interior walls of single-story buildings but may not provide a
comprehensive estimate of wall vertical condition.
However, the paper does not provide a critical evaluation of the reflector-less total
station technique or any other technique mentioned. It does not discuss the limitations,
potential sources of error, or challenges associated with using this technique for structure
vertical condition surveys. Additionally, there is no mention of the accuracy achieved with this
technique or how it compares to other available methods. Without a critical evaluation, it is
difficult to assess the reliability and effectiveness of the reflector-less total station technique
for capturing structure vertical condition.
Surveying Techniques for Floor Level Measurement
Fig. 2: Surveying Techniques for Floor Level Measurement

The paper describes several methods used for floor level measurement, including level
and staff measurement, hydrostatic level measurement, total station measurement, and laser
scanned point cloud which can be seen in Figure 2 above. The choice of method depends on
the situation, available equipment, and the experience of the operators. The paper
emphasises the need for qualified personnel, accuracy considerations, and the selection of
suitable measurement locations for multi-storey buildings.
The author emphasises the importance of selecting equipment that meets the
required accuracy standards and specifications. It suggests that the surveyor should have a
good understanding of the working accuracies of the equipment and the accuracy
requirements set by the client. This consideration ensures that the data collected is reliable
and useful for assessing the current state of the floor level. The paper also recognises the
importance of assessing and recording the thicknesses of floor coverings during the survey.
This step ensures that all floor levels can be accurately reduced to a common reference
surface, enabling meaningful comparisons across the building.
However, the paper lacks detailed discussion on the strengths and limitations of each
specific technique mentioned. It would have been beneficial to provide insights into the
accuracy, efficiency, and applicability of each method in different scenarios. Additionally, the
paper does not address potential challenges or sources of error associated with floor level
measurement techniques, which could have provided a more comprehensive understanding
of the topic.
Comparison of Surveying Techniques Mentioned Above with Trivial Survey Techniques:
Trivial survey techniques refer to basic or undeveloped methods that may not involve
sophisticated equipment or precise measurements. Examples of trivial survey techniques
could include visual inspections, simple manual measurements with measuring tapes or
rulers, or subjective assessments based on personal judgment.

In comparison, the techniques described in the paper offer advantages in terms of

efficiency, accuracy, and data presentation. For example, using reflector-less total station
measurements or laser scanning provides a more precise and detailed representation of the
structure's vertical condition and floor levels compared to manual measurements. These
advanced techniques allow for remote data capture, scalability, and improved data
visualisation. However, it would have been beneficial to have a direct comparison between
the discussed techniques and trivial survey techniques, highlighting the limitations and
drawbacks of the latter in terms of accuracy, time-consuming data collection, and potential
subjectivity in visual assessments.
Reference:
Dewar, P., & Zealand, N. (2016). Building Floor Levels and Verticality Surveys -Data Capture
and Presentation Using a Canterbury Example. Retrieved from
http://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2016/papers/ts06b/T
S06B_dewar_8227.pdf
 Question 2, Part A Answer:
Building Vertical Condition Data Presentation:
The techniques described in the paper for building vertical condition data
presentation provide a solid foundation for conveying the measured data accurately. The use
of vector arrows with labels to represent the overall lean distance and direction of tilt is a
simple and effective method for smaller buildings. It allows for easy interpretation of the data
in a single plan view, enabling quick comparisons across the subject site. The emphasis on
measuring the top and bottom of the structures as the most significant data points ensures
reliable results.
However, when it comes to larger buildings or those with non-linear lean, the paper
acknowledges that other presentation options must be considered. The use of elevation views
to illustrate axial lean at measured building lines is a suitable approach in such cases. It allows
for a more detailed representation of the data, especially when comparing elevation views

with one another. The suggestion of employing colour-coding to differentiate individual walls
and provide clear links between plan and elevation views is commendable.
While the techniques presented are generally effective, the paper could have
provided further critical analysis and evaluation of the limitations and potential disadvantages
of each method. For example, it would have been valuable to discuss the challenges
associated with interpreting non-linear lean or the potential discrepancies between
measured facade data and the overall structural condition. Additionally, the paper could have
explored alternative visualisation methods or technologies, such as 3D modelling or
augmented reality, that might enhance the presentation and understanding of vertical
condition data. A more in-depth critical review of these techniques would have enriched the
discussion.
Floor Levels Data Presentation:
The techniques outlined in the paper for floor levels data presentation offer practical
approaches for conveying the current state of a building's floor. The suggestion to plot the
measured and reduced floor levels onto a floor plan, accompanied by elevation labels,
provides the basic information required. This minimal presentation allows for easy
identification of measured locations and a general understanding of the floor level variations.
However, the paper appropriately recognises that a plan scattered with numbers
alone may be challenging to interpret, particularly for non-experts. The recommendation to
incorporate additional cues, such as contour lines, false-origin elevations, colour shading, and
slope analysis, is a valuable insight. These visual aids greatly improve the presentation and
enable better comprehension of the data. The use of colour shading, in particular, helps
highlight the extent of floor level variation and assists in identifying potential areas of
concern.
Nevertheless, the paper falls short in critically evaluating the effectiveness of these
techniques and addressing potential limitations. For instance, it could have discussed the
impact of different contour intervals on data interpretation or the challenges in presenting

