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    Steve Joshua Heim's 1991 book on the 1946-1953 Macy Conferences, during which the multidisciplinary science of cybernetics was established.

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    Steve Joshua Heim's 1991 book on the 1946-1953 Macy Conferences, during which the multidisciplinary science of cybernetics was established.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    24 views174 pages

    The Cybernetics Group

    Uploaded by

    Ina Blom
    Steve Joshua Heim's 1991 book on the 1946-1953 Macy Conferences, during which the multidisciplinary science of cybernetics was established.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
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    The Cybernetics Group Steve Joshua Heims ‘The MIT Pres Cambridge, Massachuseets London, England (©1901 Machusens Init of Tecnology Al igh reserved. No ptf thi book maybe reproduced in ny frm by Sry lero or beaniea means nding potosopng recoding, Inermtien rage and eal) wih petunia rom he able “This ook wat et asker by Compt. In. ai wa printed sd itrary of Congres Culegingio-ubeon Date Hei, Ste “The cera group / See Joshua Hens. pcm Tacha biogrphil reference and inde, ISBN 0262068004 [Sosa seers -evereh—Unied Sse. 2. Cybernet {oss sy Foundation Te farausta “opt esa 809 ‘cur Contents Preface vib Acknowledgments x8 1 Midcontwy, USA. 1 2 March 8-9, 1946 14 3 : Describing “Embodiments of Mind”: ‘McCulloch and His Cohorts 31 4 Raindancer, Scout, and Talking Chief 52 5 Logie Clarifying and Logie Obscuring 90 6 Problems of Deranged Minds, Artists, ‘ond Psychiatrists 115 7 The Macy Foundation and Worldwide Mental Health 164 ee 8 ee Laxarsfeld, Lewin, and Political Conditions 180 Preface 9 Gestalten Go to Bits, I: From Lewin to Bavelas 201 10 Gestalten Goto Bits, 2: Kohler’s Visit 224 i The subject of this book isthe series of muliisciplinary con- Metaphor nd Synthesis 28 Een spore by the cy Foundatm an el beeen 1940 si 108) ts distasa wie ray of tops ta eventual 12 tine tree bermeia, Coming te tera ofthe Then and Now 273 Sata ora a wn th cet an techn sane of the war years~for example, the modern general-purpose ‘computer and models based on were just becoming public tarrency, the conference sevies played a significant historical tole in the development of the human and the natural sciences inthe United States Noes 287 i The eybernetics conferences and attendant events form 3 = Indee 327 | complex sory, and I have tried to include only 8 portion of it fn this book, I have chosen to focus on researchers in psychol- | ‘og, anthropology, sociology, and psychiatry rather than on the engineers, biologists, and mathematicians. For the book tobe seen in its proper light, I need to say some: thing about the process of writing and my own relation to the subject matter More than twenty years ago, asa physicist dur ing the Vietnam War era, felt a need to gain a broader per spective on the practice ofthe siences and the divection they | had taken in the postwar world. My method was twofold: 10 learn more about what people in other, related academic de> partments—anthropology, biology, peychology, mathematics— trere up to and to acknowledge fully that science is 2 human {tivity not only body of knowledge. During this period the published proceedings of che cybernetics conferences Fell into fy hands, and since so many of the disciplines were repre sented by the attendees, a historical study of these meetings I ame to seem like good way to focus my own inquiry. T decided that it might be worthwhile to pursue my study in the form af arbook, but I quickly saw that Iwas not yet ready Appendix Members of the Cybernetics Group 285 ai Poe to deal with the huge cast and variety of disciplines involved. I contented myself with writing a book about just two ofthe par= ticipants, dhe mathematicians John von Neumann and Norbert ‘Wiener. When that book was finished, however, I fet encour. aged to start work on the group of socal scemtsts who had attended the meetings, Here I must add a warning: Thave not practiced sociology, psychology, economics, psychiatry, or an thropology and consequently I am looking at these fies as an butsider My main interest tin what the people I discuss feleto beinteresting and importantat the me, not necessarily in what sScein s today, Such aa outsiders perspective can provide new insights, because it sidestep che shared premises and practions within 2 discipline (recal Alexis de Tocqueville writing on ‘America, but i also inevitably leads to a glossing over of many important details and technical poins. To try to avoid major misunderstandinge, | have consulted with specialists in the dis fiplines I discuss. This book, however, is not intended as a Source of information about technical details. Its perhaps best, Characterized as the result of one person's historical examina tion and interpretation of portions ofa very interesting confer- fence series and of its participants ‘One of my fist steps was co contact as many ofthe partici pantsas I could. Most, unfortunately are now no longer alive P'hegan to read the participants’ published writings, viewing them as contributions to "progress" within their specific disc plines | alo obtained whatever biographical information was Featlly available. Busitdidn't work, Much ofthe so-called social Science was unconvincing to me as science in any traditional sense. In fact, some of i scemed to have only a thio scientific ‘veneer, which apparently sufficed to make it acceptable. More ‘ver 881 wrote I found my study a8 whole becoming centril= Uagal; i simply would not cohere. Something was wrong with iy approach. Stymied, 1 put the manuscript side, ‘When I returned to the project afew years late, I came at the subject matter in a different way, probably because T had picked up on changing atitudes among histortans and sociol- bgists of science. Instead of trying to review the specific contr butions of individuals, | now stated 0 look at Fields asa whole and to explore the role of elite groups within fells, groups ‘whote shared assumptions and consensus about what is valid and valuable establish the fields’ priorities and guide the di rection of research (including who gets funding, what gets nf ie published ete) From tis point of view, conversations and dis: ‘usin, including those atthe center ofthis book and some at the periphery, took on a greater significance. I now saw that sialogue among researchers could serve as an organizing prin- ciple for my’stuy. With this focus, the material Thad gathered began to fll into discernible, seemingly natural, paveras. At various junctions inthe book, where [had the data, Teould now be specific, concrete, and explicit in desribing instances of hove the proces of sence worked “Two kinds of presumed “background” to the conferences sometimes push themselves ito the foreground as influences fon the scientific work, One isthe general political conditions in the United States atthe time—the height of the Cold War— and more specially the general condition ofthe various nat tural and social sciences, Chapter I describes these cicum- tances. ‘The second is the intellectual interest each conferce brought tothe first meeting. Chapter 2 isa systematic survey of those backgrounds, A feader who dislikes preliminaries ‘ight start with chapter 3. I expect, however, that sooner oF Inter he or she will be impelled to turn back to the first two dhapters for orientation Acknowledgments ‘A large number of people have been helpfl in the preparation ‘of this book, which has been in process, intermittently, for ‘many years. I's, i fat, the second half ofthe project begun in the Book about von Neuman and Wiener, and some of the people are already mentioned ther. Harvey Shepard and Millard Clements, in their steady fiendship, have beea important through the years aver and shove any specific conversations. Lela Head, my daughter, with ber’ professional devotion to the face bebind official obfuscation, is a continuing source of inspiration. Sharon Lamb, Susan Sklan, and Terri Payne Butler each read 2 chapter ‘or more ofthe book critically, and each was a source of encour agement ata moment when it made a diflerence, The following people have contributed at one point of another, through con ‘ersation or by reading and commenting on 3 chapter oF in some other way: Jonathan Bayliss, lain Boal, Jean-Pierre Dit puy, Arthur Graig, Jay Haley, Joy Harvey, Rachel Joffe, Anita Landa, Mark Levine, John Lisman, Frank Manuel, Jennifer Markel, Robert Morison, Seymour Papert, Robbie PFeufer, Ed ‘ward Reed, Mortis Schwartz Silvan Schweber, Oliver Selfridge, Ann Sincais, Michael Sokal, Lora Tessman, Erin Walsh, Shel- ‘don White, Michael Wold, aod William Woodward 1 greatly appreciate the interest shown by those members from the cybernetic group, most of them now decease, who hnad taken time to tall oF correspond with me. lam ako grate- {ul to other people who are not named individually here but hhaveat some point during the pas twenty-two Years influenced or informed me in regard to some facet of the cybernetics ‘group. I cite particular names and their contributions where Appropriate in the notes. Archives at the Massachusetts Insti- si Adnan tute of Technology, Yale University, Harvard Medical School, the Library of Congress, the American Philosophical Society, land the National Library of Medicine were consulted in the ‘course ofthe research, and I thank the archivists and librarians for their belpfulnes. The Cybernetics Group EEE Rae 1 Midcentury, US.A. “The aim of this book isto describe a moment when a new set of ideas impinged on the human sciences and began to trans form some traditional fields of inguiry. A proper description of this hisworial event entails not only attending to published re Search in the human sciences but also to individuals, o smal) {groups, and to the larger social and political matrix in which Re event was embedded. I wil tare the story with an overview. of its particular seting: midcentury in the United States of “America Ththe middle ofthe twentieth century the United State had reached a peak of poner and standing among nations. Most of| Europe, the Soviet Union, Japan, and China had been econom- ically and physically ravaged by the Second World War, while the United States had emerged-as ithad from the Fist World War—relatively unscathed and with a thriving economy. The swar was generally felt by Americans to have been just or even Fighteous, and the country had made a special conribution 9 the viewory by its technological know-how, managerial organi tation, and industrial production. in the years following the end ofthe war in 1945, more than av any time since, Americans had faith in their government, Sere proud of ther country, and felt secure in having a tech: ological base that was second to none.’ They were impressed by the country’s newly acquired and unsurpassed status in the iences, Scentfi researchers, especially in applied physics, Spplied mathematics, and high-technology engineering, had eturned from war work with high presuge. The population Tearned of ther efforts rom the mass media's treatment of sc tentsts as quasihheroes, Emerging high technologies included the electronic general-purpose computer and devies for more efficient communication 2 Char ‘Wits postwar prosperity th white mile clas, wth the na- clea ayo pei ea a move he iso the ply groving suburb. Honing constriction boomed as ttasrroduion methods were introduced inthe Duldig n- dun. The efforts of the and automobile lobbies conti ‘ie'fo masive expansion of the highway stem 5 raroad ceprtatin war replaced ty automa, bss al ruck Big uss ied toc conporate aes mp. For & inge properton sf dhe population fe war tine of pre dened affluence The souilogt Wright Misha serie theperiod athe Great Amerian Clebraton. the idiom of the dy, applied socal cence was often re ferred 'o\as Thuman engineering” In al postwar crea {Sines mere conducire tos ready accepance ofthe poll Aan yu tad to a tecnologia or techngcraie optimism, ‘nie face of one frightening recent “succes igh ttanaogy—the stm bom ‘Marie the gubal power ofthe European rations was sharply dminshing 3 hey lon their oloies in Asia and AE BexTThetote American colony, the Phipine Islands, was pro- {ined a indepen mation in 1945, evn ater forms of fepemony, uc miary tes, economic domination, and pend Cover pottcal manpulton conned. The United Ssonn esinted in 1905, ahough wrapped na great deal 2Fimrnanals sentiment and shetoritfleced in struc re ane bythe five lending powers ofthe poster world {ihe Unted State, te Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France and China-the permanene member of the Seeury Couns, Tete provide! te avec of politi infence of he (cng mations over other county, sid among the leading tations the United States wa second vo none hin en yn, poten she nertoaan uch wwar=gave nay tothe Cold Wer polation that pte war Tino dance between tne Soviet Union sl the Western pow Gre Amerian socal and police thinkers reated 0 thi Stuacon by aopeng aspit eepoint--cpousing interation- Sint idcology even asthe ook strong an Soviets tn ‘ay incr onaim, wit ts presumed promotion of politcal Livery, boeame confused and was sometimes transformed {mo ettoeng fora ax Ameena. American socal seis ‘Netcanted in the Cold War tohelp min the heatsand ands Miter, USA 3 i 2 ec nonton age ae exits and nuns a een mee forte war fir The hacia aiencea ore satis gett a ee ity Slee pects len int Tiere Sie eg eetineraee Ergaae dere creas ee Seer enatnegentae Bane Houmderachdeiiaee dimmu sate ace ga ete Estat nade baer ae rot Aerts Sti ares Sie eo tment vith that dominant among the inteleculcommnty.” ieiihs Srmet ra settee Sobre apne aera Spisieeeeaee ema ae iialrae iit Seance seat Heats Mebatay Snr Era ak eng anatiamatricee, ree ret ean Saket amen enact obeanaces atom ie University psychologist, has described the continuity from war- rumen mecca Fora shor pr afer World War Ihe ac ace epee Femarkabe growth in terms af number, funding. presige td inf ‘cee in the balls of publ and private power Stil sos were “ey and confident.» sociologists enamored with grand, abstract, theotes ofthe suture andl yams of society» = pychoogas promising much about tet capo to fathom the bask lava fee ferernment during World War I, became eve more 40 with the Sars end when the nation emerged as the dominant miary-socal- polscalforcein the work and took on adminstrative supervision of Shree pope an cles Before Wer Wa the sal sess vere, except for economicr, university based isdplines having or Bl racial parposey, no Ges with the paiva sytem. Word War It hanged la sac sents boeste needed and they wanted to beinceded. They envied the sats and support the natural sences hd gained by wire of contributors o the war effort and the vias these conurbutions opened for fuure "progress" The time had ‘ome, the socal selenfins argued, for ou scey to Tecogite that Sle ook the les to strengthen td support the soc sences| ‘we would mis a goigen (and perhape final) oppoctanty to gin that hdmi and undrtaning nec ohare nec the destructive foeet that had Brough about Wold War Je wat a time when oman scences rather than humanistic studies were inthe ascendancy solving problems rather than Teflecing on meanings. Normaly the Humanistic and senfc trodes of understanding coexisy overlap and are seen by the general es complementing cach other et the wo modes alo tompete, and at certain mes and places n Western itellecal Hntory one mode hasbeen strongly favored over the other In the petiod following the Second World War inthe Unied Stats, unveriies increasingly emphasized the social and be avoralsienoct atthe expense of mani scholarship. The Pirate “beavoral sence invented tn thoue das to replace peychology" wa indicative of poychology tending co regurd itelf as» genuinely scenic decipline. “The flipside of Americas conservative belie ine was a growing bowl to socal innovation. Increasingly the Soviet {pion snd allt reprerened was sen a threat tthe United Scates, especialy in view of is controling influence In Eastern Europe and the Soviet development of milear weapons Iwas fat thatthe Soviet Union's expansion tendency needed tobe "contained." As Godfrey Hodgon put “The fasteation of having so mich “power and chen finding that he sword refuse! o be molied yt brought om the ese we eal ater Senator Jouepa McCarthy thigh in fae hohe long fore he ‘randied i fea Whedng, Wee Veg The cece ere sv important inside the United Sasa they wee for foreign poly a “The Left was silenced. On the Right orthodox consereatsm was di placed by an sincson wid unved dangers. The nation was com. Inited oan deology of anticommunism Even American liberalism came in some respects to be shaped by antcommunism because, as historian Arthur Schlesinger ‘observed, “the growing necesty of checking Communism by feveloping some constructive allemative speeded the cavficw tion of liberal ideas in 1947 and 1048." A sociologist revealed the pressure when he wrote in the 1950s, “as defenders of an alternate mode of ie to tht proposed by the Communists we fare under addiional compulsion to make our mode one which ‘in intograte men of every color and culture." ‘Whereas in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America the in telligentsia was interested in studying and revising Marxist so al slence and dialectical chought generally (as had been true inthe United States as well inthe 1930s), many Americans now viewed Marxist ideas as dangerous. “Marxism and its prac tioners were marginalized i not completely banished from the academy.” A sharp change had occurred since the "popular front” coalition of leftists and liberals against European fascism in the latter half of the 1930s, Not only was Marxist thought tinaceeptable, but radial ertques and fundamental question- ing ofall kinds were muted within academic insitutions. ‘tthe ime of the Macy conferences thatare the focus ofthis, book, some faculty members at U.S. universities, suspected of having once been communists, were being fired, while others were Becoming anxious and cautious." The academic establish iment, concerned with the "good name” ofits institutions, co operated with the prevalent mood of anticommunism by requiring loyalty oaths or by creating commitees to investigate the loyalties of suspect colleagues. Sell professed liberals at uni ‘erste, tothe dissppointment of blacklisted professors, often {id Title to support academic freedom, The most substantial sudy to date of pois in the universes at that ime concludes that “The 19505 was the period when the natn’ colleges and universities srere becoming meeasingy dependent poo and responave toward the Feder porcrnments Te academe ommnvtitys colaboraon sith McCarty ean part of that proces, Twas, in many respec, Jiscenotser sep inthe lotegraton of American higher edacation nts the Cal War! politcal sjsem,.» in its colaboraton with Me 6 hort Carthy, the aademic community behaved jut ike every other 7 inatatin n American ie The academy enforcinent of ‘MeCarthyiam bad slenced anemic generation of radial lets fd sled ut all meaningful oppostion to he offical version of the Cad Wart iil the poital repression was fl heavy by employees of osttudons such univers, did not prevent articulate {rick of the mainstream values and assumptions from os Sders Despite or perhaps in reaction to the conservative mood ‘a the mainstream, this was an innovate period in the at ‘Out of the smal counterculture ofthe early 1950s came Allen CGinsberg’s beat poccry and Jack Kerouae's novels. Charlie Par- ers musical innovations (he engineered toa shift tn he bz extetic™) a that ne represented a summit in the evo Iacion of jaz. The late 19408 were alto the high point in American’ abstract expresionist painting, when Jaton ol. {ck made his “poured” paintings in which an “unprecedented synthesis ook place becween Impressionism, Cubism and Sut= realist antomacism."