ED 97 METHODS OF RESEARCH

School Year 2022 - 2023, Second Semester

Professor: Trudy C. Cerbo, Ph.D.

Name: : ADILLE GRACE C. MOVIDA

Date: : May 5, 2023
Course & Year : MAED. MNGT.

FINAL EXAMINATION

1. Define the following:

a. Research

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing
knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the
extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.

b. Theory

Theory is a principle that has been formed as an attempt to explain things that
have already been substantiated by data. It is used in the names of a number of principles
accepted in the scientific community, such as the Big Bang Theory. Because of the rigors of
experimentation and control, it is understood to be more likely to be true than a hypothesis
is.

c. Variable

A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that

you are trying to measure in some way. The best way to understand the difference between
a dependent and independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by what the
words tell us about the variable you are using.

d. Hypothesis

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a
tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research
projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your
research question.

e. Validity

The validity of a research study refers to how well the results among the study
participants represent true findings among similar individuals outside the study. This
concept of validity applies to all types of clinical studies, including those about prevalence,
associations, interventions, and diagnosis.

f. Reliability

The second measure of quality in a quantitative study is reliability, or the accuracy of

an instrument. In other words, the extent to which a research instrument consistently has
the same results if it is used in the same situation on repeated occasions.

g. Sampling

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means

selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if
you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample
of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a

population.

h. Population

In statistics, a population is an entire group about which some information is

required to be ascertained. A statistical population need not consist only of people.

i. Respondents

Respondents: The number of people who answered a survey. For most question
types, each respondent provides only one answer to a question, but in the case of multiple-
answer questions, one respondent can provide more than one answer. Responses: The
number of answers provided by the people who answered a survey.

j. Data
 Research data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated or
created to validate original research findings. Research data may be arranged or formatted
in a such a way as to make it suitable for communication, interpretation and processing.
Data comes in many formats, both digital and physical.

2. What are the purposes of reviewing related literature and studies? How can it help
I'm problem identification? When should it start and why?

The purpose of a literature review is to gain an understanding of the existing research and
debates relevant to a particular topic or area of study, and to present that knowledge in the
form of a written report. Conducting a literature review helps you build your knowledge in
your field.

Conducting a literature review helps you build your knowledge in your field. You’ll
learn about important concepts, research methods, and experimental techniques that are
used in your field. You’ll also gain insight into how researchers apply the concepts you’re
learning in your unit to real world problems.

Another great benefit of literature reviews is that as you read, you’ll get a better
understanding of how research findings are presented and discussed in your particular
discipline. If you pay attention to what you read and try to achieve a similar style, you’ll
become more successful at writing for your discipline

Literature reviews are often found at the beginning of research articles. This is
because the literature review shows the reader where the research community is up to in
researching that topic and highlights gaps in the existing research. The research article
then addresses those gaps through new research.

3. Differentiate probability from non-probability sampling. Provide examples.

Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group. While non-probability sampling involves non-
random selection based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

Example of probability sampling are; Simple random sampling, Systematic sampling,

Stratified sampling, Cluster sampling

Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or
other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier
to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job
role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should
be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a
sample from each subgroup.

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals
from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If
the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster
using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more
risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s
difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.

Example of non-probability sampling are; Convenience sampling, Voluntary response

sampling, Purposive sampling, Snowball sampling, Quota sampling.

Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to
the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the
sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of
access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them,
people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will
inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where
the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and
exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants
via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no
way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants
recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.

Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics,
determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control
what or who makes up your sample.
4. What are the different research designs? Distinguish one from another.

The Four Types of Research Design

Researchers use different designs to accomplish different research objectives. Here, we'll
discuss how to choose the right type, the benefits of each, and use cases.

Research can also be classified as quantitative or qualitative at a higher level. Some

experiments exhibit both qualitative and quantitative characteristics.

Experimental
An experimental design is used when the researcher wants to examine how variables
interact with each other. The researcher manipulates one variable (the independent
variable) and observes the effect on another variable (the dependent variable).

In other words, the researcher wants to test a causal relationship between two or more
variables.

In marketing, an example of experimental research would be comparing the effects of a

television commercial versus an online advertisement conducted in a controlled
environment (e.g. a lab). The objective of the research is to test which advertisement gets
more attention among people of different age groups, gender, etc.

Another example is a study of the effect of music on productivity. A researcher assigns

participants to one of two groups — those who listen to music while working and those who
don't — and measure their productivity.

The main benefit of an experimental design is that it allows the researcher to draw causal
relationships between variables.

One limitation: This research requires a great deal of control over the environment and
participants, making it difficult to replicate in the real world. In addition, it’s quite costly.

Best for: Testing a cause-and-effect relationship (i.e., the effect of an independent variable
on a dependent variable).