floor levels in complex architectural layouts. Additionally, the paper missed an opportunity to
explore the integration of interactive tools or 3D visualisation methods, which could enhance
the user experience and allow for a more detailed exploration of floor level data.
A more critical review would have involved discussing the trade-offs between
simplicity and information density in the presentation of floor levels, as well as exploring
emerging technologies that could offer innovative ways to present and interact with the data.
By delving deeper into these aspects, the paper could have provided a more comprehensive
and forward-thinking evaluation of floor levels data presentation techniques.
 Question 2, Part B Answer:
In the context of the paper's discussion on building floor levels and verticality surveys
in Canterbury, a professional Civil Engineer can play a significant role as part of a survey team.
Here are the role and responsibilities of a professional Civil Engineer in this context:
 Technical Expertise: A Civil Engineer (CE) can bring specialised knowledge and
expertise in the field of structural engineering, construction, and building assessment as CE
has a thorough understanding of building codes, structural behaviour, and analysis
techniques. Their technical knowledge is invaluable in assessing the structural integrity and
stability of buildings during and after earthquakes.
 Structural Assessment: A CE can assess the structural condition of buildings based on
the survey data collected by the survey team. CE can analyse the measured vertical condition
and floor level data to determine the extent of damage, identify potential structural issues,
and evaluate the safety of the building. CE can provide insights into the causes of damage and
recommend appropriate remedial actions.
 Collaboration with Surveyors: It is CE’s responsibility to work closely with surveyors to
ensure accurate data collection and interpretation. CE can provide guidance on the selection
of measurement methods, equipment, and survey strategies to capture essential information
for structural assessment. They may also collaborate in the field to verify measurements and
gather additional data for analysis.
 Structural Analysis: A CE can perform structural analysis based on the collected data
to assess the building's stability and load-bearing capacity. CE may utilise computer modelling

software (ETABS, STAAD, and SAP 2000) and engineering principles to simulate the behaviour
of the structure under various loads and seismic conditions. This analysis helps in
understanding the impact of earthquakes on the building's performance.
 Risk Evaluation and Mitigation: A CE can evaluate the risk associated with damaged
buildings and propose mitigation measures. CE can assess the potential for further structural
deterioration, identify vulnerable areas, and recommend measures to enhance structural
resilience. CE may also provide input on strengthening or retrofitting strategies to improve
the building's seismic performance.
 Collaboration with Other Professionals: As a part of a survey team, it is CE’s
responsibility to often collaborate with other professionals, such as architects, geotechnical
engineers, and quantity surveyors, as part of a multidisciplinary team. They contribute their
expertise to collective decision-making processes, share information, and coordinate efforts
to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the building's condition.
 Reporting and Communication: As a part of a survey team, a CE plays a crucial role in
communicating technical information to stakeholders effectively. It is CE’s responsibility to
prepare reports and presentations that convey the assessment findings, analysis results, and
recommendations in a clear and concise manner. CE may also participate in meetings and
discussions with clients, building owners, insurers, and regulatory authorities to explain the
engineering aspects and address any concerns or questions.
Overall, a professional Civil Engineer brings essential technical knowledge, analytical

skills, and expertise in structural engineering to a survey team. They contribute to the
accurate assessment of building conditions, evaluation of risks, and formulation of
appropriate recommendations for building rehabilitation and future construction projects.
References:
Marketing, T. (2022, May 16). How Land Surveyors and Engineers Work Together. Retrieved
July 22, 2023, from TOPS website: https://www.takeoffpros.com/2022/05/16/land-
surveyors-and-engineers-work-
together/#:~:text=Both%20supervise%20the%20construction%20process
Atoms, S. (2020, February 6). What is Surveying in Civil Engineering? Why Surveyors Are
Critical to Public Works | Landpoint. Retrieved July 22, 2023, from LANDPOINT

website: https://www.landpoint.net/surveying-in-civil-
engineering/#:~:text=Since%20civil%20engineering%20involves%20directly
As a team leader of civil design engineers working on road design, it is essential for me
to explain to my team that the vertical curves in the road design must be carefully considered
to provide safe and efficient transportation for road users. Below are the design
considerations for both standard vertical curves and sag vertical curves based on Section 5:
Vertical Alignment, Section 3: Design Form, and Section 2: Basic Design Criteria of New
Zealand State Highway Geometric Design Manual:
Standard Vertical Curve Design:
A standard vertical curve is used to connect two different grades, typically where the
road transitions from a downhill slope to an uphill slope or vice versa. The main design
considerations for standard vertical curves include:
 Drainage design: When the value of K > 167 (K = L / A, where L is the length of the
curve and A is the algebraic difference in grades), special attention should be given to the
drainage design. Proper drainage is essential to prevent water accumulation on the road
surface, which can lead to safety hazards and road deterioration.
 Curve length using K values: The length of a vertical curve can be calculated using
K values for both crest and sag curves. K values help in determining the appropriate length
required for a smooth transition between the two grades.
 Vertical crest curve: For crest curves, where the road transitions from a downhill
grade to an uphill grade, the design must account for the reduction in visibility for
approaching drivers and maintain adequate SSD. In English units, the minimum length of a
vertical crest curve should be equal to three times the design speed. This ensures that the
curve provides enough distance for vehicles to make a smooth transition between the two
grades without experiencing discomfort or safety issues.
 Superelevation and crossfall: The design should avoid sharp and sudden changes in
grade, known as "roller-coaster" or "hidden up" profiles. Superelevation is the banking of the

road on curves, which counteracts the lateral forces on vehicles. Ensure that the vertical
curve's design is consistent with the superelevation design to maintain safety and comfort
during the transition.
 Avoid consecutive vertical curves in the same direction: Two vertical curves in the
same direction, separated by a short section of tangent grade, should be avoided. Consecutive
curves in the same direction can cause discomfort and reduce the vehicle's stability during
the transition.
 Grade changes: The design should account for the change in grades at the
beginning and end of the curve to ensure smooth transitions and prevent abrupt changes in
vehicle speed. On long grades, it is advisable to place the steepest grades at the bottom of
the curve and gradually flatten the grades near the top of the ascent. This design approach
enhances driver comfort during both uphill and downhill travel.
 Reduce grade through intersections: If an at-grade intersection occurs on roadway
sections with moderate to steep grades, it is desirable to reduce the grade through the
intersection. This helps improve safety and manoeuvrability for vehicles passing through the
intersection.
 Avoid Sag vertical curves in cuts without adequate drainage: Sag vertical curves,
which are downward curves, should be avoided in cuts (lowering the road level into the
ground) unless adequate drainage measures can be provided. Proper drainage prevents water
from accumulating in cuts and ensures the stability of the road.
 Balanced Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for trucks and cars: Unlike horizontal
curves, the stopping sight distance for trucks and passenger cars is balanced in vertical curve
design. The design should ensure that both types of vehicles have adequate stopping sight
distance to maintain safety.
 Use Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for vertical design length: Stopping sight distance
is a critical safety consideration. It ensures that drivers have enough visibility to see and react
to potential obstacles or changes in the road alignment. The curve's length must be adjusted
to provide adequate SSD based on design speed and driver eye height. In most cases, the
stopping sight distance will be used to determine the length of the vertical curve. However,
engineering judgment may also be involved in decision-making based on specific project
requirements and conditions.