* ‘Nor were dissident voices lacking from the nonacademc ft Sociologist and black leader WE. B. DuBois who had aleady devoted along ie to the back struggle, was a dsident voice exposing America’s racism to the world he was acordingy la teed communist (which at that mele was no) and deprted this passport, but never efecvely silenced» Paul Sweery, Mars economiat who fad let Harvard to rely on indepen: dent means and eit the Mond Review, sharply eriized eap- fais cconomica and pointed tthe embarrassing act of poverty in America. The merits of these arise snd imllec- {ual disidens were generally acknowledged only slowly and belatedly. “The close collaboration of natural and social sient wth the US. government during the war had made continued 3s- sociation seem natural at fst, and che clea secogotion of 4 vergence of interests Between government and scholarly re- Searchers was not aay immediate Pel Forman has made a {onvincng ese that physics inthe United States, fom 1945 00, “accleraung its torial quantiadve growth, underwent 2 ‘qualitative change i ts purposes and character an enlitment 2d integration ofthe bulk of is pracioners and its practice inthe nation's puri of security rough ever tore advanced military technologies" Basic since was and continues to be lavhlysuppored by dhe weapons establishment because ithad understood fll well that "basic research, being but he applied {esearch of tomorow, thekey to technological progress" Tn the period around 1950 the purposce of the government also Imploged on the work of many focal scien, especialy be- case the government had taken over fom private foundations the funding of research. The spectrum of that relationship ranged from dre offers of work forthe FBI and other intel ligenee agencies to being ively harased and nade unen ployable by the anscomspunist cruades. "Ia both the Soviet ‘Union and the Urited States sociology was used as an instr ment of sate policy both wih respect to domestic problems ned as an instrument for international leverage, infuence and prestige... The United States has done tis increasingly since fhe grow ofthe Welfare State following World War Il, andi has sed the socal sciences to check the spread of pital and intellectual movements frien toward Marsiem and comm nism." American anthropologists such a1 Margaret Mead Ieiped wo frre: nu the wesknsues and wea: ot he Sovet Union, but lie advised on echnaqes for implementing foreign polices without creating unnecesory fiction between the United States and other countries or cultures.” American ‘tural anthropelogy had atone te sought to overeme the ‘olonilist addon of the dicpin; it hed taught Americans shout the wide range of variably im human nature and about the diversity of able cultural patterns Burst the United States ‘developed an active program af influencing counties in Africa, Tain America and Asa within the framework of the “contain: ment” of communis, de government once more sought the ‘experts ofthe anthropolops ‘During the war, both natural and social slenis had pie cally worked as part of «team often together with engineer, {o adres ome parcalar interdiscptinary problem, such 36 the behavior fatigue, and manewers of an atrat pier con- fronted with enemy planes in midair. Researchers came avay from these wartime projets with some experince, pechaps even a habit of inerisaplinarycommunieaion and collabo- {ation aswell espeet fr many Kinds of machines nd thelr designers. In that regard the wartime experince would std the conferees ofthe postwar cyeneties group in good stead ear We could characterize the epistemological framework and the cognitive syle of the practice of science as reductionist, stomisc, positivist, pragmatic, conservative, mechanistic, and fmpiricis. These atdudes manifested themselves in diverse trays in various branches of research. During the wat, for ex: Emple, physicits had quite ignored the outstanding prewar theoretical problem, the development of asatisfociory quantum field theory® The needed experiments were carried out in 1946 and 1947 with great precision, using wartime advances in techniques for working with microwave radiation. The experi- tenis preceded the major theoretical developments. A series fof small conferences, by invitation only for an elite group of physicists, was get up under the sponsorship of the National ‘Academy of Sciences, and by 1950 several gifted young physi- fist had devised theoretical techniques to compute—with a precision to match the experiments-subte effects resulting from the imeraction of electromagnetic fields with mater" The theories, amajor step forvard in physics, were pragmatic in the sense that they provided rules for caleulating empirically correct answers, Even though the mathematical and physical Justification for the rules was problematic, the rules of ealula- ion were readily accepted because they worked. American physicists philosophy of science was mostly an impiice posi fam, but epistemological questions—such as those raised by ‘quantum theory—were shunced aside in the postwar years {dull compared to the doing of complex calculations. “Another group of physicists displayed their self-confidence after the war by invading the traditional domain of biology.”" proposing to unravel the code-sript embodied inthe genes 8 figgested in Erwin Schrodingers widely read book with the enticing tlle What i Lge? (1944). A dedicated group of re- Searchers who became known as the “phage group” formed round Max Delbrick and Salvador Luria and gathered in the simmers st Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island: they were a5 narrowly goal-oriented as che designers ofthe atom bomb had ‘been during the war. In cis group young researchers obtained the training and orientation tha eventual led to the discovery ofthe structre of the DNA molecule and creation of the new ‘scp of molecular biology. Ie was a highly reductionist, stomisic approach to probleme of the nature of heredity and to the ques for understanding what life is The optimism, even arrogance, of some ofthe participating physical scientists was 2 notable element in their succes. Broader philosophical sues Concerning te Darwinian theory of evolution and he arian ‘faeces tnoved temporary ito te background “The tone of academic American soceogy st midcenary was set by Tao Paso fancies cial Manse {ocaogyisofar ae iewas practiced al, survived only outside iBeacademies™ Alvin Goulner characterized Parvont grand theone a ingly inert to the ser sflerng ofthe esperatelyafleted™ enon a conservative view centered on eutrum, salty, and the comity of ittions: “The ‘refines of era socal or curl arrangement fo stern Eau Beare foal altura anthropologists had been conducting feléwork among wide vanety of cultures, expecially one ha seemed to face possble extinction calecting them, recording ther, hstyng chem nary nthe spr of ed fashioned natalie. “The vale ofthese sles wat snted co outweigh ay harm that might ome from ntudingonethervie lated clures. Both the older Enginh anthropologal funerals and per sonaliy theory bated on Frew paychology were wed 10 interpret ere, br hey were tempered ih “easem’ tm tnstnce tha cach eure i he own framework within Athich its practices ae to be understood. Ye the anhropao: {otsing te crphnca/tneoretcalentfigmanagerial ame Sok of Waters cuilation to wndentand the Teavy oF “tres could hardly elpasuning mpi that the Western Scent work iw was the trucreaiy the ali way of know ing, wheres those of other altars were tet “intersting” sor sient dat" gist forthe mil. ‘Atomistin the socal scence manifested ein the ven deny to reduce socal and poialiues to individual py ‘hcg sully o Fresdian paychoanalys ofthe india Underyng the foes on nda Beavor an psychology s the remit that he understanding of soles can be bul yp from the understanding of iva just a in psi the tnovledge of atoms forms a tas for understanding macro. scopic maiter™ In the poswar year researc trex shied trarkedly fom dhe soc and pital he psychological, st presumably more fundamental The poi sue of the Epprenton of minorites way red into prod of provi ing paychotberay for people wth “authoritarian personal ces. Shitting what might have been controversial poled 10 Chapt isgues to apparently “scientific” facts of psychology seemed to provide a form of reductionism that made social issues man- ‘Bgeable. Acomiim and reduction to individ psychology were flied to the “mental health movernent” that was so optimistic ffter the end ofthe war An ffoive safeguard against war would be an international recarch insite deed tothe ty of dal and gro aes. ited and Yes and their elo hn erme of etna devel: nent clara heritage, ad soe conditions Unlike clnial psychology, where Freud's ideas reigned, 20+ ademic psychology was dominated inthe postwar years by neo behuviorism, modifications ofthe earlier strict behaviorsm of Joh Watson. The classic experiments of Pavoy in Russia had provided the foundation for behaviorist theories. Among the Ieading neobehaviorists Edvard Chace Tolman was exceptional in his independent, liberal revision of behaviorism, auributing central importance to the concepts of “purpose” and “cogni+ tion’ in describing an animal's behavior, and in his broad ap- predation of other schools of psychology, induding gestalt psychology and peychoanalysis. Watsons behaviorism had been thoroughly objecvst, reductionist, and empiricist, His objec- tive, a psychology that would lead to prediction and control of behavior, was congenial to practical men who would manage