Correlational
A correlational design examines the relationship between two or more variables without
intervening in the process.

Correlational design allows the analyst to observe natural relationships between variables.
This results in data being more reflective of real-world situations.
For example, marketers can use correlational design to examine the relationship between
brand loyalty and customer satisfaction. In particular, the researcher would look for
patterns or trends in the data to see if there is a relationship between these two entities.

Similarly, you can study the relationship between physical activity and mental health. The
analyst here would ask participants to complete surveys about their physical activity levels
and mental health status. Data would show how the two variables are related.

Best for: Understanding the extent to which two or more variables are associated with each
other in the real world.

Descriptive
Descriptive research refers to a systematic process of observing and describing what a
subject does without influencing them.

Methods include surveys, interviews, case studies, and observations. Descriptive research
aims to gather an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon and answers
when/what/where.

SaaS companies use descriptive design to understand how customers interact with specific
features. Findings can be used to spot patterns and roadblocks.

For instance, product managers can use screen recordings by Hotjar to observe in-app user
behavior. This way, the team can precisely understand what is happening at a certain stage
of the user journey and act accordingly.

Brand24, a social listening tool, tripled its sign-up conversion rate from 2.56% to 7.42%,
thanks to locating friction points in the sign-up form through screen recordings.

Best for: Gathering unbiased data that reveals behaviors or recurring phenomena.

Diagnostic
Diagnostic research determines the root cause of a problem and finds the most effective
solution. It’s often used in marketing to identify areas of improvement or potential
opportunities for growth.

The diagnostic research design consists of three steps:

Inception, which includes data collection and problem definition.

Diagnostics, which comprises data analysis, hypothesis testing, and setting objectives.
Solutions, which define the best possible solution.
In product teams, a diagnostic design would involve analyzing customer feedback and
reviews to identify areas where a company can improve. This would help identify where a
product offering needs to change — pricing, missing features, customer service, etc.
Diagnostic research provides an accurate diagnosis of a problem and identifies areas of
improvement.

Best for: Understanding the underlying causes of a problem and how to address it.

5. Compare and contrast the different methods/techniques of data collection.

A compare and contrast paper discusses the similarities and differences between two or
more topics. The paper should contain an introduction with a thesis statement, a body
where the comparisons and contrasts are discussed, and a conclusion.

6. Formulate a research problem and make the following elements of the research
process:

a. Background of the Study

Article XIV, section 10 of the 1987 constitution mandates that the state shall give

priority to Science and Technology, research and development, invention, and innovation. It

shall support indigenous, appropriate and self-reliant, scientific and technological

capabilities, and their application to the country’s productive systems and national life.

Science and Technology are essential for national development and progress.

In realizing the aforementioned statutes and national policies, the Department of

Education (DepEd) stresses that Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) must

be an integral part of all learning areas, both hardware and software. Hence, according to

the education department of the country, e-learning and the use and application of ICT

must be employed in all subjects because this is now the most viable intervention in

educational reform.

The preparation for global competencies of our students start as early as their basic

education level. One step towards this is the use of technology. Technology contributes

much for the improvement of the teaching learning process and to the humanization of life.
 Technology is the means and atmosphere that engage students. The learning settings

are like atmospheres where tools of knowledge building are provided to produce and

influence the art of understanding through which students have a teamwork and support

for one another. They utilize different tools and learning resources in their search for

learning aims and activities for solving problems, (Koh, 2010).

Technology has modified the method of learning and teaching. Many learning

theories can be used to apply and integrate this technology more effectively. Learning

happens in situation, while technology focuses on the settings and which makes learners

be involved in (Adamy P., & Herinecke, IV. 2010).

Many factors urge teachers to use computer technology in their classrooms. These

factors include computer sufficiency, personal technology use, positive teacher attitudes

and beliefs towards technology and access to professional development in the computer

technology area. All of these are significant in motivating teachers to use technology.

Nevertheless, using technology in the classroom as a means of instruction would be useful

to teachers if they are supported by appropriate educational theories and models.

In the public school system, specifically in the Division of Bacolod City, the number

of students in a class ranges from 40-60 students. This number is too big for a laboratory

class. This number poses a great challenge for teachers, considering the few computer

units that are available in a classroom.

The integration of Computer Education in the public schools started in 2002 under

the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC) but the competencies in computer education was

enhanced in 2010. Computer Education starts in grade four. As a teacher, the researcher

has undergone these challenges along the ways with regards to computer education.

Among these challenges are limited number of computer units for the learners,

insufficiency of computer textbooks, no teacher’s training for computer and attitude of

pupils in handling computer units. With these challenges, the researcher is motivated to
conduct an assessment on the integration of computer education in the intermediate level

in District II, Division of Bacolod City.

b. Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on the “Cognitive Flexibility Theory” by Rand J. Spiro.