 Design Speed: The design speed of the road segment influences the selection of the
vertical curve's length and radius. Higher design speeds will require longer and more gentle
vertical curves to ensure driver comfort and safety.
 Design Sight Distance (DSD): Design sight distance is the minimum distance
required for drivers to have enough time to perceive a hazard, react, and bring their vehicle
to a stop. It depends on the design speed and the curve's length.
Sag Vertical Curve Design:
A sag vertical curve is used when the road transitions from an uphill slope to a downhill
slope. The key design considerations for sag vertical curves include:
 Design length based on headlight sight distance: Sag vertical curves, which are
upward curves, should be designed based on headlight sight distance. However, headlight
sight distance is typically set almost equal to the stopping sight distance for safety reasons.
Therefore, the stopping sight distance values can be used for determining the length of the
sag curve, and consequently, K values can be utilised in the general equation.
 Passenger comfort equation: To ensure passenger comfort, the following equation
can be used to calculate the length of a sag vertical curve:
L = AV2 / 46.5
Where L is the length of the sag vertical curve (metres), A is the algebraic difference
in grades (percent), and V is the design speed (kmph).
 Drainage for curbed roadways: Curbed roadways with sag vertical curves should
have a minimum grade of at least 0.5 percent, and sometimes 0.3 percent, for the outer edges
of the roadway. This grade helps ensure proper drainage and prevents water accumulation
on the road surface.
 Minimum curve length for appearance: To maintain an aesthetically pleasing
appearance, the minimum curve length can be calculated using the equation L = 100A for
small or intermediate values of A. This consideration helps create smoother and more visually
appealing sag vertical curves.
 Design Speed: Similar to standard vertical curves, the design speed plays a crucial
role in determining the length and radius of the sag vertical curve.

 Minimum Sight Distance Requirements: Adequate sight distance must be provided

for drivers to spot potential obstacles or changes in the road alignment, especially considering
the vertical curve's low point.
 Vertical Alignment of the Roadway: Ensure that the sag curve's low point is
appropriately placed to avoid water accumulation and facilitate proper drainage.
 Grade Changes: As with standard vertical curves, the transition from one grade to
another should be smooth and avoid abrupt changes in vehicle speed.
 Superelevation and Crossfall: Coordinate the sag curve design with the planned
superelevation to ensure a safe transition for vehicles.
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): SSD is also relevant for sag curves, especially for
vehicles ascending the grade, so they have enough sight distance to react to obstacles.
It's crucial for my team to follow the guidelines and standards provided in Section 5:
Vertical Alignment, Section 3: Design Form, and Section 2: Basic Design Criteria of the New
Zealand State Highway Geometric Design Manual (SHGDM) for both standard and sag vertical
curves. By paying close attention to these design considerations, my team can create road
designs that prioritise safety, comfort, and efficiency for road users.
References:
NZ Transport Agency, W. K. (2002). STATE HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN MANUAL SECTION
5: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 5 -1. Retrieved from
https://www.nzta.govt.nz/assets/resources/state-highway-geometric-design-
manual/docs/shgdm-part-5.pdf
3: DESIGN FORM 3 -1. Retrieved from
2: BASIC DESIGN CRITERIA. Retrieved from

The gradient of a line is calculated by dividing the change in elevation by the change in
stationing. The gradient of each tangent section can be determined using this formula:
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 − 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝒏𝒏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺
𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 =
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 − 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺
• First tangent:
720.00 − 738.50 −18.50
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = = = −𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 − 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔%
400 − 0 400
In the first tangent section, the change in elevation is 720.00 - 738.50 = -18.50, and the
change in stationing is 400 — 0 = 400. Therefore, the gradient of the first tangent is -18.50/400
= -0.04625 or -4.625%.
• Second tangent:
732.00 − 720.00 12.00
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝟒𝟒%
700 − 400 300
In the second tangent section, the change in elevation is 732.00 — 720.00 = 12.00, and
the change in stationing is 700 — 400 = 300. Therefore, the gradient of the second tangent is
12.00/300 = 0.04 or 4%.
• Third tangent:
714.50 − 732.00 ―17.50
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = = = −𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 − 𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑%
975 − 700 275
In the third tangent section, the change in elevation is 714.50 — 732.00 = -17.50,
and the change in stationing is 975 — 700 = 275. Therefore, the gradient of the third
tangent is -17.50/275 = -0.06364 or -6.364%.
The elevation at each full station along the tangents can be calculated by adding the
product of the gradient and the change in stationing to the starting elevation of each tangent
section. The elevation at each full station along the tangents can be determined using the
following formula:
Elevation = Starting Elevation + Gradient × (Current Station - Starting Station)
• Elevation at every station along the first tangent section:
 Sta. 1+000: 738.50
 Sta. 1+100: 738.50 + (-0.04625) × (1+100 ― 1+000) = 733.88