people. According to behaviorist enets, psychology was to re> {emble physics in ts methodology, mental events ate not objec- tively observed and have no place in sientifc dscripcion, while biehavior—the moving of pardcular musces—is 10 be under~ stood asthe result of particular stimuli (past and present). Be- havioris focuses on the relation of an organism's actions 10 the environment and pays seant attention to internal states. Be= haviorism in psychology became allied wich a logieal positivist philosophy of scence. Their similar historical trajectories have been summarized by Laurence Smith ee aera baer, ks ce de amin Seecesites ae cence eh eit ieee nr tae Me slo Sa ome age rt, renee eatin ier ts eit Caer eee rie SES ces eae ee ‘At midcentury it was the ideas from cybernetics, computer ‘models of cognitive processes, and information theory that suc cessfully challenged the prevailing academic psychology ‘We hive noted how the postwar circumiance of social sc- centisis was such as to enhance their belie in their own wisdom, Sse from their participation in the general teehnocraie opi Instn ofthe period, Having left interdisciplinary wartime proj- cs, they had returned to academic departments representing ‘only their own special ditiplnes, They were nevertheless eager to shore up their always somewhat shaky identity as "scientists" toassimilate co the more prestigious physical and biological si= ‘ences, and they were willing t learn from mathematics, the pital scences, and engineering how to make their own prac tice more scientific. The objectives of the quantum field theo- Firs as well ashore ofthe phage group were specific and well. ‘defined, the discussion narrowly focused, and the work highly technical. ‘These groups offered no link to or ingress for social and behavioral scents. But the work of some mathe~ mmaticians, engineers, and physiologists did provide such a “A group of men who had, during the war years, formed a network based on common scientific interests included several ‘mathematicians (Norbert Wiener, John von Neuman), engi cers (Julian Bigelow, Claude Shannon], neurobiologss (Ra- fal Lorente de N6, Arturo Rosenblueth), « neuropeychiatris (Warren McCulloch), and a polymathic genius (Walter Pit) Some members ofthis group had proposed that their concepts, useful in engineering and biology, had more general sigaiti- ‘ance, pethaps even could provide tools for a wransdiscipinary synthesis that might be of particular interest to researchers in the human sciences. For lack ofa better ealective name we hall refer to this group as the eyberneticans, although they would never have used this term themselves (each one wa sll en- tified with a waditional discipline) and the word eybrneis For the new science was not introduced until 1947. What is of in- teres, however, is that they constituted a kind of community with a shared idiom, that they were talking to each other over 2 period of years, and that they had reached a consensuson the Scentticimportance ofa set of notions, which willbe described jn this book: Although Joln von Neumann and Norbert Wie ‘ner were central figures in the group, they are the subject of a previous volume and wil be given relatively short shrift here 12 Chapter All of this group was interested in models of the brain based fn electronic circuitry and inclined to mechanistic philosophy. Discussions between Wiener and von Neumann about the el- ative merits of working on the theory of bacteriophage as op- [posed to neurobiology, as well asthe theories they each put Forth, indieate that von Neumann was more reductionist in out look than Wiener Unlike Wiener, who viewed scence as a means for describing natural process, von Neumann was also in the logical positive radiion. Wiener's approach to psychol- ‘ogy, not unlike Tolman’, was close to behaviorist, even though he insisted on using the impredsely defined concep of ' “purpose” that an organism might have in engaging in paric- Slat actions. He liked to formulate prychology in tems of cy- bernetic concepts, but he wat open to the evidence of gestalt psychology as well a8 0 Freudian psychoanalysis, Ti this froup of cybernetcians, Wiener and von Neumann among them, who met regulary between 1945 and 1953 with, among ‘others, representatives from the human sciences at the series of ‘conferences that are the subject ofthis book. "The eyberneticians formed one cluster of people atthe Macy conferences on eybernetic. One other group formed a cluster that guided the selection of representatives of the human sci ‘ences for the conferences. Lawrence K. Frank, Margaret Mead, land Gregory Bateson, atthe core ofthat cluster, had a substan tial consensus on what is worthwhile inthe human sciences ‘They were not devotees of behaviorism, but part of the “per- sonality and culture” movement. They agreed that some of the ‘concepts of the sberneticians were likely to be valuable in de- ‘veloping conceptual schemes in the human sciences and would help to make their disciplines more rigorous. ‘eis my standpoint inthe history of science, and especially of the human sciences, that such clusters among elite groups tall jing with each other, influencing each othe, forming some mu tal consensus about what is important, how to look at things in what diretion progress is needed, and using ther collective resources and prestige to bring some area of research forward fre a significane part of the process. Studying the interactions fof sch chusters—as the Macy meetings allow us to doors 4 good counterweight to he sort of history one would write Solely on the basis of published research results. Indeed, it is iy view that such resft-oriented history misrepresents the nae ture of these sciences, Mid USA, 12 I is a corollary of the positivist approach to underscanding science that certin “unpopular” investigations and lies of re= earch must be ignored. Here isone reaton to take a contextual Approach in the history of seience, deseribing what was done and thought at che time in its own terms, rather than picking ‘out only what is considered important by today’s scents ‘What was valued a few decades 2go but not today may turn out to be important next year. This point will Become clear as we ‘examine the history ofthe discussions at the Macy meetings. 2 March 8-9, 1946 “The eyberneticians and the Frank-Mead-Bateson cluster of so- cial scents first encountered each other in New York City in May 1942." "The occasion had been a small interdscplinary meeting, by invitation only, on two topics: the always-suspect subject of bypnoss and the respecable pic ofthe physiology fof the conditioned reflex (the basic unit of behaviorist psychol- ‘ogy) Howard Liddell, an experimenter on the conditioning and behavior of mammals, and Milton Eriekson, an innovator in the ure of hypnotism, lead the diseusion* “The Cerebral Inhibition Meeting, as it was offically called, hhad been arranged by the medical director ofthe Josiah Macy Jr Foundation, Frank Fremont Smith, He had been for some years in professional dialogue with neurophysiologsts among, the cybernetcians, and (especially through L. K, Frank, who had been his associate and mentor at the Macy Foundation) ‘with representatives of the social science cluster. So it came About, with Fremont-Smith a8 Haison, that at the 1941 meeting the wo intellectual universes encountered and began to pene trate each other. From the eyberneticians Warren McCulloch land Arturo Rosenblueth were present, and from the core {group of social scientists Gregory Bateson, Margaret Mead, and Lawrence K. Frank attended. Also present was Lawrence Kubie, well Lnown to Fremont Smith for many years. He was nota the core of either group, bu, pally because ofa change ‘of profession in mid-life from neurophysologist co psychoan- lst was acquainted and conversant with poruons ofthe idiom ‘of both groups. Historical interest in this litle meeting derives from Rosen bueth’s presentation, which was the seed that instigated the postwar tries of conferences on cybernetics and from which the interdiscplinary field, cybernetics, evolved.* Mead later re= are 8-8, 1946.13 called the excitement it produced among the social scientists, with the comment, “T did not notice that I had broken one of ‘my teeth until the Conference was over ‘Rosenblueth presented to the meeting the upshot of his con- versatons with Norbert Wiener and Julian Bigelow, namely a {general concept, or more precitely, x mode! that encompassed ‘ert engineering devices as well as aspects of human behav ioc* The concept seemed sufficiently cogent that, it were taken seriously, 4 major program for interdisiplinary revearch right well spring from i. Some of the group of listeners st che Cerebral Inhibition Mecing responded instantly to Rosen Dlueth’s enthusiasm and were persuaded of the possiblies of the paradigm for interdisciplinary research Essentially the idea was to identify in a behaviorist spirit some ‘of those aspects of what organisms do that can be snalyzed in terms of what certain analogous machines do.” But the analysis, differed in some important respects from the tenets of classical Dbehaviorism. First it was concerned with goal-directed actions, ‘where an organism acs with a "purpose, although, as Rosen blueth and collaborators put it "the definition of purposeful behavior is relatively vague, and hence operationally largely meaningless, the conceps of purpose is useful and should, therefore, be retained.” Explaining actions in terms ofa goal to be attained had traditionally been ertcized by scicssts be- cause it meant explaining actions in terms of events that had rot yet happened, the cause, so to speak, coming after the ‘elfect Rosenblueth and his fiends rejected the criticisms as irvelevant and readily spoke of goal-directed actions as in Welldefined sense “teleological” The description of