Cognitive Flexibility Theory is concern with the transfer of knowledge and skills after the

initials learning situation. Initially, students learn the basic concepts, theories, etc. in a

linear context. However, when advanced knowledge acquisition occurs, a non-linear

approach is necessary to navigate the ill saturated domain in which the learning occurs.

This information must present from multiples perceptions. (Jonassen, D., Ambruso,

D .&Olesen, J., 2009)

Spiro suggested that a successful (i.e. cognitively flexible) learner is one who can

readily re-organize and apply knowledge in response to varying situational demand. To

attain this flexibility, learners must understand problems in their full complexity and must

“criss-cross” the problem space multiple times in order to observe how shifts in variables

and goals alter the space. How well one can do this is a function of both the way knowledge

is represented and the processes that operate on those mental representations.

Spiro is especially interested in what he termed ill-structured domains such as

medicines, literary criticism, or history. It is based on the notions that humans can

restructure their knowledge as an adaptive response to changing input and situational

demands. This deals with knowledge representations and processes that are used to

internally manipulate the representations.

The theory has implications for the transfer of learning to new context. State-

dependency and context-dependency are supported, and application of the theory

recommended that learners be facilitated in developing unique and multiples

representation of information through computers. Resources should be interconnected

rather than linear (Kearseley, 2012).

 Cognitive flexibility theory is specially formulated to support the use of interactive

technology (e.g., videodisc, hypertext). Its primary applications have been literary

comprehension, history and biology.

The theory of Spiro can be linked to the present study where in teaching and learning

becomes interactive with the use of computers. Students must have hands on activity on

the use of computers. They must have the actual manipulation of computers. It was

therefore necessary to conduct an assessment on the integration of computer education in

the intermediate level.

c. Conceptual Framework

The main concern of the investigation was to assess the integration of computer

education in the intermediate level in District II Division of Bacolod City during the school

year 2015-2016.

Assessment on the extent of integration of computer education was categorized into a

“Very Great Extent”, “Great Extent”, “Moderate Extent”, “Low Extent” and “Very Low

Extent”.

Moreover, the extent of integration of computer education was categorized into three

areas such as teachers training, instructional materials/Facilities and Teachers

Competence.

The study also wanted to determine whether or not significant differences exist with

regards to the assessment of intermediate level teachers when they were grouped and

compared according to the variables of age, sex, marital status, length of teaching

experience in computers, average monthly family income, educational attainment and

specialization in computer.
 The insights that were derived in the study served as bases in the formulation of

conclusions and recommendations.

d. Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to assess the integration of computer education in the intermediate

level in District II, Division of Bacolod City during the school year 2015-2016.

Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of respondents in terms of the following:

a. Age

b. Sex

c. Marital status

d. Length of teaching experience in computer

e. Average monthly family income

f. Educational attainment

2. What is the extent of integration of computer education in the intermediate level

according to the following areas:

a. Teachers Training

b. I.T Materials / Facilities

c. Teachers Competence

3. What is the extent of integration of computer education in the intermediate level

when they are grouped according to the aforementioned variables?

4. Are there significant differences between the level of intermediate level teachers on

the integration of computer education when they are grouped and compared

according to the aforementioned variables?

5. What are the problems encountered by the intermediate teachers in the integration of

computer education?
 e. Hypothesis of the problem

Based on the foregoing stated objectives, the researcher hypothesized that

there were no significant differences in the assessment of intermediate level teachers

on the integration of computer education when they were grouped according to age,

sex, marital status, length of teacher’s experience, average monthly family income,

and educational attainment.

f. Significance of the Study

Department of Education Officials . The results of the study will provide a

meaningful and substantial amount of information which can be used by DepEd officials

for enhancing the integration of computer education in the intermediate level.

Schools Division Superintendent . The results of the study may increase the

awareness of the Division Superintendent to prepare a program to enhance the traditional

methods of learning to E- Leaning. In this way, education in public elementary schools will

be leveled up and updated in areas of classroom settings.

Education Program Supervisors . The results of the study can be used in

formulating technical assistance in terms of trainings and enhancing teachers’ competence.

School Heads . The results of the study would provide school administrators the

information regarding the integration of computer education. This could be the basis for

enhancement of the facilities to make learning more meaningful to the students.

Division ICT Coordinator . The results of the study may open a wide dissemination

to the intermediate teachers teaching computer. This may give relevant information which

can be used in planning for future seminars and workshops.

 Stakeholders . This study would provide the stakeholders with information as to the

proper utilization of computers. Hence, they could encourage the students to use

computers in a positive way.

LGU Officials . The results of the study may give local government officials the drive

to procure additional computer units in order to enhance computer education in the public

schools.

Teachers . Results of the study may offer learning’s on the part of the teachers. It

may give them insights to better improve the learning strategies applied in classroom

settings. With the integration of technology in the learning process, teachers will be more

creative in their teaching procedures.