 Sta. 1+200: 738.50 + (-0.04625) × (1+200 ― 1+000) = 729.25

 Sta. 1+300: 738.50 + (-0.04625) × (1+300 ― 1+000) = 724.63
 Sta. 1+400: 738.50 + (-0.04625) × (1+400 ― 1+000) = 720.00
• Elevation at every station along the second tangent section:
 Sta. 1+400: 720.00
 Sta. 1+500: 720.00 + (0.04) × (1+500 ― 1+400) = 724.00
 Sta. 1+600: 720.00 + (0.04) × (1+600 ― 1+400) = 728.00
 Sta. 1+700: 720.00 + (0.04) × (1+700 ― 1+400) = 732.00
• Elevation at every station along the third tangent section:
 Sta. 1+700: 732.00
 Sta. 1+800: 732.00 + (-0.06364) × (1+800 ― 1+700) = 725.64
 Sta. 1+900: 732.00 + (-0.06364) × (1+900 ― 1+700) = 719.27
 Sta. 1+975: 732.00 + (-0.06364) × (1+975 ― 1+700) = 714.50
The gradient of each tangent sections and the elevation of every stations are presented
in the diagram below.
Fig. 2: Gradient and elevation diagram

References:
Gradient (Slope) of a Straight Line. (2016). Retrieved from Mathsisfun.com website:
https://www.mathsisfun.com/gradient.html
Difference between a Gradient and Tangent. (n.d.). Retrieved July 22, 2023, from
Mathematics Stack Exchange website:
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/290903/difference-between-a-gradient-
and-tangent
Lucy. (2018, July 11). How do you find the gradient of a tangent? (full question below) |
Socratic. Retrieved July 22, 2023, from Socratic.org website:
https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-find-the-gradient-of-a-tangent-full-
question-below
To lay out the curve of two highway tangents intersecting with a right intersection
angle I = 12°30’00” at station 0+152.204m with a 300m radius and stakes at 20m intervals
starting at the nearest full minute, the following steps listed below can be performed:
Given data:
• Radius (R) = 300m
• Station at Point of Intersection (PI) = 0+152.204m
• Intersection Angle (I) = 12°30' = 12/1+30/60 = 12.5°
• Stakes distance intervals: 20m
Calculate the stationing for each stake and the corresponding deflection angles using
the steps below:
• Calculate the Tangent Length (T):
∆ 12.5°
𝑻𝑻 = 𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝟐𝟐 = 300𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2
= 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
• Calculate the Length of the Curve (𝒍𝒍):

𝝅𝝅 3.1416
𝒍𝒍 = 𝑹𝑹∆ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = (300𝑚𝑚 × 12.5°) 180
= 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒

• Calculate the Station at Point of Curvature (PC):

Sta PC = PI – T = 0+152.204m – 32.86m = 0+119.349m
• Calculate the Station at Point of Tangency (PT):
Sta PT = PC + 𝒍𝒍 = 0+119.349m + 65.45m = 0+184.799m
• Calculate the nearest First Full Station:
Since the station at the point of curvature (PC) is 0+119.349m, therefore the nearest
first full station must be 0+120.000m.
• Calculate the Last Full Station:
Since the station at the point of tangency (PT) is 0+184.799m and the distance interval
at every stake is 20m, therefore the last full station must be 0+180.000m.
• Calculate the distance of the first chord from the Point of Curve (PC) to the first full
station:
C1 = First Full Station – Station at PC = 0+120.000m – 0+119.349m = 0.651m
• Calculate the distance of the last chord from the last full station to the Point of
Tangency (PT):
Clast = Station at PT – Last Full Station – Station at PC = 0+184.799m – 0+180.000m =
4.799m
• Calculate the deflection angle per metre (Defl/m):
∆ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓°
(Defl/m) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐(𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒)
= 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎°/𝒎𝒎
• Calculate the deflection angle of the first chord (d1):

d1 = Defl/m × C1 = 0.095493°/m × 0.651m = 0.062199°
• Calculate the deflection angle of the last chord (d2):
d2 = Defl/m × (𝒍𝒍 – Last Full Station + Station at PC) = 0.095493°/m × (65.45m – 180 +
0+119.349m) = 0.458223°
• Calculate the total deflection angle of the curve (d):
d = ∆ – d1 – d2 = 12.5° – 0.062199° – 0.458223° = 9.549297°
Field Notes for Circular Curve Layout:

• Intersection Angle (I or ∆) = 12°30' = 12/1+30/60 = 12.5°

• Tangent Length (T) = 32.86m

• Length of Curve (𝑙𝑙) = 65.45m
• Station at Point of Curvature (Sta PC) = 0+119.349m
• Station at Point of Tangency (Sta PT) = 0+184.799m
• First Full Station = 0+120.000
• Last Full Station = 0+180.000
• First Chord (C1) = 0.65m
• Last Chord (Clast) = 4.799m
• Deflection angle per metre (Defl/m) = 0.095493°/m
• Deflection angle of the first chord (d1) = 0.062199°
• Deflection angle of the last chord (d2) = 0.458223°
• Total deflection angle of the curve (d) = 9.549297°
Calculating Deflection Angles:
The increment deflection angle is calculated by multiplying the chord length (C) by the
deflection angle per metre (Defl/m). The total deflection angle (d) is the sum of all the
increment deflection angles up to that point. For example, for the point at Sta 0+120.000, the
chord length (C1) is 0.651m and the Defl/m is 0.095493°/m. Multiplying these two values gives
us an increment deflection angle of 0.062199°, which is rounded to 0.062°. The total
deflection angle at this point is simply the increment deflection angle, since it’s the first point
after the Point of Curvature (PC).
For the next point at first full station 0+140.000, the chord length is 20.000m and the
Defl/m is still 0.095493°/m. Multiplying these two values gives us an increment deflection
angle of 1.90986°, which is rounded to 1.910°. The total deflection angle at this point is the
sum of all the increment deflection angles up to this point, which is 0.062° + 1.910° = 1.972°.
This process is repeated for all subsequent points up to the point of tangency (PT) to
calculate their increment and total deflection angles that can be seen in Table 1 below:

POINT STATIO CHOR INCREMEN TOTAL DEFLECTION ANGLE

N D T DEGREES DEGREES MINUTES SECOND
(M) (M) DEFLECTIO (°) (°) (’) S
N ANGLE (”)
(°)
POINT OF 119.35 0 0 0 0 0 0
CURVATURE
FIRST FULL 120.00 0.651 0.062 0.062 0 3 44
STATION 0
SECOND 140.00 20.00 1.910 1.972 1 58 19
FULL 0 0
STATION
THIRD FULL 160.00 20.00 1.910 3.882 3 52 55
STATION 0 0
LAST FULL 180.00 20.00 1.910 5.792 5 47 30
STATION 0 0
POINT OF 184.80 4.799 0.458 6.250 6 14 60
TANGENCY
Table 1: Deflection Angles
Curve Data:
Based on the calculations above, below is the list for curve data:
• Intersection Angle (I or ∆) = 12°30' = 12/1+30/60 = 12.5°
• Length of Curve (𝒍𝒍) = 65.45m
• Tangent Length (T) = 32.86m
References:
4: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT. Retrieved from
Jangir, A. (2019, January 27). Circular Curves - Surveying - Civil Engineering. Retrieved July
29, 2023, from www.slideshare.net website:
https://www.slideshare.net/AbhishekJangir5/circular-curves-surveying-civil-
engineering

To calculate the necessary data for setting out a circular curve of 15 chains radius
between the roads using the perpendicular offset method, we first need to determine the
coordinates of Point of Curvature (PC), Point of Tangency (PT), and the apex of the curve.
Below steps can be performed to find these coordinates:
Given data:
• Radius of the circular curve, R = 15 chains = 15 x 20 m = 300 m
• Angle between the two roads, ∆ = 180° - 130° = 50°
• Distance of control point X from the Point of Intersection (PI) = 100 m
• Bearing of line joining IX = 320°
• Angle between IX and back tangent = 90°
 Calculate the value of x' to fix the apex C of the curve, determined from ∆OQC:
∆
𝒙𝒙𝒄𝒄 = 𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸 = 𝑹𝑹 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 = 300𝑚𝑚 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠25° = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝟐𝟐
The maximum value of x for the offsets is 126.79m. Now, it is possible to calculate the
perpendicular offsets for x = 20m, 40m, 60m, 80m, 100m, 120m, and 126.79m using the
formula: 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑹𝑹 − �(𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 )
𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 300 − �(3002 − 202 ) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎

𝒚𝒚𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 = 300 − �(3002 − 402 ) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎
𝒚𝒚𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 300 − �(3002 − 602 ) = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝒚𝒚𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 = 300 − �(3002 − 802 ) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎
𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 300 − �(3002 − 1002 ) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 300 − �(3002 − 1202 ) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 = 300 − �(3002 − 126.792 ) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎

 Calculate the tangent length, the external distance, and the bearings:
∆
Tangent length: 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇1 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 tan 2 = 300 × tan 25° = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎
∆
External distance: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅 �sec 2 − 1� = = 300 × (sec 25° − 1) = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
Bearing of: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − ∠𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇1 = 320° − 90° = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐°

𝜙𝜙 130°
Bearing of: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇1 − 2
= 230° − 2
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏°
Bearing of: 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (180° − 320°) − 360° = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏°

Bearing of: 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇2 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇1 − 𝜙𝜙 = 230° − 130° = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏°
 Calculate the coordinates of points I, T1, C, and T2:

• Coordinates of point of intersection (I)
Departure of: 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝐷𝐷𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 100 × sin 140° = +64.279 𝑚𝑚
Latitude of: 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝐷𝐷𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 100 × cos 140° = −76.604 𝑚𝑚
Easting of: 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼 = 1200 + 64.279 = 𝐸𝐸 1264.279 𝑚𝑚
Northing of: 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑁𝑁𝐼𝐼 = 1500 − 76.604 = 𝑁𝑁 1423.396 𝑚𝑚
• Coordinates of T1
Departure of: 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇1 = 139.892 × sin 230° = −107.163 𝑚𝑚
Latitude of: 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇1 = 139.892 × cos 230° = −80.921 𝑚𝑚
Easting of: 𝑇𝑇1 = 1264.279 − 107.163 = 𝐸𝐸 1157.116 𝑚𝑚
Northing of: 𝑇𝑇1 = 1423.396 − 89.921 = 𝑁𝑁 1333.475 𝑚𝑚
• Coordinates of C
Departure of: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐷𝐷𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 31.013 × sin 165° = +8.027 𝑚𝑚
Latitude of: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 31.013 × cos 165° = −29.956 𝑚𝑚
Easting of: 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 = 1264.279 + 8.027 = 𝐸𝐸 1272.306 𝑚𝑚
Northing of: 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑁𝑁𝐶𝐶 = 1423.396 − 29.956 = 𝑁𝑁 1393.44 𝑚𝑚
• Coordinates of T2
Departure of: 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇2 = 139.892 × sin 100° = +137.767 𝑚𝑚
Latitude of: 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇2 = 139.892 × cos 100° = −24.292 𝑚𝑚
Easting of: 𝑇𝑇2 = 1264.279 − 137.767 = 𝐸𝐸 1402.05 𝑚𝑚
Northing of: 𝑇𝑇2 = 1423.396 − 24.292 = 𝑁𝑁 1399.104 𝑚𝑚

References:
4: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT. Retrieved from
Jangir, A. (2019, January 27). Circular Curves - Surveying - Civil Engineering. Retrieved July
29, 2023, from www.slideshare.net website:
https://www.slideshare.net/AbhishekJangir5/circular-curves-surveying-civil-
engineering
1. Critical Analysis of Different Types of Geodetic Datum Used Worldwide and in New
Zealand:
Geodetic datums serve as reference systems for defining the positions of points on
the Earth's surface. They consist of mathematical models that approximate the shape of the
Earth, as well as the orientation and scale of coordinate systems. Different types of datums
have been developed over time to meet the varying needs of different countries and regions.
Here, we will critically analyse some commonly used datums worldwide and specifically focus
on those used in New Zealand, namely NZGD2000 and NZGD1949.
 Worldwide Datums:
• World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84):