purposive behavior of organisms in the images and language of engineer- jing meane that, notwithstanding the traditional opposition be- tween teleology and mechanism, one could henceforth speak ‘explicitly and concretely about “teleological mechaninms." _znd the model replaced the eradonal cause ad-ffct relation of a simulus leading to a response bya circular cause ality” requiring negative feedback: A person reaches for a glass fof water to pick it up, and as she extends her arm and hand is continuously informed (negative feedback)—by visual or pro- prioceptivesensations—how close the hand isto the glass tnd then guides the action accordingly, so as to achieve the goal of 'smmoothly grabbing the glass. The process is circular because the position ofthe arm and hand achieved at one moment is part 16 Cher? othe input information forthe ation athe nest momen, IE the cre is ntact regulates the proses To give another Sock example, wena man i slering a ship, the person the Sma he ships engine andthe rudder are al pa ofthe fqoildrected system mith feedback. The machine & part of fhe create A vil eiferent case, an automate por, does not ftvoe a periam anywhere tbe Greit—it all machine. Ro- Senbloei'n his tak singled ot goaldreted culos Drovers with negative fesdback as commonplace and worthy Trsystematienvestgnion in both organisms and machine, 2 ‘tll asin combined machine-organism tems Tn the phil sence problems are tadonally forme Ine interne of case ad effect: causes B, forces cause a ‘ration Theveformalaons had le to descriptions in ers ta wractble near) matherates, beginning wit the theories Gf lsaae Newton in the seventecots century. Circular causality Mas aided because t scomed prohbiuelydifclt mathe avy or id sem enn ugh had ey {ppeared in te General Theory of Relig. Many sents ‘ahve to act asi they believed the the world accommodated 10 “tr mathematics cul ane shored her OF Tours does nou by poning out that» age clas of ordinary fhenomena exhib cular causa, but ean be descbed Thatheratcaly, and tht one need not be incinidated by dhe mathemati, te Rosenblith- Wiener Bigelow ideas seemed so hve vant) extended te realm sees to exe since, Resale and Waren Neculloch were love i thei sonal interes and hd nthe previous year pla Io some experiments together” Rotenbietspresenation thought therm even coset a they were moving i sina diec- {Pons Cao was ents soot Ropeblueth' talk Dooly. the modeling of hamn Behavior (necessary volving elements of he nervous system) as put into the ‘Mine etegory ab some engineering devices MeCalloch had nlf been inking about hypotetal engineering devices {els of genctalperpove computers) to model he human trind sod brain, Wile he origins ofa person's purposes, pre- ‘imal loeated within mind and brain, was atopic ouside of ovens model, they mig be desobable ners ofthe tnodel MeCuiloch was working on atthe time, OF course, such ‘a model concerned with mind would not fit a behaviorist iameworks een though ie might connect dire” with the ideas Rosenbluelh bad pretend, fm which mind and brain were in effects Hac box “The Rosenbluth Wiener-Digelow model had also intrigued confree Gregory Bateson. He thought that he ould seni the seed of an approach to anthropology, ssogy,lsrxing, fd lngunge tht could generate mach-neeed heer nhese FeideThe ynamicof one ac ofa feedback oop reering to 2 penon,anaterporton to goal arin nrmation Sd ihe eo he cron, wh a de mol wo ‘lear it could be formulate in mathemati ngage, pealed o Batson aa potential fakil mode of descipon, Nea, LK: Frank. Fremone Smith and Keble vere lott: ‘stdin poring the sonepe ‘A the time ofthe Cerebral tnhibion Meeting, May 1942 Winer and Bigebw were already working on mila prot, aise ofthe socal sent were abot eco lvls in'war work Inerdiscpinay discon ofthe eas was de> Led unl ater the wt Shorty after Japan hd surrendere, FremontSmih athe urging of McCloy, gan planning conference to explore the Hes Rosenbluth ad presented four years eater” Presumably, MeCauc' own sexs would ab aired. The conference plans might have ben nied to the sajecs of laboratory. physiology netropeyhiy. an athena ad Hao ure em es eae Cast Ain ine to prea on Front Sou to ince socal fd behavior! scene among the small group of ive ‘The Josiah Macy Je Foundation, wth reman-Sinh ie ed ical decor and'chief conference organizer would make all rangement and rmburse paripa the oof tel and hho the Feedtuck Mechansns snd Crear Causal ystems ‘n'Bology andthe Sol Scences Meeting, which wot pace 840 March 1046, promised to generate anew Kind of ink be tween engincerng, logy, and mathematir onthe one hand ana poychology, pach, and al the socal ences on the ater Te torneo to bes major ieteloctal even and as fated up overs prio of sven yous by nie addional necting ofthe sme group of people These snequent mee ings, although importa were aptclinactc after he fis. Site conferences wereld inthe Beckman Hotel at 575 ark Avene, New York Gi excep forthe it, whi tok place a the Nasa Tn in Pinson, New Jory, to aoe ‘modate Jo von Neumann, Frement Smith arranged vith che 18 Chap? Macy Foundation, which had offices near the Beckman, to sponsor the meetings and provide transportation expenses, ho- tel rooms, and meals and cocktails for all partipants. Ie os lablished the format of the conferences: approximately twenty regular participants to be supplemented at cach meeting by 4 fev guests, Meetings were fortwo fll days. The las five meet ings were recorded by a stenotypist and published after some ceding by conferees von Forster, Mead, and Teuber. Techni- cally unsuccessful auempts had been made to record the frst, few conferences mechanically and transcribe them. Margaret ‘Mead took detailed notes, but they ae in her own shorthand Consequenty the most useful sources of information about che first five conferences are the available summaries and the con- siderable correspondence generated by the meetings. “The elaboration, critique, extension, refinement, and follow- ing ou the implications ofthe material presented at that March 1946 meeting began at this series of conferences, took more than a generation, and continues today. Te iceas were imple ial as much philosophical as technical and scientific although philosophic isues were not given their due (except atthe fist meeting) because the desire was for purely scenic discourse ‘Although according tothe ttle of the conference series the biological and social sciences were to be highlighted, it turned ‘ut differently than one might have expecied tn regard to the social siences. Concepts brought by the mathematicians (game theory and cybernetics) were presented as specifically useful for economics and politcal science." Yee no economist or political Scientist was among the regular participants, nor even among, the one-time guests. On the other hand, psychology and psy try were heavily represented in the group. The fields of Anthropology and, ca leser extent, sociology were atleast rep= resented among the conferees, and the subject of linguists was brought in with the help of oneime guests, The biss For pry chology and psychiatry over economics and poltial science a8 representative ofthe socialsciences was in part a manifestation ‘of the aforementioned socal stomism and retreat from polities popular at mid-century, and in part indiates that even the in- terest ofthe cybernetcians lay in the first nstance in mind and brain. Both dhe mechanical bas und the psychological bias re- fect an optimistic belie in our power to explain things human and social in explicit terms. They also represent, however, Mar 8-9, 1916.19 retreat from the original intention to bring in all the social "The mode of discourse at the meetings after the frst was intended to be nevtral-seientific and apolitical. Discusions of political science and economics, unlike psychology and engi neering, were more likely 1 lead o loaded political issues. The Macy group safely stuck 10 “sientific® topics, and its invited speakers were not of the kind to bring lltis pois into the discussion. The mechanical and psychological atomistic) biases served to depoliticize the ieues. “Jos beeaute fondamental philosophical and political theory controversies were not pursued does not mean that al was har- mony atthe Macy meetings, In fact strong differences in view concerning practices in psychiatry, the mental health. move- sent, the validity of the mathematical uiity function, che psy- chology of perception, and many other topies were aired atthe Imectings, There was much to talk and argue about. Political controversy appeared in of-the-record conversations and cor- ‘espondence amnong participants. ‘We shall briefly adumbrate the substantive content of the {rst morning and afternoon ofthe meetings, entirely taken up With presentationsby the cybemneticians. Human sccndsts were ttudience that could interrupe to ask questions. McCulloch was chairman. "The morning of March 8 was devoted toa description of the workings of general-purpose electronic digial computers by John von Neumann, the leading designer in the country of the logical stature of these yettorbe-bile computers!" and cer- tain analogies to the “computing machine of the nervous sy5- tem” described by Rafael Lorente de N6, who was atthe tn tengaged in ingenious experiments revealing the electrical properties of nerve cells® "Encouraged by the conceptual and logical demonstration of the pesibilty (in principle) of creating a general automaton, (Turing machine) that ean carry outany operation that can be ‘unambiguously and completely described ina finite number of ‘words, von Neumann had been working under wartime pres- sre with engineers and mathematicians since mid. 1944 wo ce fate an actual general-purpose computer. His. presentation inchided discussion of the greater precision of digital machines as compared tothe older analog