Students . The result of the study is more advantageous on the part the students, as

the recipient of the integration of technology in teaching. It may offer advancement on their

studies as they will be earlier exposed to the experience of learning and enjoying the

wonders of technology.

Present Researcher . The result of the study may offer learning’s on the researcher.

The integration of the technology in classrooms will benefit the researcher in terms of

advancement in teaching methodology.

Future Researchers . Results of the study may inspire future researchers to

investigate other aspects of technology, particularly those areas and variables which are not

included in the study.

g. Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focused on the integration of computer education in District II Division of

Bacolod City during the school year 2015-2016. The intermediate level teachers were the

respondents of this investigation.

 The variables of age, sex, marital status length of teaching experience in computer,

average monthly income and educational attainment were considered in determining

whether or not significant differences existed in the assessment of integration of computer

education in the intermediate level. The areas covered were teachers training, I.T

materials/facilities and teachers competence.

This study used the descriptive research design and a self made questionnaire was

utilized in gathering the needed data. Moreover two analytical schemes were used;

descriptive and comparative. Furthermore, the statistical tools used were the frequency,

percentage, mean, rank and Mann-Whitney.

h. Definition of terms

The following terms used in this study were defined conceptually and operationally.

Age . Conceptually, it is the length of time that a person has lived or a thing has

existed (Oxford Dictionary, 2015).

In the study, it refers to the age of computer teachers.

Assessment . The term means an evaluation, an approval or judgment. (Webster’s

New World Dictionary, 2012)

Operationally, the term refers to the evaluation of the integration of computer

education in the intermediate level.

Average Family Monthly Income . Conceptually, it refers to all remuneration

received before deduction of the employee Central Provident Fund (CPF) contribution and

personal income tax. It comprises basic wages, overtime pay, commission, allowances, and

bonuses but exclude employer CPF contributions. (ministry of Manpower, 2013)

Operationally, this refers to the monthly income of the family which is classified as

“higher” and “lower”.

 Computer Education . Conceptually, it refers to the action or process of teaching

someone especially in school (The New English Dictionary, 2012).

In this study, it refers to one of the components in Home Economics and Livelihood

Education (HELE).

Educational Attainment . Conceptually, it refers to the highest level of schooling

that a person has reached. (Statistics Canada, 2015)

In this study, it refers to the highest degree of education the computer teacher has

completed.

Experience in Computer . Conceptually, it defines something that happens to

someone’s knowledge derived from one’s action, practice, perception, enjoyment, or

suffering, experimental knowledge, the sum total of such knowledge in the life of an

individual (The New English-Filipino Dictionary 2012).

Operationally, it refers to the length of time that the teacher have spent in doing

something using computer.

Integration . Conceptually, it refers to the incorporation of educational systems

previously segregated (Dictionary.com, 2015).

As used in the study, it refers to the inclusion of computer education in the

intermediate level.

Intermediate level . Conceptually, it refers to the category having the knowledge or

skill of someone who is more advanced than a beginner but not yet an expert (Oxford

Dictionaries, 2015).

Operationally, this refers to the middle school learners comprising grades five to six.

IT Materials . The term refers to the materials in E Learning and in 21 st century

teaching. (21st century teaching using multimedia, 2013)

 Operationally, this refers to the facilities and equipment in the Information

Communication Technology (ICT) room. These materials are utilize during the teaching and

learning process of the students in computer.

Marital Status . Conceptually, it means being single, married separated, divorced,

widowed, or being a former civil partner in a civil relationship that has ended by death or

been dissolved or being or having been cohabitant or qualified cohabitant within the

meaning of the Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohaitants Act

2010. (wendydoylesolicitors.worldpress.com).

As used in the study, the term refers to the status of computer teachers as citizen.

Sex . Conceptually, it refers to either male or female division of species especially as

differentiated with reference to the reproductive functions (Dictionaries.com, 2015).

Operationally, it refers to the gender as male or female of computer education

teachers.

Teachers Competence . Conceptually, it means the ability to do something well; the

quality or state of being competent. (Modern Teaching.com/teachers+competence)

In this study, the term refers to the ability and skills of the intermediate teachers in

teaching computer. How to deliver, how to teach operate and how to utilize and maximize

the materials and facilities of the computer.

Teachers Training . Conceptually, it refers to professional preparation of teachers,

usually through formal course work and practice teaching.

(encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/teacher+training)

As used in this study, this refers to the trainings, seminars and workshops attended

by the teacher in order to gain more knowledge and skills in teaching computer.

Technology . The term means a technical device or tools to use to enhance

instruction. (The New English-Filipino Dictionary 2012).

 In this study, it refers to the modern gadget and devices that the teacher utilizes or

uses in teaching computer education.