WGS84 is a widely adopted datum developed by the U.S. Department of Defense. It is
commonly used for global positioning systems (GPS) and satellite navigation. WGS84 provides
a global reference frame based on an ellipsoidal model of the Earth.
• North American Datum 1983 (NAD83):
NAD83 is the datum used in North America, including the United States and Canada.
It is based on a geocentric model and has undergone several updates to improve accuracy.
• European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89):

ETRS89 is the datum used in Europe, designed to provide a common reference system
for European countries. It is based on the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)
and uses a geocentric model.
• International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS):
ITRS is a globally recognised reference frame developed by the International Earth
Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). It provides a consistent framework for
geodetic measurements worldwide.
 New Zealand Datums:
• New Zealand Geodetic Datum 1949 (NZGD1949):

NZGD1949 was the primary datum used in New Zealand until it was replaced by
NZGD2000. It was based on a geocentric model and defined by a network of survey control
points across the country.
• New Zealand Geodetic Datum 2000 (NZGD2000):
NZGD2000 is the current datum used in New Zealand. It is a modernised version of
NZGD1949 and incorporates improved measurement techniques and updated coordinate
values. NZGD2000 is based on the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) and uses
a geocentric model.
 Critical Analysis:
The transition from NZGD1949 to NZGD2000 in New Zealand reflects the

advancements in geodetic measurement techniques and the need for a more accurate and
consistent reference system. NZGD2000 provides better compatibility with global positioning
systems and facilitates seamless integration with international geodetic frameworks. It also
takes into account the tectonic plate movements in the region, which helps ensure long-term
accuracy.
On a global scale, the adoption of datums like WGS84, NAD83, and ETRS89
demonstrates the importance of standardisation for international geospatial applications.
These datums allow for interoperability and facilitate precise positioning across different

regions. However, it is essential to consider that even with standard datums, variations in
coordinate transformations and reference frames may exist due to different models and
measurement techniques employed by different countries.
2. Conversion Methods Between Different Datums:
Converting coordinates between different geodetic datums is necessary when

integrating data from various sources or when transitioning to a new datum. Several methods
and algorithms have been developed to facilitate such conversions. Here, we will discuss
three commonly used conversion methods:
• Seven-Parameter Helmert Transformation:

The Helmert transformation is a widely used method for converting coordinates
between different datums. It involves translating, rotating, and scaling the coordinate values.
The transformation parameters, known as Helmert parameters, are determined through a
least-squares adjustment using control points with known coordinates in both datums. These
parameters account for the differences in position, orientation, and scale between the
datums.
• Molodensky-Badekas Transformation:
The Molodensky-Badekas transformation is similar to the Helmert transformation but
is based on a three-parameter model. It assumes that the datums differ only in their position
and scale.
• Coordinate Frame Rotation (CFR):
Coordinate Frame Rotation is a method used to convert coordinates between two
datums that are closely related or have similar orientations. It involves rotating the
coordinates around the Earth's center using Euler angles. The rotation angles are derived from
the transformation parameters, which are determined through a least-squares adjustment.
Each of these conversion methods has its strengths and limitations. The Helmert
transformation is versatile and can handle conversions between datums with significant
differences in position, orientation, and scale. However, it may not accurately represent local
variations or account for complex deformation patterns. The Molodensky-Badekas

transformation is simpler and suitable for datums with small positional differences, but it may
not capture rotation and scale changes accurately. Coordinate Frame Rotation is ideal for
closely related datums but may not be suitable for significantly different datums.
3. Conversion Example: NZGD1949 - NZGD2000
Converting coordinates between NZGD1949 and NZGD2000 in New Zealand requires

applying a transformation that accounts for the differences in position, orientation, and scale
between the two datums. One commonly used method for this conversion is the Seven-
Parameter Helmert Transformation.
The transformation parameters for converting coordinates from NZGD1949 to

NZGD2000 in New Zealand are:
• Translation in X-axis: -49.0 metres
• Translation in Y-axis: 0.0 metres
• Translation in Z-axis: 5.0 metres
• Rotation around X-axis: 0.0 arcseconds
• Rotation around Y-axis: 0.0 arcseconds
• Rotation around Z-axis: 0.0 arcseconds
• Scale difference: 0.0 ppm
To convert a set of coordinates from NZGD1949 to NZGD2000, the following steps can
be followed:
1. Subtract the translation values from the NZGD1949 coordinates.
2. Apply the rotation values to the translated coordinates.
3. Multiply the rotated coordinates by the scale factor.
4. Add the translation values for NZGD2000 to obtain the final converted coordinates.
It is important to note that the accuracy of the conversion depends on the quality of
the transformation parameters used. The transformation parameters should be based on
reliable control points and determined through a challenging adjustment process.

References:
Land Information New Zealand. (n.d.). New Zealand Geodetic Datum 2000 (NZGD2000) |
Geodetic Guidance. Retrieved July 22, 2023, from www.linz.govt.nz website:
https://www.linz.govt.nz/guidance/geodetic-system/coordinate-systems-used-new-
zealand/geodetic-datums/new-zealand-geodetic-datum-2000-nzgd2000
Land Information New Zealand. (n.d.-a). New Zealand Geodetic Datum 1949 (NZGD1949) |
NZGD2000 Frequently Asked Questions | Geodetic Guidance. (n.d.). Retrieved July 14, 2023,
from www.linz.govt.nz website: https://www.linz.govt.nz/guidance/geodetic-
system/coordinate-systems-used-new-zealand/geodetic-datums/new-zealand-
geodetic-datum-2000-nzgd2000/nzgd2000-frequently-asked-questions
Land subdivision is a complex process that involves dividing a larger parcel of land into
smaller lots or sections, enabling the owner to sell or develop each portion independently. In
the case of our customer's 800m2 land in a southern suburb of Auckland, where a building of
200m2 already exists, subdivision is desired to enable the sale or development of the land.
This analysis aims to provide our customer a thorough understanding of the subdivision
process, including the different subdivision types, consent requirements, and the overall
subdivision processes involved, such as feasibility assessment, budget costings, surveying,
scheme planning, and estimated timelines. This information is vital for them to make a
necessary informed decision that will serve their best interest.
Subdivision Types:
There are various subdivision types that can be considered for the customer's land,
including:

 Freehold Subdivision: This involves creating separate lots that can be individually
owned and sold. It allows for flexibility in land use and development.
 Cross-Lease Subdivision: This type of subdivision divides the land into multiple lots
with shared interests in common areas. Each lot has a leasehold interest, and the owners
usually have shared responsibilities and rights regarding the common areas.
 Unit Title Subdivision: In this type, the land is divided into individual units, such as
apartments or townhouses, which have individual titles. Unit owners typically have shared
ownership of common areas and facilities.
Consent Requirements:
Subdivision in New Zealand requires obtaining consent from the local authority,
typically the Auckland Council. The following consents may be necessary:
 Resource Consent: This consent is needed to ensure compliance with zoning
regulations, density requirements, and environmental considerations. It assesses the impact
of the proposed subdivision on the surrounding area.
 Building Consent: If any new buildings or modifications to existing buildings are
planned, a building consent will be required to ensure compliance with building codes and
regulations.
 Subdivision Consent: This consent specifically relates to the division of the land
and ensures compliance with subdivision standards, including minimum lot sizes, access
requirements, and utility services.
Subdivision Processes:
 Feasibility Assessment: Before initiating the subdivision process, a thorough

feasibility assessment is crucial. This assessment examines factors such as zoning regulations,
site constraints, infrastructure availability, potential development options, and financial
viability.
 Budget Costings: Once the feasibility assessment is complete, a detailed budget
estimation should be prepared. This includes costs associated with consent fees, surveying,
infrastructure upgrades, legal expenses, and potential construction or development costs.

 Survey: Engaging a qualified surveyor is essential to determine precise property

boundaries, prepare a survey plan, and identify any encumbrances or easements that may
affect the subdivision. The surveyor will ensure compliance with the Resource Management
Act and other relevant legislation.
 Scheme Plan: A scheme plan outlines the proposed subdivision layout, including lot
sizes, accessways, utility connections, and common areas. It serves as a crucial document for
consent applications and must align with the Auckland Unitary Plan and other relevant
regulations.
 Timelines: The subdivision process can be time-consuming, typically taking several
months to complete. The exact timeline depends on various factors, including the complexity
of the subdivision, consent processing times, surveying requirements, and any potential
objections or appeals.
In conclusion, land subdivision and development involve a comprehensive and multi-

faceted process. This analysis has provided a critical overview of the various subdivision types,
consent requirements, and the overall processes involved. It is crucial for our customer to
understand the complexity, costs, and timelines associated with land subdivision to make
informed decisions. Engaging qualified professionals, such as engineers, surveyors, and legal
advisors, will be essential to navigate through the process successfully.
References:
Council, A. (n.d.). Subdividing in a mixed housing suburban zone. Retrieved July 14, 2023,
from Auckland Council website: https://www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/building-and-
consents/resource-consents/types-resource-consents/subdivision-of-
property/check-subdivide-property/Pages/subdividing-mixed-housing-suburban-
zone.aspx
Land development process - Auckland Design Manual. (2022). Retrieved from
Aucklanddesignmanual.co.nz website:
https://www.aucklanddesignmanual.co.nz/regulations/technical-
guidance/wsd/guidance/introduction/landdevelopmentprocess

The development process of the New Zealand Geodetic Datum (NZGD) 2000 was
initiated to address the country's evolving spatial positioning needs. Prior to NZGD2000, New
Zealand used the NZGD49 datum, which was based on a local geodetic network that utilized
a Clarke ellipsoid as its reference surface. NZGD49 served the country well for several
decades, but it had limitations in accuracy and consistency, particularly when it came to
integrating with the global positioning systems (GPS) that were becoming more prevalent.
Comparison between NZGD2000 and NZGD49:
The New Zealand Geodetic Datum 1949 (NZGD49) was the previous geodetic datum
used in New Zealand. It was based on older surveying techniques and did not fully account
for the complexities of the Earth's shape and movement. Over time, as technology advanced
and surveying methods improved, it became apparent that a more precise and geocentric
datum was necessary to meet New Zealand's spatial positioning needs.
NZGD2000, implemented in 1998, is a geocentric datum that takes into account the
three-dimensional positions of points on the Earth's surface in relation to the Earth's center.
This modern geodetic datum provides a more accurate and consistent representation of the
Earth's shape and geodetic reference frame. It uses a geocentric coordinate system, where
the origin is at the center of the Earth, providing a stable foundation for spatial positioning
and making it suitable for use with Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) like GPS.
Features and Working Principles of NZGD2000:
NZGD2000 is a geocentric datum, meaning it defines positions on the Earth's surface

relative to the Earth's center rather than a local reference point. Some key features and
working principles of NZGD2000 include:
 Geocentric Coordinates: NZGD2000 uses a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system with the origin at the Earth's center. This allows for accurate and consistent
measurements across New Zealand.