computers, the use of binary 20 Chapin? rather than decimal representation of numbers the stored pro- gram concept, various methods available for storing and ac- ‘essing information, and how in detail arithmetic operations tre carried out by thete machines. Some methods could not be discussed because they were sil clasfied as miliary seret, Von Neumann made semiquantitative comparisons between vacuum tubes and neurons, the overall size of brains and com- puters, their speed of operation and other characteristics. Just Esvon Neumann described the exemplificition of an autom- ton in the meta, so Lorente de No spoke about neurons as ele- ments of an automaton in the flesh. ‘The individual neuron ‘onsns of acel body and one or more axons along which an ‘lectrochemical impulse can be propagated. Impulses ariving ‘ia axons from other neurons similate or in some instances inhibia neuron from fring an impulsealong ts own axon. But the impulse, whenever it oecurs, aways has the same strength ‘Thus the Fring of an impulse from 4 nerve call can be con ceived a8 digital, binary process: A stimulus ether generates fn imple or ie doesnot ‘This fac is usually referred to asthe allorenone character of nervous activiy. Like a piece of elec tronie equipment, the various characetstics of @ neuron can be described quantitatively: A definite threshold voliage is e- ‘quired to stimulate a discharge: a certain “delay time” separates the ativing and the departing impulses; the impact of two ar~ siving impulies will supplement each other provided they ar~ ive wichin a well-defined, shore ime-span, the so-called period ‘of latent addition; and soon. ‘The background of the Neumann-Lorente de N6 presenta- tion was that inthe early 1940e MeCulloch and Piss had proved that i one constructs a simplified mathematical model of neu ron and links 2 sufficiently large number of such neurons into SI nervous net, that net defines a formal universal automaton, “Essentially, he automaton can carry out all operations tha ean be specified ina finite number of words (the precise definition of the automaton is highly technical). Tt was essential for their result that impulses can travel in closed loops. In 1988, when their paper first appeared, interest in the subject was #0 low ‘hat they feared it would go unnoticed and fet lucky that it got published atall" The presentations of von Neumania and Lor- tent de N6 combined fo make vivid the McCullach-Pats result land gave some cogency to its likely relevance for the group. hhearing about i for the firs time. The MeCalloch-Piuts model suggested a way of approaching mind and brain with the help of formal logie, neurophysiology, andl engineering (their ideas wil be described further in he following chapter). t was cer tainly appropriate that psychologists and paychiacrss, experts fn the human mind, were at dhe meeting to hear about these fotions and developments, Within a sbort span of years the ‘computer the MeCulloch-Pitts model, and other information processing models for minds and brains woul inform the prac- fice of many working in these fel “The Neumann-Lorente de No presensations led vo a few comments pointing to imitations and posing questions. Wiener ‘noted that ia computer is asked to salve 2 Rusellian paradox (e.g. “This statement within the parentheses is false), it wll go iio a series of osellaons flipping from “This is true” to “This i false” without ceiling down, What do human brains do when confronted with paradoxical situations? Gerard and Bremer tmphasized specs of brains ignored in the Pitt-MeCulloch picture: Chemical concentrations and continuous electric fields re known to play a role, but do noe fit the digialall-or-none. ‘model. Just how important are these continuous physiological ‘variables in human thought processes? “Another mathemaician-physologist team spoke in the afler- noon. Wiener and Rosenblueth developed more fully the no- ion of purposive activity with negative feedback and the consequences when the feedback mechanism breaks down, ‘Wiener focusing on the design of machines and Rosenbluth ‘on homeostatic mechanisms and, more generally, on purposive behavior in organisms.!* Among the biological examples Rosen- Blueth described were the proces of respiration, nystagmus ai eye condition), clonus (periodic contraction of an overstimu- Tated matcle), cerebellar eemors (which occur when feedback nor adequately damped), and the automatic maintenance of steady blood pressure and steady temperatures. In considering design, Wiener described hove machine may have the equiv- lent of receptor and effector organs, and contain a computer land various other electronic circuts to function effectively, ak ing cognizance of the world around ic as needed to pursue its ‘goal successfully. He reviewed the history of automata: Numer ‘ous toys invented by Heron of Alexander in ancient Greece, such asthe “Automatic Wine Dispenser, Controlled by the Ris- ing and Sinking of Float” ized feedback mechanism." He described in some detail the centrifugal governor used by 2 Chop? James Wat in the late eighteonth century for regulating the speed of a steam engine by negative feedback. After desbing ‘mechanisms for sel-regulation in machines, and general pit ples applicable to them, he observed thatthe points of most theoredeil and practical interest concern communications: “The fundamental idea isthe message, even though the mes- sage may not be sent by man and the fundamental element of the message is the decision.” Wiener introduced the group 10 Fundamental ideas from what have now become known a8 in- formation theory and communication theory. ‘On the first day von Neumann and Wiener did not pres to tell the social scientists about social science. By the end ofthe second day, however, von Newmann gave them 2n introduction to the theory of games, which he had, with an economist, ap- plied to economics." And within a few months of the meeting, the chairman sent around to al participants a long, discursive article by Wiener containing an inventory of bis many ideas, including the basic notions of his theory of information. He proposed to link statistical mechanics, communication engi heeting, the theary of control mechanisms in machines, biak- ‘gy, and els ycology and sca since by the common theme ‘of “communication,” and gave vexcure to his general argument ‘with the help of concrete examples. His poston was that the neuromuscular mechani of a animal or of man i certainly a “omnmunication instrument ar are the sense organs which receive tal mpc, Faucher test ofthe comma betwen a a ao, more eter, af any soto ing. The unifying sen ofthese 12 he MESSAGE, and nocany special appara ae Ingon meuages ™ “That fis day wae significant in that von Neumann, Wiene, Rovenblueth, McCulloch, and. Lorente de NO attempted to bridge the gap between themselves and the human scents tnd signaled thei svat for coninued conversation about the new potions they ad’ presented. The mathematica, Physiology and engineers Had shown those inthe human se Ences a tolbox with a variety of general-purpose caneepusal took, Charaeerisealy, the new concep spanned the human Sd the inanimate, leading to mechanical metaphors for ie tan characteristics and anthropomorphic deseripdons of ma- ‘hines, Communications and cognitive processes were central foc of mere the new notions woud impinge on radon theor of coguiaon and language, The concep of relay ‘usa was opted immediately in referring to go-direted Sucre wth negate feedback and stretched to encompass {lente crelarcurents inthe MeCulochsPits model. tog genet formulations of greater complenty and sbley hah tational asl theories, bu retained the send predict bity inherent in thse theories In tadional thinking since the men Greeks cause A resisin an effec B, With relay “ausalty A and are may tue and eft of each ote Moreover not ony does AafecB bat hough D ats back on tell The ctor cataly concept seemed appropriate for tmuch inthe hoarseness. Iemene that A cao do things {o> thou being hel elected. “This book desebes how these new currents of thought were ceceved and adapted by the roup sting around the blest the Macy Conference the Beekman Hotel on 89 March, 1946, 1 parcial smal sample of those in America working in thehman ceneee While many ofthe concepa had originated ‘ving the war revearchers nthe human scenes ist eae to terms uth them during the postwar years and the Cold Wat ‘rand iis not snpriing that the stil and poll cond tone ofthat period iftuerced what transpired. The process ‘cccuving throughout the series often conferences dplayed 3 tncrcon of diverse concer and intellect cometments fn how these new oneeps came into eonit or confaence with exining dispiarytaiions. As indicated more expe iy below she human scents presented some of ther thoughts, research result, and concerns onthe second da 9 March 1946 “The caso characters in his fotlletal drama inches, fae of al, Waren MeGulc, cairman of the series of en confer: nce. He was atthe ime a pofesr of poychiatty ad cna profesor of pyilogy he Univers of nas Bu in ‘riober 1952 he joined the research sal at the Research Laboratory of Electronics s MALT Waler Pt, hi young col Inbortor bath in Chiago and at NLT, was polymath, bat Primary, perhaps, a mathemadlan, At the conference Me Extech tinsel expined how signa net of neurons ean Aupleat the cles of propositons in loge. He diaed in feteral ers oo ditt level of deserpton of commanice. {lo proce: the putly psa lhe elec corente sn 26 camper? acoustic vibrations ina telephone connection), and the signi ‘ane content of the message (the conversation on the phone). He suggested that impulses traveling in closed loops in the brain constitute one form of memory and are in sense Gine- les, whereas most other processes occuring ina net happen at 1s particular time ‘Gregory Bazin, an anthropologist after a year on a Guggen- beim Fellowship, taught briefly at the New School for Social Research (1947) and Harvatd (1948), then Became a lecwrer anthropology at the Langley Porter Psychiatrie Clinic in 5 Francisco (1948), but soon becime head of a research group the Veterans Administration Hospital in Palo Alt, California, ivhere he remained for many years. At the March meeting Bateson described, jointly with Margaret Mead, what they saw to be the lack of adequate theory in the socialsciences and what was required in the way of theory. Mead permitted Bateson (0 Cake the lea in the presentation. He ilustrated his comments by referring to his own observations in various cultures, includ ing the cave of the Iatmul culture in which a transvestite Ceremony served a a homeostatie mechanism whenever 2 char- fcteriste pattern of aggressive actions within the wibe thre tened to divide them. He aso distinguished ordinary lerning. from learning to learn, and stirred discussion by asking. whether computers can learn to learn, and how in a formal ‘mathematical way one could distinguish that from plain learn- ing. Mead was thoughout the seven years of the conference sees the assistant curator of ethnology at the American Mu Seum of Natural History in New York. Filmer 8. C. Norllp was a professor of philosophy at Yale Univers the only professional philosopher atthe conference. [At the meeting he raised the question ofthe possibilty of de- Fiving ethics from he natural sciences. But he regarded soi sciences 35 ordinarily different from the natural sciences, pecially when the former entail normative theories. In the 0 luralscenees'the theory adjusts to facts. But in the case of normative social theories iis the other way around. The soci- ety, Northrop claimed, will adjust ise to the governing nor- tative theory. ‘The challenge, as Northrop saw it, was to ‘onsruct valid normative theory based on proper science. His ‘spiration was viewed with skepticism by other conferes. ‘Lawrence K. Frauk author of books in psychology and social science, had at onetime been, but was no longer, a vice-presi- dent ofthe Macy Foundation. While foundation executive, he bad significantly influenced the direction ofthe social sciences in the United States. On 9 March he observed that the new incerdisciplinary concepts presented atthe conference needed for their earfiation and refinement anew kind of language with a higher order of generality than is customatily used in ny one discipline, Frank FremontSrth, who atthe time ran the Foundation’s conference program, had come from a medical re- search background, He opened the conference with the an- rouncement, “Each group, when it comes together, is an experiment. Ift excites you all enough to want to meet again, ‘ve wil plan for further mectings” On the second day the [group agreed to meet again in October. Consideration ofthese {vo participants, PremontSmith and Frank illuminates the re- lations of the human sciences to philanthropic foundations, such asthe Macy Foundation, and thei polices. ‘Melly Herranr was an authority on pryehological cet of per- sonality such as the Rorschach (nkblod) est, and the vagaries ‘of human perception generally. On 9 March she spoke about the systematic differences of perception between people with Anatomically damaged brains snd normal individuals.” Ar the lime of the 1946 conference she wasa research associate in eu- Topsychiatry atthe Universty of Wisconsin but moved in 1952 to become research director of the Manhattan Child Center at the University of Texas. Lawrence Kubi’s presentation followed Harrower’. He defined neurosis, emphasizing the character~ istic compulsive repetition of unsuccessful behavior by the neu rotic person, and discussed reasons forthe prevalence of exsal maladjustment in American sodety. Walter Pts expressed that the was “extremely mach interested” in the concept of psycho- logical energy and its transformation and asked probing ques- tions about the origin and modifiabilty of the repetitive patterns of the neurotic, whereas Wiener questioned Kubie About using the nations of “psychic tension” or "energy" be- ‘atte Kubie seemed to im to be speaking of a system in which communication s central and “information,” not energy, would be the crucial variable. Kubie was on the faculty ofthe depart- iment of psychiatry and mental hygiene at the Yale University School of Medicine and a practicing psychoanalystin New York Cy. Heinrich Kldver was a psychologist atthe University of Chi- cago, He presented examples of experiments showing that 26 Chayer2 through feedback mechanisms, human pereepion of objects Sand the external world generaly so adjust cl ae to be ape roximately constant regards of which senses are wed, wht the pom of view i, oF what one's poson i relative fo the tbje. These mechanisms allow onc to judge wih some re {Dilly the elaive size, welght, and positions of objects. He fale hisiteres the constancy ofthe mew eaeme, paying on the beter known emphasis (ftom Claude Bernard to Rosen bhuet) on the mee tome. tthe meeting heals pointed to sn area of ignorance: Psychology he sid, has no adequate the ry 2 to what blologily determines how brain perceives forms (Gealen) and how a human Knows what brs per ceives He wa in effec posinga concrete problem to challenge the advocates of computvike model ofthe ran, ‘crt Levin 2 socal psychologist with 2 considerable fllow- ing, was at NLT, where be had erated the Reseateh Center {or Group Dynamics, He was also engaged in “action researc ‘wih the American Jewish Congres He tended to speak rap- idly and defer to thers when they interrupted hi, 30 that from the nda rechanial recording device we unforanaly fave no record ofthe substance of any comment he made at the fir meeting, Atte second meeting, however, he gave long discussion of concept rom Gexaltpyehology and socal Dijehlogy. Another pacipant was Pel Lsarfl, 2 wocklo- aland the director ofthe Bureau of Applied Socal Research Se Columbia Univer. At the Mareh 1046 meeting he pro- pose that a separate gevtogether be organized for thou ex- peclly interested in sol sence, He wanted to bring in some {Sciologieal theorists and introduce them tothe new concep “Leonard J. Savage was a young mathematician interested in sztates who was working on prebems in biology and econo ic He went to the Universiy of Chiago as a Rockefeller Fel low in 146, and remained there (becoming 2 aelty member dn'the department af static troughoutthowe years when the ten Macy eonferences were held “Ths completes thelist of the socal and psychologic sien- ‘sat the 8-9 March meeting,» subsantal majority among those present. Allof tose listed wil appear in the following pages allhough sme wil receive more atention than others ‘Tne remaining partpants ofthat meeting wil be angel ig. tored here. fhey were John von Neumann and Norbert ‘Wiener, who are the subject of previous book, and Jul Bigelow, an engineer who had worked with oth of them: and the group of neurobialogiss, G. von Bonin, R. Gerard, R. Lo- rente de N,and A. Rosenblueth, who could easily be the subs Jeet of another book, The issues in neurobiology are rather different from those in the social sciences. Finally, the fresh- water ecologist G. E. Hutchinson is not treated in the present book either although I was tempted to add a chapter on hima he has written an autobiographical book"). Some additional people, all Isted in the appendix, joined the group, ether 38 Fegulars oF as occasional guests, at subsequent meetings. A few fof them will appear as they come into the story. ‘The theoretical formulations in the human sciences acept- ablein that period of history, as at any period, are not indepen ‘dent of the socal and polseal circumstances atthe time, even if glad postwar sentiment of some natural scientists at meet ings early in 1946 was, “Here we are, ready, willing, and able to talk over some questions which are of great importance, but definitely nonpolieal™ The circumstances, sketched in chap ter I, provided the broader context for the selection of partie- ipanis atthe conferences, for the focus of their discussion, as veel as their general attitudes. Controversial socal theory, es pecially ic entailed socialist ideas, did not appear a the con- ferences any more than it did in academia. generally. No istorian or politcal scientist was ever invited, even asa guest, and the sole sociologist participating was safely interested only in statstcal methods. With the exception of the fist meeting, ‘explicit philosophical discussion was muted. ‘The ideal of purely sclemifie discourse dominated all the meetings after the first Whereas mechanist was an underying mou, » theme popular after the technological sucesses in connection wih the Second World War, the very existence of human feelings ($0 “subjectve}) was consistently played down or explained away ‘over the protest ofa few of the participants, Even sich andhro- pocentrc social scientist as Mead and Frank became propo- fens for the mechanical level of understanding, wherein life i Uescribed as an entropy-reducing device and humans charac terized as gervomechanisms, their minds as computers, and so- ‘Gal conflicts by mathematical game theory. The analogies between automata and servomechanisms and human thought tnd actions sinetioned the adoption of mechanical metaphors, ‘which in ten fostered thinking of oneself and one's community 4s mechanical systems. For those with social concerns who be- 28 Chapter? lieved they could do something to improve the human condi lion or alleviate and prevent misery their action was likely 10 be formulated in terms of models suggested by repairing oF adjusting «complex mechanism (system), be it an individual ‘or 4 society Some would, in their optimism, suggest the bene- fits of a management of society by social science experts. But thie left open the question of how such expert management was to be reconciled with popular democratic plies. The notion of circular causality put an egalitarian gloss on managerial {spirations. "The idess promulgated at the conference series became themselves a Kernel around which optimism snowballed. As one of the quest participants (Bar-Hill) recalled, cybernetics and information theory “created among many of us the feeling that the new synthesis heralded in them was destined to open new vistas on everything human and to help solve many of the dis turbing open problem concerning mam and humasit."