 Compatibility with GNSS: NZGD2000 is compatible with modern satellite-based

positioning systems like GPS, which ensures seamless integration of positioning data from
various sources.
 Time-Dependent Adjustments: The datum takes into account the dynamic nature
of the Earth's crust and includes time-dependent adjustments to account for plate tectonics
and other geophysical movements.
 Continuity: NZGD2000 maintains a consistent reference frame across the country,
allowing for the integration of data from different sources and time periods.
Impact of NZGD2000 on Cadastral Surveys and Mapping:
The adoption of NZGD2000 has had a significant impact on cadastral surveys and
mapping in New Zealand. Some of the notable effects include:
 Improved Accuracy: NZGD2000 provides a more accurate representation of the
Earth's surface, leading to increased precision in cadastral surveys and mapping activities.
 Consistency: With a standardized geocentric coordinate system, cadastral data
collected from various sources can be easily integrated and compared, ensuring consistency
in spatial data.
 Better Positioning Technology: The compatibility with GNSS has allowed surveyors
and mappers to use more advanced and efficient positioning technology, leading to quicker
and more accurate survey results.
 Long-Term Viability: The dynamic nature of NZGD2000 allows for adjustments over
time, ensuring that cadastral surveys and mapping remain relevant and valid even as the
Earth's crust continues to change.
Feature of the Vertical Datum in NZGD2000:
NZGD2000 includes a vertical datum known as the New Zealand Vertical Datum 2016
(NZVD2016). This vertical reference system provides a consistent and precise way of
measuring heights and elevations across New Zealand. It is based on the Earth's gravity field
and tide gauge measurements, allowing for accurate representation of height information in
relation to mean sea level. The NZVD2016 replaces the earlier vertical datums, providing a

unified and modern standard for height measurements, which is essential for various
applications, including flood modeling, infrastructure design, and environmental
management.
References:
Land Information New Zealand. (n.d.). New Zealand Geodetic Datum 2000 (NZGD2000) |
Land Information New Zealand. (2001, January 16). Development of Transformation
Parameters from NZGD49 to NZGD2000 | Toitū Te Whenua - Land Information New
Zealand. Retrieved July 22, 2023, from www.linz.govt.nz website:
https://www.linz.govt.nz/resources/research/development-transformation-
parameters-nzgd49-nzgd2000
Clouston, A. (2019, October 8). Positioning geospatial data for the 21st Century - it’s time to
switch to modern datums. Retrieved July 31, 2023, from www.critchlow.co.nz
website: https://www.critchlow.co.nz/resources/blog/modern-datums

Viper Plagiarism Report
DCE600_Jobert Villanueva_Assighment 1_2023.pdf scann
Jul 31, 2023
Overall Score
2%
Building Floor Levels and Verticality Surveys …
0.8%
https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2
A parabolic curve that is applied to make a sm…

0.8%
https://www.ugpti.org/dotsc/engcenter/downloads/2010-07_Ve
4 Horizontal Alignment - Waka Kotahi NZ Tra…

0.3%
https://www.nzta.govt.nz/assets/resources/state-highway-geom
International Earth Rotation and Reference Sy…

0.2%
https://iag.dgfi.tum.de/fileadmin/IAG-docs/Travaux2019/22_IE
(PDF) 2 Basic Design Criteria - NZ Transport …

0.2%
https://dokumen.tips/documents/2-basic-design-criteria-nz-tran
Vertical Alignment Design Suggestions - Univ…
0.0%
https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanual/Chapters/g
Question 1 Answer:
DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment
The paper, titled Building Floor Levels and Verticality Surveys –

Data Capture and Presentation Using a Canterbury Example
authored by Phil Dewar, discusses the experiences and
considerations of a surveying firm in capturing and presenting
structure vertical condition and floor level survey data after the
Canterbury earthquakes.
Surveying Techniques for Structure Vertical Condition
Fig. 1: Tools for Surveying Structure Vertical Condition

The paper discusses the challenges faced by surveyors in
capturing data for assessing the vertical condition of structures
in Christchurch after the earthquakes. The author highlights the
lack of established best practices and the need for on-the-fly
establishment of principles for data capture, processing, and
presentation. Several techniques for measuring vertical condition
are mentioned, including using a builder's spirit level, laser
setting-out tools, reflector-less total station measurements, and
laser scanning which can be seen in Figure 1 above.

DCE600 - Jobert Villanueva - Assignment 1 - 2023

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LAND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Time Allowed 4 Weeks

Total Marks 100

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 1

Learning Outcome One

Key Elements Covered:

Question 1 & 2: [Marks=40]

The paper is available at

Question 1: [Marks 20]

Judgment statement Allocated Marks

Student demonstrated a comprehensive 15-20

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 2

Student demonstrated an adequate understanding 11-15

Student demonstrated a limited understanding of 1-10

The student did not demonstrate an understanding 0

Question 2: [Marks 20]

PART A: [Marks 15]

o building vertical condition data presentation (200 words)

Judgment statement Allocated Marks

Student comprehensively discussed the data 11-20

Student provided the discussion on the presentation 1-10

The student didn’t discuss the presentation 0

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 3

Judgment statement Allocated Marks

Student comprehensively evaluated the role and 4-5

Student evaluated the role and responsibilities of a 1-3

The student didn’t evaluate the role and 0

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 4

Learning Outcome Two

Key Elements Covered:

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 5

Figure1: Profile View

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 6

PART B [Marks 10]

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 7

LEARNING OUTCOME THREE

Key Elements Covered

Judgment statement Allocated Marks

Student comprehensively reviewed geodetic datum 6-10

Student demonstrated an adequate understanding 1-5

The student didn’t demonstrate an appropriate 0

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 8

LEARNING OUTCOME FOUR

KEY ELEMENTS Covered

1. subdivision types (100 words)

Judgment statement Allocated Marks

Student comprehensively analysed subdivision and 6-10

Student demonstrated an adequate understanding 1-5

The student didn’t analyse subdivision and land 0

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 9

Judgment statement Allocated Marks

Student comprehensively discussed NZGD2000 6-10

Student demonstrated an adequate understanding 1-5

The student didn’t discuss NZGD2000 development 0

© International College of Auckland DCE600-A1-V1 Assignment 10

Surveying Techniques for Structure Vertical Condition

Fig. 1: Tools for Surveying Structure Vertical Condition

© International College of Auckland Page 1 Jobert Villanueva | DCE174

Surveying Techniques for Floor Level Measurement

Fig. 2: Surveying Techniques for Floor Level Measurement

© International College of Auckland Page 2 Jobert Villanueva | DCE174

Comparison of Surveying Techniques Mentioned Above with Trivial Survey Techniques:

© International College of Auckland Page 3 Jobert Villanueva | DCE174