= “The high hopes placed on sence and technology the great technological optimism prevalent around 1950, made some un- comfortable. Wiener, who was irrepressible in his enthusiasm forthe scientific ideas presented atthe conferences, published book, Cybernet: Control and Communication in he Animal and Ihe Machine, in 1948, which included afairamount of th ‘ematical background as well asthe diverse topics from man sciences discussed at the meetings. The bock became 2 bestseller atthe time and has become a classic. In spite of his ‘enthusiasm Wiener articulated some misgivings. "Those of us ‘who have contributed to the new science of cybernetics," he ‘wrote, "stand in & moral posidon which is, eo say the least, not ‘comfortable, We have contributed tthe initiation of new science which, as Ihave said, embraces technical developments ‘with great possbilities for good and for evil"™ ‘Aside from his misgivings about extensions to technology, ‘Wiener was skeptical about the posites of using eybernetcs in sociology, anthropology, and economics. In spite ofthe ur- iency of the socal problems, which Bateson and Mead empha- Sized and Wiener acknowledged, he did not share “their hopefuls that sufficient progress can be registored in this divecion wo have an appreciable therapeutic effect inthe pre Sent diseases of sociey-"® Referring to what he viewed as the “false hopes" that some of his friends entertained for the ap- plication of the new ideas to anthropology, sociology, and eco ‘pomics, he maintained that they "show an excessive optimism, and a misunderstanding ofthe nature ofall scientific achieve: sent Bateson was troubled but not deterred by Wiener’ opinion, "At the seventh meeting Ralph Gerard suggested that the popular attention given to Wiener's ook may in self have con- {eibuted tthe overoptimism. He expressed irritation about the publicity the meetings had recived alter the book appeared in print, “In extensive aniles in such well-known scentfié' mag frines 26 Tine, Neusuweh, and Life” He continued, scams wo ein loking ack oer the hisory ofthe group, that we tated out dcusson i he “as i apt. Everyone ss delighted to texpress any Iden that crm in hit mind: whether i beee ly oF erin or merely tinulaing gues that would affect someone le Weexplored porsbiies fr al sors of is Then, rater sharply femesto mer te began talkin anion. We were saying ch fhe same thing, but ow saying them af they were so. temer eres definiton of pregnancy“ The real of ldng seriously some ‘hing poked st one in fun" and wondared if we had become pregnant find bre in some danger of premature delivery.” He goes on to give historical example of overoptimism and “premature delivery" "In the early 1800s a flood of mathe- ‘matical ariles based upon the teaching of phrenology and ex- ploking them quantitatively, issued from the best minds of the Both Wiener's and Gerard's cautionary responses 1 the un baridied confidence and optimism protected them From the iesppointment with eybernetcs that some, uch as the enthu- ‘Sastic Bar Hille, experienced later. "This story of the social scientists atthe Macy meetings is of necessity incomplete and selective. Isa foray into some of the human sciences after the Second World War a not very devel- ‘oped area of historical study, intended to encourage further inquiry "At the same time, this book isan attempt to approach an event in the history of scence in such a way tha informal con- tacts, conversations, and consensus among groups of practiion- {ers are taken seriously as belonging to the history of scentilic developments, even a5 the substantive reslts and methods of research are taken seriously. 3 Caper? For purposes of exposition I have chosen two people for spe ial auention, one from the cyberneticans and the other from the socal science duster. For both of them the conferences were pivotal evens, and both became lifelong exponents of the ‘cas presented there. McCulloch is the protagonist from the ‘yberneticians: Notonly wat he chairman ofall ofthe meetings, but a a trained psychiatrist his interest in psychology and psj- chiatry was profound, and he was outspoken in the discussion ‘concerning many of the issues arising from the social sciences. ‘Among the social scientists none made more imaginative use of ‘what he learned at the conferences than Bateson, and—even {hough much has been writen about him since he and his work firsecame to interest me—he isthe second principal figure. He, too, entered into the dialogue on nearly every topic, sometimes wvth a perceptive question nd at other times wth an assertion It ie noteworthy that both Bateson and McCulloch became ‘marginal o the mainstream of their professions, 2s wel as, ‘ituconaly, although interest in Bateson's work did revive in the 1970s and in MeCullochs in the 1980s. Both oftheir styles were exceptionally open and freewhealing. OF course, these ‘vo individuals represent only themselves, nd cannot be taken 25 typical of ether the cybernetcins othe social scence cls ter. But if one bad to select only two, these two are, after ‘Wiener and von Neumann, the most pivotal figures for the his- tory of eybemnetcs 3 Describing “Embodiments of Mind” ‘McCulloch and His Cohorts Hore do the people most deeply committed to scientific inves- tigation use teas and concepts? Albert Finsein spoke for many ‘when he described the motives fr scientific studies Man sceks to form lor hinel, in whatever manner is suitable for iim, aimplted and lued mage of our worl, nd ot overcome the world of experienc by srr to Feplac tt some extent by this Image” Thuis what the pata does, andthe poet the speculative shilpa in nn wat ‘nd ts formation he plces he center of gravy of is emotional iM, onder to stein the pence and serendy that he ean find thin the narrow confines of ing personal experience" ‘What kinds of images or abstract constretions will satay those whose studies are centered on the human and the social? One wonders whether images of people based on automata and ‘communications engineering could be so congenial as to be ‘conducive to peace and serenity. Such mechanical schemes —at their most concrete, images of ourselves as complicated 10> bote—seem to ignore the fax of our immediate experience four sense of freedom, the pulse of life, deeper meanings, a6 wwe a personal and human feelings, and are antipathetc be- ‘cause they dehumanize us. They seem to invite us to think of others as mere objects be manipulated or to give scientific Teghimation to those who operate on that premise. One might think that echnical reeeareh along these lines would stimulate the development of new technologies that would foster dehu- imanization, exploitation and oppresson.* But are all these con- ‘corns merely expressions of unvtarranted timidity? ‘Our story begins with Warren Sturgis McCulloch, whose work and character show these questions to be simplistic. He vwas born in Orange, New Jersey, on 16 November 1898, the 2 Claes son of James W. McCulloch and his young second wite Mary Hughes (Bradley) McCulloch. James McCulloch was 2. sli- ‘made businessman, manager of 2 large estate with holdings in railroads and mining enterprises. Warren's modher came from 4 Southern family. She was suongly religious, aught bible his- ory, and war involved in Episcopalian church affairs. The McCulloch household in Orange included Warren's consider- ably older half-brother and his sister, Margareta year younger {han Warren. The summers were often spent on Nantucket Is- land off Cape Cod, where Warren learned to sil and as a boy enjoyed the adventurous world of ships and whaling captains leaving him witha lasting feeling forthe sea. In 1017 be entered 2 Quaker College, Haverford, with the Jnention of entering the ministry in accordance with his fami Iys wishes, but his interests tuened to philosophy and mathe- satis. One family member a least, Warren's sister, ook up Feligios interests and became an active Quaker and pacifist. ‘Warren sought understanding of who we are in mechanical rather than Feligious terms. In his words, A ste are learning to admit ignorance, suspend judgement and forego the xple gtr ign —"Cad=which hss proved 38 fat aries profane Tnstead we seek mechanisms ‘The seeking of mechanisms in the brain to describe how ‘cogmitive Functions are carried out eventually became the cen teal theme in McCulloch's work. His interests in the thought and theology of the medieval schoolmen, however, persisted "hroughout his life Probably no other neurophysiologit in the twentieth century talked 30 much about the views of St. Bom: aventura, Duns Scous, Wiliam of Occam, oF Peter Abeland— men of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. He himself Fesembled the medieval scientists rather than mose modern ‘ones, in that his science was “an integral part ofa philosophical ‘outlook. ‘After graduate work in_ psychology (Columbia University M.A., 1928) during which he learned of the behaviorist, psy- choahalytic, and introspective schools in the field, he remained unsatisfied ‘and went to medical school. He then interned in ‘neurology and worked in mental institutions, sil with the in- tent of earning what he would need. Tn the depth of the

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